TO make things really simple lets start with a simple

power supply,and it is also the one they usually give

you in your first electronics project.Well the reason
is quite obvious because all electronis circuits
require a DC power supply to work.You really do
plug in the wires of your electronic items in AC
mains supply but they do have AC to DC converters
to to provide DC to the circuits.All this is done with
a power supply in the right place.
This circuit is a small +5V power supply.The circuit will
provide a regulated voltage to the external circuit
which may also I am required in any part of the
external circuit or the whole external circuit.The
best part is that you can also use it to convert AC
voltage to DC and then regulate it ,simlpy You need
a transformer to make the AC main drop down to a
safe value i.e 12-15 volts and then us a rectifier to
convert AC into DC.
This circuit can give +5V output at about 150 mA
current, but it can be increased to 1 A when good
cooling is added to 7805 regulator chip. The circuit
has over overload and therminal protection. The
capacitors must have enough high voltage rating to
safely handle the input voltage feed to circuit. The
circuit is very easy to build for example into a piece
of veroboard.
If you need other voltages than +5V, you can modify the
circuit by replacing the 7805 chips with another
 regulator with different output voltage from
regulator 78xx chip family. The last numbers in the
the chip code tells the output voltage. Remember
that the input voltage muts be at least 3V greater
than regulator output voltage ot otherwise the
regulator does not work well..
PNP Transistor Operation
The PNP transistor works essentially the same as the
NPN transistor. However, since the emitter, base,
and collector in the PNP transistor are made of
materials that are different from those used in the
NPN transistor, different current carriers flow in
the PNP unit. The majority current carriers in the
PNP transistor are holes. This is in contrast to the
NPN transistor where the majority current carriers
are electrons. To support this different type of
current (hole flow), the bias batteries are reversed
for the PNP transistor. A typical bias setup for the
PNP transistor is shown in figure 2-8.
Notice that the procedure used earlier to properly bias
the NPN transistor also applies here to the PNP
transistor. The first letter (P) in the PNP sequence
indicates the polarity of the voltage required for the
emitter (positive), and the second letter (N) indicates
the polarity of the base voltage ( negative). Since
the base-collector junction is always reverse biased,
then the opposite polarity voltage (negative) must be
used for the collector. Thus, the base of the PNP
transistor must be negative with respect to the
 emitter, and the collector must be more negative
than the base. Remember, just as in the case of the
NPN transistor, this difference in supply voltage is
necessary to have current flow (hole flow in the case
of the PNP transistor) from the emitter to the
collector. Although hole flow is the predominant
type of current flow in the PNP transistor, hole flow
only takes place within the transistor itself, while
electrons flow in the external circuit. However, it is
the internal hole flow that leads to electron flow in
the external wires connected to the transistor.
Figure 2-8. - A properly biased PNP transistor.

Water Level Indicator

Description

This is the circuit diagram of a simple corrosion

free water level indicator for home and
industries.In fact the the level of any conductive non
corrosive liquids can be measured using this
circuit.The circuit is based on 5 transistor
switches.Each transistor is switched on to drive the
corresponding LED , when its base is supplied with
current through the water through the electrode
probes.
One electrode probe is (F) with 6V AC is placed at the
bottom of tank.Next probes are placed step by step
above the bottom probe. When water is rising the
 the base of each transistor gets electrical connection
to 6V AC through water and the corresponding
probe.Which in turn makes the transistors conduct
to glow LED and indicate the level of water.The
ends of probes are connected to corresponding
points in the circuit as shown in circuit
diagram.Insulated Aluminum wires with end
insulation removed will do for the probe.Arrange
the probes in order on a PVC pipe according to the
depth and immerse it in the tank.AC voltage is use
to prevent electrolysis at the probes.So this setup
will last really long.I guarantee at least a 2 years of
maintenance free operation.That’s what I got and is
still going.
Components

T1 – T5 BC 558 or 2N2222 Transistors

R1-R5 1K 1/4 W Resistors
R6-R10 22K 1/4 W Resistors
D1 – D5 LED’s ( color your choice)

Read
more: http://www.circuitstoday.com/simple
-water-level-idicator#ixzz1KKrzKeRT
Under Creative Commons
License: Attribution
PNP FORWARD-BIASED JUNCTION. - Now let us
consider what happens when the emitter-base
junction in figure 2-9 is forward biased. With the
bias setup shown, the positive terminal of the
battery repels the emitter holes toward the base,
while the negative terminal drives the base electrons
toward the emitter. When an emitter hole and a
base electron meet, they combine. For each electron
that combines with a hole, another electron leaves
the negative terminal of the battery, and enters the
base. At the same time, an electron leaves the
emitter, creating a new hole, and enters the positive
terminal of the battery. This movement of electrons
into the base and out of the emitter constitutes base
current flow (IB), and the path these electrons take is
referred to as the emitter-base circuit.