Deaf Mainstreaming in America

by

Joshua E. Britton

Due: 11/24/04

Michael Dembrow

WR 123

Britton i

Abstract

This research paper explores the history of mainstreaming and the opposing

viewpoints that surrounded this educational, political, and social controversy. The paper

discusses the problems faced by parents, teachers, and deaf or hard of hearing children

when a deaf or hard of hearing child is mainstreamed. The paper gives solutions and

suggestions to the problems faced by parents, teachers, and deaf or hard of hearing
children during the mainstreaming process. The paper ends with a summary of the

paper and discussion on whether mainstreaming is successful.

Britton ii

OUTLINE

Thesis: How do parents, teachers, and children overcome the difficulties of

mainstreaming?

I. INTRO—Lead in with my experiences with Julian.

II. BODY—Examples of Mainstreaming

A. Section 1: Cause of Deaf Mainstreaming in the US

1. Problem: Disabled people felt their rights were being denied

 a. Give brief summary of the history of Deaf Culture/Education.

2. Solution: Legislation was passed, allowing inclusion of deaf in

mainstream education.

a. Give 3 main viewpoints on inclusion

i. Mandatory Full Inclusion (Pro)

ii. Optional Mainstreaming (Pro and against)

iii. Against Mainstreaming (Against)

B. Section 2: Problems and Solutions for Educators when customizing a regular

classroom.

1. What are the Problems and Solutions facing regular Educators when

mainstreaming a regular classroom?

a. Ambient noise

b. Working with an interpreter

Britton iii

C. Section 3: What are the Problems and Solutions for Parents who Mainstream

their Deaf Child?

1. Lack of proper educational resources nearby (locally)

2. Ignorance of deaf culture and proper education techniques.

3. What role should and can parents play in their child’s education?

4. When should the parent “let go” and allow their child to make

mistakes?

5. Choosing the right path for educating their child (how much or how

little they should be mainstreamed)

 D. Section 4: What are the Problems and Solutions for a Deaf or Hard of

Hearing

Child who is Mainstreamed?

1. Ambient noise

2. Need for a note taker

3. Reading level

4. Degree of hearing that is retained

5. Social problems

6. Frustration factor

7. Need for an interpreter (translator or transliterator)

Britton iv

III. SUMMARY/CONCLUSION

A. Summary

B. Answer Questions asked in Intro.

1. Is mainstreaming working?

2. Is it effective?

3. Does it isolate the child from the deaf community?

C. Final Words
 INTRO

When I was 15, I began work at a print shop. It was there that I first met Julian,

who is completely deaf. Though Julian had to deal with people much of the day (he

worked in shipping), he remained isolated socially. Those that worked with him

developed a good repertoire, but since none of us could sign (or only in part), he was

often unable to join in when we had a group discussion. Julian could read lips, but

when two people are talking, it is hard to switch between them and catch all that is said.

Though he knew we weren’t trying to leave him out, it still caused him a great deal of

frustration and anger that would eventually culminate in an outburst.

I already knew the American Sign Language alphabet when I started working at

the print shop, and Julian taught me some words in ASL. So, I could communicate with

him on a limited basis, which I greatly enjoyed (Julian always had a funny remark

waiting). When I left the print shop, I left with an interest in sign language and deaf

culture that has never been fully explored. So, when I learned my paper was to be on
education, I jumped at the chance to explore deaf education. At the print shop, I was

able to witness Julian’s frustrations in the work environment first hand. As I thought

about my paper, I wondered what would problems and frustrations a deaf student would

have to overcome in a hearing classroom. In my research for this paper, I’ve discovered

a multitude of strategies to overcome classroom difficulties. I found guidelines for

teachers and for parents, strategies and resources to help a child socialize and build

confidence in himself. All of this I found fascinating. I had no idea there were so many

problems and challenges to be faced in mainstreaming a deaf child.

It is my purpose in this paper to explore the history of the mainstreaming

movement and the legislation that made mainstreaming a fact in American education. I

also wish to explore the differing viewpoints surrounding mainstreaming: mandatory

full inclusionists, customized education, and those opposed to mainstreaming

altogether. I will present the pros and cons in their arguments. The different problems

educators encounter as they customize a hearing classroom fascinates me. As does the

different problems faced by parents when planning their child’s future, and the

difficulties that children face as they learn and grow. The problems faced by these three

groups, and the strategies used by each to surmount the difficulties encountered will be

discussed.

Finally, I wish to see how effectively mainstreaming is working. Does it really

help the child, and if so, in what ways? Was the child better prepared socially? Was the

child more confident, better equipped for all facets of life or just the hearing world? Did

mainstreaming a child isolate them from the deaf community or estrange them from it?

These questions and others will be answered.

 SECTION 1:

HISTORY OF DEAF MAINSTREAMING

Mainstreaming the deaf or hard of hearing in regular school classrooms didn’t

become an issue in American life until the early 1970’s, before that it was talked about

and considered. However, not until the 1975 law, Individuals With Disabilities

Education Act, was this made an educational reality. This law was designed to give all

children “free and appropriate public education” in the “least restrictive environment”

(Cohen 2). One of the groups strongly for mainstreaming, were those that support

mandatory full inclusion of all children with disabilities in regular classrooms. They

often cite this law to back up their argument that all children have the right to a

mainstream education. Though children have this right, mandatory inclusionists rarely

consider the fact that full inclusion may not be the best for the child.

This gives rise to those who support a customized education approach. An

approach that seeks to give the child the best education they can possible have, and

teach them the necessary language and social skills that the child will need to succeed in

the hearing world.

Then, there are those opposed to inclusion. They usually those who work at

special education institutions, though there are some parents that support this also
(Cohen 1-7). The special education teachers are an authority on how deaf or hard of

hearing students should be raised. One must remember, that they stand to lose their jobs,

or at least some work, if inclusion is (as it was) made possible. In general, they

staunchly support special education institutions.

These are the three main viewpoints that have shaped the mainstreaming debate.

Each has good points and is passionate for their cause. But in the end, only time will

tell if mainstreaming is working, and if so how well.

SECTION 2:

PROBLEMS FACING EDUCATORS

Ambient Noise and Lighting

When I started writing this paper, I didn’t fully grasp the amount of work it

takes to modify a hearing class to accommodate a deaf or hard of hearing student. One

problem that deaf or hard of hearing students face is ambient noise. Ambient noise

presents a problem, because a deaf child’s hearing aid amplifies ALL noise. It is the

first thing in the classroom that must be accounted for and changed. If the ambient noise

of the classroom is louder than the teacher’s voice, then the student won’t be able to

hear, or will hear with difficulty. According to Susan R. Easterbrook, “The American,

Speech, Hearing, and Language Association (1995) recommends that the ambient noise

level in a classroom without students should be no more than 30 to 35 dB and the signal

to noise ratio not poorer than +15 dB” (5).

So, what are some ways that ambient noise can be reduced? Easterbrook gives us a

list of suggestions:
 • Use acoustical ceiling tiles

• Carpet the floors

• Hang thick drapes or curtains

• Keep fluorescent lighting systems and ventilation systems working well

• Have well fitting doors and windows (and keep them closed)

• Keep the children away from noise sources while you are instructing

(qtd. in Easterbrooks 6).

Lighting is another important area, the light cannot be reflecting off the board.

The child must be able to see clearly, since much information is acquired through sight

(Ogden 154). Seating arrangements are also important, because the deaf child needs a

clear view of the teacher and the board. Positioning the chairs in an arc is suggested as

the best way to maximize visibility of the teacher and board, while still keeping the

maximum number of students in the classroom. It is important that the teacher be aware

of the source of the glare (Ogden 155).

Hearing Aids

Aside from ambient noise and lighting, the teacher must have a certain level of

knowledge about their deaf students, the student’s culture (whether it be deaf culture or

otherwise), and specific problems that the students face. One problem common to many

deaf or hard of hearing students is when his hearing aid malfunctions. Since hearing aid

malfunctions are a common problem of deaf students, teachers should be comfortable

with hearing aids. They should be able to change the battery and adjust the volume, and

if they cannot do either, then educators should know where to send the student to have

their hearing aid fixed (Easterbrook 6)

Translators

Important adaptations to the classroom happen when a child has an interpreter. It

provides a new dynamic to the classroom. To be successful the teacher must be willing

work with the translator (and the translator with the teacher). Both need to establish

good communication. Once that is done, the teacher can then address the more technical

problems:

• The type of translator (is he an interpreter or a transliterator)

• The language to be translated (English or ASL) or the code to be used (ASL

signs, English signs, oral English, or Cued Speech)

• The qualifications and certification of the interpreter

• The responsibilities of the interpreter in the classroom

(Easterbrook 7,8)

The type of translator is important, because the language the interpreter uses

determines the meaning of the words. For example, an interpreter converts what the

teacher says into another language, such as English to ASL. A transliterator, however,

changes what the teacher says into a code, such as English to English signs, Cued

Speech, or oral transliteration. This is a more literal translation of what the teacher says.

It is stripped of non-essential words. So, it is very important that the teacher know what

language is being used, so that the teacher can communicate clearly.

When an interpreter is in the classroom, the following must be decided:

• Where will the interpreter sit?

• When and how should the interpreter tell the teacher the student didn’t

understand?
 • How much of a test should be interpreted?

These, and other questions that arise, must be addressed for the mainstreamed child

to get the best education possible. It is very important that the teacher and interpreter

establish and maintain a good working relationship.

Note Taking

Note taking is a crucial aspect of adapting the classroom. Without the aid of a

note taker the integrated child will quickly fall behind. Unlike hearing students, the deaf

child cannot look down at his or her notes while listening. They must look at the teacher

or interpreter to know what is being said. To solve this problem, professional note

takers can be hired or another student can do it for the deaf child (depending on the

grade level). Another option is a volunteer. This solution can be especially effective if

the volunteer was a mainstreamed student prior to volunteering, because they’ve

experienced reliance on notes before and know what the student is going through. A

future solution, in today’s computer age, may be the use of “voice technology.”

Capturing every word that the teachers says, and showing it on a computer, leaving the

child free to read what is on the screen.

Summary

These are just the major considerations and problems faced by regular educators

who have modified their mainstream classrooms to accommodate deaf or hard of

hearing students. Accommodating the classroom to fit the needs of deaf or hard of

hearing students is not a light undertaking, and even after the classroom is modified the
teacher will have to work on adapting their teaching style to meet mainstreamed

students needs.

SECTION 3:

PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS FOR PARENTS OF A DEAF CHILD

Intro

You might be wondering whether a deaf or hard of hearing child can really

succeed in a mainstreamed classroom. Be assured that they can. Joan Miller’s daughter,

Cara, has been deaf since she was a baby, and has successfully mainstreamed. And,

Joan notes with no little pride, her daughter is a straight A student (1).

In her essay, “Living With Hearing Loss: A Lifelong Educational Process—A

Parents Perspective” Joan outlines the challenges that a parent will face and the

strategies that parents can adopt to be successful parents and raise a successful child.

She describes her family’s journey through the mainstreaming process in phases.

Pre-Identification Phase

The first phase the parent will face is Pre-Identification. It is after you have

returned from the hospital and when you begin to have doubts about your infant (Miller

2). Something, you sense, is wrong but you can’t put your finger on it. The answer to

this problems is INVESTIGATE! Find out what is wrong with your child, the sooner

you know the sooner you can deal with it! Once you learn that your child is deaf, you

will experience the grieving process. Paul Ogden characterizes the grieving process
with his “Response Cycle” (11). The Response Cycle has five stages: Shock,

Recognition, Denial, Acknowledgement, and Constructive Action.

Response Cycle

In the first stage you will, in all likelihood, accept the fact that your child is deaf,

but not fully comprehend it. Shock usually lasts from a few hours to a few days at the

most, and people deal with shock in their own way. After Shock, comes Recognition.

This is when you will feel emotionally devastated. Realizing the full implications of

your child’s deafness you will look ahead, seeing how it will shape you and your child’s

lives for years to come. You will grieve, as if a loved one had died. The life that you

and your child will never have, and the memories that will never be, shall be mourned.

Denial will follow; parents will seek relief from the oppressing knowledge that their

child is deaf. They will try to look at the world as if their child were not deaf. The

danger of this stage is if the parent (or parents) remains in denial. Acceptance or

Acknowledgement is the stage where you come to grips with the fact that your child is

deaf, and that you can live with it. Constructive Action is the last stage. Parents now

decide a course of action for raising and educating their deaf child.

Identification Phase

Once parents have completed the response cycle, they can go through the

Identification Phase. This is a crucial phase, because during this phase the parents will

learn the extent of their child’s hearing loss. Once that is discovered, they can then

begin to form a plan that will utilize their child’s abilities. Only the parents can decide

what is best for their child: Full mainstreaming, partial mainstreaming with special

education, or only special education. Only special education has a downside, in that the
child (depending on where you live) will be gone from your house and will live apart

from you. Special education can be expensive too. Because of these, and other

considerations, it is important that the parents discover what resources their community

has. One resource, provided by the government for every family, is an Individual

Education Plan (King 1-4).

IEP

To make a wise decision, parents must be knowledgeable of what

mainstreaming their child will entail. As Miller says, “Educational and psycho-social

choices and solutions are often subtle, rather than clear-cut” (6). As such, both parents

must be fully aware of all factors when making a decision. To help parents plan their

child’s educational future, J. Freeman King suggests that an Individual Education

Program be developed, between parents and teacher. An IEP seeks to provide for the

unique communication needs of the child (King 2). The IEP takes into consideration the

family’s preferred mode of communication, the child’s linguistic needs, the child’s

degree of hearing loss and the degree of residual hearing the child has, along with the

child’s academic level. The child’s social and emotional needs and cultural needs are

also addressed when developing the IEP (King 2,3). To ensure that the child is placed

at the appropriate grade level, so as to ensure the quality of their education, a number of

tests are used to determine the child’s academic and language skills. For example there

is the Stanford Achievement Test Hearing Impaired (Reading Comprehension),

Stanford Achievement Test-Hearing Impaired (Spelling), Manual Morphology Test, and

others (King 3). All can be used to determine where the child should be placed when

mainstreamed.
 Parents, though, must consider more than just the educational aspects of

mainstreaming their child. They must consider the social and emotional impact it will

have on their child’s development. Since one of the biggest problems facing a deaf

child in mainstreaming is the feeling of “fitting in,” it is imperative that the child be

aware of their deaf heritage.

Deaf Culture

It is imperative for parents to give their children an awareness and knowledge of

the deaf community. Joan Miller and her husband decided to learn about deaf culture

and ASL so that they could teach Cara about her deaf heritage (8). Their goal was to

find adult, deaf role models who had succeeded and use them to inspire Cara. Just as

important as adult role models are deaf peers. Parents can prevent their child from

feeling isolated by having their child develop friendships with others like them. The

parents are responsible for ensuring this interaction with other deaf children, and for

their child’s interaction with hearing children.

Confidence

Encourage your child to participate in extra-curricular activities, as these are

vital to the development of social skills and your child’s well being. They help build

confidence in the child, and give the child valuable life experience, helping them to

develop skills. Extra curricular activities are an excellent proving ground for a child’s

speech, communication, and listening abilities. It is more real world experience, out of

the shelter of the classroom. It will teach your child self-reliance, and most importantly,

build confidence in them self. This newfound confidence provides impetus for your

child to achieve the goals you set for them, and the goals they set for themselves.
Goals

Goals give perspective; they are a way of measuring how far you’ve come. It is

a way to prevent your child from being discouraged, because you will be able to

measure their progress. As opposed to the child, and the parent, feeling as though

nothing has been accomplished, you can show your child just how far they have come.

Don’t be afraid to set goals, for your child and for yourself. Goals can be as broad as:

successful mainstreaming, a great career, a great marriage and a family. Goal can be as

specific as: improving spelling and grammar, making the soccer team, or getting the

pronunciation of a word just right. It is vitally important that the child (and the parent)

have something to work towards.

Communication

The aforementioned tasks are not possible if you cannot communicate with your

child. Successfully mainstreaming your child requires a good relationship and good

communication. As a parent you must consult a translator and decide which language is

the best for child to learn with. To ensure that they could communicate with their child,

Miller and her husband learned Cued Speech. Cued Speech is a phonetically based, oral

method of communication (Miller 9). It consists of eight hand configurations with four

positions, of either hand, which are used as a visible representation of natural speech. It

is based on the fact that most sounds look alike, which allows for Cued Speech to go

beyond the limits imposed by oralism as a means of receptive communication (Miller

9). Anther option is American Sign Language, which uses had motions to represent

English words. Perhaps lip reading is what your child is good at. In all likelihood, you
and your child will communicate using a combination of methods; it is up to you to

discover which are the best.

It is essential that parents remember their deaf or hard of hearing child requires

much more patience and work than does a hearing child. Parents must focus their full

attention on the child. Don’t forget, when you are near losing your patience, just what

your child has gone through that day and what they must deal with the rest of their lives.

Since raising a deaf child is very stressful on the child and the parents, there is the

option of counseling.

Counseling

Since stress is inevitable, don’t be afraid of counseling. A deaf child undergoes a

great deal of stress, and it is necessary, at times, for you to seek professional help. And,

as a parent it may be necessary for you also. An experienced counselor can greatly

smooth tough transition periods in your child’s life. They can help the child to resolve

issues in their life, and they can help the parents with issues they are struggling with

also.

Summary

In summary, here are some lessons, from Joan Miller, for successfully raising your

deaf or hard of hearing child. They will help you to be a successful parent as you raise

your deaf child.

1. Be the best possible parent you can be.

2. Educate yourself by study and research. Read literature, subscribe to

professional journals, consult professionals, speak to parents of deaf or hard of

 hearing kids, meet with hard of hearing kids and adults, know the laws, and seek

professional counseling when necessary.

3. Make regular assessments of your child. Don’t be afraid to evaluate new

options, make decisions and set goals.

4. Be flexible. Continually re-assess progress and set new goals.

5. Believe in the your child and your child’s future

(18).

SECTION 4:

PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS FOR A DEAF CHILD WHO IS

MAINSTREAMED

Intro

This section covers the most important person in the mainstreaming process, the

child who is being mainstreamed. It is so easy, when writing a paper like this, to lose

sight of what mainstreaming is all about. Mainstreaming is about providing a deaf or

hard of hearing child with the best education possible while preparing them to live on

their own in a hearing world.

Acceptance

So, what are the problems a deaf child faces when mainstreamed? First and

foremost, is accepting that they are different. Each and every day of their life, the child

will be faced with the fact that they are different. Eventually the child will come to

accept this fact (it is hoped). Second, a child must be accepted by accepted by his or her
classmates. But, for a deaf child to be able to be accepted, the child must be able to

communicate with his or her peers.

Communication

Communication is a very difficult struggle for a child, and the quickness of their

learning to communicate depends on:

• Social skills

• Reading ability

• Degree of residual hearing that is left

• Parent and teacher support and encouragement

• A willingness to learn

(Easterbrook 3)

The benefits of successful communication are tremendous. The child will make

friends, feel accepted, develop social skills, have more life experiences, and build

confidence in them self.

Frustration

Accepting the fact that they are deaf, coupled with learning to communicate causes

frustration. There are other sources of frustration, but these two are the root causes.

Eventually frustration brings explosions and temper tantrums. But part of growing up, is

a child learning how to express their anger and deal with it.

A counselor might be necessary for the child to deal with frustration. Therapy can

help the child resolve issues that arise at different times in their lives. But usually

parents must work through these difficulties with their child. And parents must keep in
mind, that despite the problems that arise, kids need to be kids. Frustration is a natural

part of the learning process.

Summary

In closing, for a child to successfully mainstream, the child must be a child.

They need stimulating experiences. A child’s personality must be developed, their likes

and dislikes discovered. They should be encouraged to play sports, do art, sing, act, and

(above all) BE THEMSELVES!

All the role models in the world and goals set cannot successfully mainstream a

child. Only if the child is willing, the parents educated and loving, and the resources

available, can child be successfully mainstreamed.

CONCLUSION

In this paper, I have explored the beginnings of the mainstreaming movement,

the legislation that made it real. And, I’ve covered the three major viewpoints of the

mainstreaming issue: mandatory full inclusionists, customized education, and those in

favor of special education. The pros and cons of each argument have been discussed, as

well as the implications inherent in each stance. Then I explored the problems faced by

educators, parents, and deaf or hard of hearing children during the mainstreaming

process. I’ve have looked at the many solutions that have arisen to deal with these

problems and how these strategies have been employed.

 Now, is mainstreaming effective? It is, if the parents are committed, the children

willing and able, and the teachers and schools have the necessary resources. A

successfully mainstreamed child has a significant advantage over a non-mainstreamed

child, in that they have had more experience with the hearing world, they can operate

more effectively in the job market, and their language skills are better developed.

Mainstreamed children are often confident and are more prepared for life among the

hearing.

But, this raises an interesting question. Is a mainstreamed child, though better

adapted to the hearing world, deprived of their deaf heritage? Not, if the child is

mainstreamed correctly. If correctly then the mainstreamed child will be involved in the

deaf community, some mainstreamed children have even advocated for the deaf

community before the US Congress (Miller 14).

So then, one is left with the conclusion that mainstreaming, like everything else,

is successful if done correctly.

 WORKS CITED

Cohen, Oscar P. “The Adverse Implications of Full Inclusion for Deaf Students.”

Paper presented at the 18th International Congress on Education of the Deaf.

July 16-20 1995. ERIC. Accessed 10/26/04.

Easterbrooks, Susan R. “Adapting the Regular Classroom for Students who are

Dear/Hard of Hearing.” Paper Presented at the Annual Convention of the

Council for Exceptional Children. Minneapolis, MN. 18 April 1998. ERIC

Accessed 10/17/04.

King, J. Freeman. “Program and IEP: Meeting Students’ Needs” Perspectives in

Education and Deafness. (November/December 1996). ERIC Accessed

10/9/2004. <http://clerccenter.gallaudet.edu/products/perspectives/nov-

dec96/iep.html>

Miller, Joan E. Heller. “Living With Hearing Loss: A lifelong Educational

Process—A Parents Perspective.” 18th International Congress on Education of

the Deaf. Tel Aviv, Israel. 16-20 July 1995. ERIC Accessed 10/ 14/04

Ogden, Paul W., and Susanne Lipsett. The Silent Garden: Understanding the

Hearing Impaired Child. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1982.

 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

OF DEAF MAINSTREAMING IN AMERICA

Aaroe, L., & Nelson, J. R. “Views about key curricular matters from the

perspectives of students with disabilities.” Current Issues in

Education Vol. 1. # 8. (18 Nov. 1998): ERIC Accessed 10/14/04.

<http://cie.ed.asu.edu/volume1/number8/>

Article gives the results of surveys on the opinions of deaf students toward

curriculum they’ve experienced. Covers deaf students opinions of: service-

delivery setting, activity preference, and instructional modifications. Narrow

scope, only wants to know the opinions of deaf students on the literature and

curriculum they’ve experienced themselves. Credible source. Aaroe and Nelson

are from Arizona University and this article appeared in Current Issues in

Education. Useful source, because it gives the perspective of deaf students.

Articles newest source was from 1996. Includes: contact information to reach

the authors and a works cited page.

Banks, Jeri. All of Us Together. Washington, D.C.: Gallaudet University Press,

1994.

Follows the effects of mainstreaming at John H. Kinzie Elementary School in

SW

Chicago. Chronicles the integration of children with sensory-neural hearing loss

 into regular classrooms from 1982 to 1992. Credible source. Alternates between

children’s perspective and administrator’s/teacher’s perspective. Useful for

those

who want a more ‘human’ side of the mainstreaming issue. Jeri Banks is

Principal of John H. Kinzie Elementary School in Chicago, Illinois. Includes:

about the author information.

Bertling, Tom, ed. An Intellectual Look at American Sign Language. Wilsonville,

OR: Kodiak Media Group, 2001.

Collection of essays about American Sign Language. Covers the influence and

effects of teaching the English language to the deaf, ethical issues concerning

cochlear implants, and the role of state residential schools for the deaf. Credible

source, backers include: Prof. Frances M. Parsons of Gallaudet Univ., Prof.

Gerilee Gustason, PhD, San Jose Univ., etc. Gives an intellectual perspective,

broadens view of the subject. Includes: Reference Page.

Block, Martin E. A Teacher’s Guide to Including Students with Disabilities in

Regular

Physical Education. London: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., 1994.

Guideline to teachers on how to include disabled children in regular physical

education. Introduces: inclusion idea, plans for inclusion, and steps for

implementing plans. Covers children with blindness, cerebral palsy, mental

retardation, deafness, etc. from elementary school through high school. Credible
 source, Block is Asst. Prof. of the Program Area of Health and Physical

Education

at the University of Virginia, Charlottesville. Useful for those whose focus is

physical education for children with a wide range of maladies. Includes:

Reference Page, Index, and several tables and evaluation forms for different age

kids.

Bolander, Anne M. and Renning, Adair N. I Was # 87. Washington, D.C.:

Gallaudet

University Press, 2002.

Chronicle of Anne Bolander, a deaf child misdiagnosed as mentally retarded and

institutionalized. Tells of abuse from family and ‘friends’ and the damage it left

on her as a grown woman. Written to prevent other deaf children from being

misdiagnosed. Credible source but relies strongly on emotions. Published by

Gallaudet University Press. Anne Bolander has been an employee of General

Motors, Inc. for 25 years and lies in Westland Michigan; the book is about her

life. Co-author Adair Renning lives in Milan, Mich. and occasionally writes for

bird magazines. Useful for those studying abuse in institutions. Includes:

Information about the Authors.

Going to School: Ir A La Escuela. Dir. Richard Cohen. Richard Cohen, 2001.

 Documentary about inclusion, diversity, and empowering children with

disabilities. Chronicles Richard Martinez’s 7th and 8th grade years of being

integrated in a regular school. Focuses on his struggle to learn and make friends

and his mothers struggle to get him quality education. Lacks credibility and is

one-sided. Only covers middle-school aged children and gives the parents and

child’s views. Useful for those arguing integration. Includes: Director’s contact

information.

Bullis, Michael. “The School-to-Community Transition Experiences of Hearing

Young Adults and Young Adults who are Deaf.” Journal of Special

Education. Vol. 28 Issue 4 (Winter 1995). ERIC. Accessed

10/9/04.

Study on the transition experiences that hearing and deaf students had when they

moved from school to community. Focus is the impact had on the students, not

the community they entered. Covers the last years of high school, and the first

years of living in the community. Includes both hearing and deaf, giving it a

broader perspective. Credible source; the article is from the Journal of Special

Education. Michael Bullis is has a Ph.D. in Special Education and

Rehabilitation

and is a Prof. at University of Oregon. Not useful for those researching

education, because the focus is on transition. Includes: Several tables outlining

the

results of the test and a references page.

Carter, Steven. “A Snag in the Mainstream.” The Oregonian 10 Nov. 2004, local

ed.:

C1 +.

Tells how mainstreaming disabled children in Portland, Oregon has been top

rapid. Teachers are lacking the necessary education to deal with the incoming

disabled children. Gives snippets of interviews of parents and teachers. Narrow

scope; covers only the Portland area. Credible. Includes: author contact

information.

Cohen, Oscar P. “The Adverse Implications of Full Inclusion for Deaf Students.”

Paper presented at the 18th International Congress on Education of the

Deaf.

July 16-20 1995. ERIC. Accessed 10/26/04.

Persuasive argument paper against mandatory integration of deaf students into

mainstream schools, because it would limit the child’s right to choose their own

type of education. Focuses on elementary age children. Credibility is

questionable, because author might lose his job (He’s a superintendent of the

Lexington School for the Deaf) if integration is made mandatory. Useful for

providing the opposing side of the Deaf Mainstreaming debate. Includes: Brief

author information and reference page.

Easterbrooks, Susan R. “Adapting the Regular Classroom for Students who are
 Dear/Hard of Hearing.” Paper Presented at the Annual Convention of the

Council for Exceptional Children. Minneapolis, MN. 18 April 1998. ERIC

Accessed 10/17/04.

Focuses on how to instruct regular and special ed. teachers about the changes

that

need to be made to the classroom for students with hearing loss/impairment.

Context is within the classroom and it aims to make educators aware of the

resources necessary and available to them to maximize effectiveness. Credible

source, it was a paper presented at the Annual Convention of the Council for

Exceptional Children. It isn’t the newest source (it was published in 1998),

which

could detract from its relevancy. Includes: a reference list and copies of all the

overheads used when presenting the paper.

Goldberg, Donald. “Educating Children who are Deaf or Hard of Hearing:

Auditory-Verbal.” ERIC Digest # E552. ERIC Clearinghouse on

Disabilities

and Gifted Education. Reston, VA. August 1997. ERIC Accessed 10/17/04.

Overview of the auditory-verbal technique of teaching communication skills to

deaf or hard of hearing children. Goal of the article is for these children to grow

up and be independent citizens who contribute to mainstream society. Has a

narrow scope and it is rather short. Approaches it from a teacher’s point of view,
 almost business like. All about getting results. Source is credible, put out by the

ERIC Clearing House on Disabilities and Gifted Education; sponsoring agency

is the Office of Education Research and Improvement in Washington, D. C.

Useful source for those researching deaf mainstreaming. Focuses on teaching

strategies, gives some great guidelines for teaching auditory-verbal

communication skills. Includes: a list of the Principles of Auditory-Verbal

Practice, a Reference Page, and a list of Additional Resources.

King, J. Freeeman. “Program and IEP: Meeting Students’ Needs” Perspectives in

Education and Deafness. (November/December 1996). ERIC Accessed

10/9/2004. <http://clerccenter.gallaudet.edu/products/perspectives/nov-

dec96/iep.html>

“Program and IEP” is about Individual Education Plans for deaf or hard of

hearing children. Outlines the problems that must be addressed when

mainstreaming a deaf child, what strategies are necessary to overcome these

problems, and gives suggestions for handling side issues, such as family and the

child’s emotional growth. Covers Deaf and Hard of Hearing children; the IEP is

specifically addressed to these types of children and their families and teachers.

Narrow scope, if you’re looking at education in general. Credible source; King

has an Ed. D., and is a professor at Utah State University. ‘Reference Page’ lists

Educational and Developmental Deafness from Gallaudet University. Article is

from 1996, so information might be outdated. Includes: Reference Page and a

list of ‘Tests for Deaf Students.”

Lane, Harlan. The Mask of Benevolence: Disabling the Deaf Community. New

York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992.

Book aimed at exposing the suppression of the deaf and deaf community and

their culture by “experts” in the areas of science, medicine, and education.

Covers the paternalistic nature of the hearing towards the deaf, failure of

mainstreaming, and politics of deaf education. Useful for understanding the

anti-hearing/mainstreaming worldview. Credibility is doubtful, because author

is clearly and highly biased. Author is a professor at Northeastern University and

a specialist in the psychology of language and linguistics.

Includes: Notes for each section of the book and an index.

Longmore, Paul K., and Larui Umansky, eds. . The New Disability History. New

York: New York University Press, 2001.

Collection of essays about disability in America’s history. Broad spectrum, deals

with issues like: “Disability and the Justification Inequality in American

History” all the way to “American Disability Policy in the Twentieth Century.”

Credibility is hard to determine, because there are many authors. Useful for

those researching disability in America. Includes: list of contributors and index.

Miller, Joan E. Heller. “Living With Hearing Loss: A lifelong Educational

Process—A Parents Perspective.” 18th International Congress on

Education of the Deaf. Tel Aviv, Israel. 16-20 July 1995. ERIC Accessed 10/

14/04
 Persuasive argument paper written by the parent of a deaf child. Covers

childrearing, coping, elementary education, inclusive schools, mainstreaming,

and social integration. Main points are full inclusion of deaf children in the

hearing world, while stressing the need for the child to experience deaf culture

and have adult role models who are deaf. Credible source, Joan Miller has an

Ed. M. and first hand experience. Useful source, because it gives the parents

perspective and (valid) opinion of the way a child should be integrated in school.

Shows how families cope and the strategies they used to cope. Includes: A list of

strategies that parents should use to be the best parent possible for their deaf

child.

Miller, Regina. The Developmentally Appropriate Inclusive Classroom in Early

Education. Boston: Delmar Publishers, 1996.

Introduces developmentally appropriate curriculum, gives plans for

implementing the curriculum, plans for including and defining the role of family

in the child’s education, and techniques for assessing the effectiveness of the

strategies and curriculum employed. Broad scope, but provides specific details

in each subcategory. Credible source, author has a Ph.D. from the University of

Hartford. Too broad to be useful for those researching deaf mainstreaming.

Includes: References, additional reading, early childhood video resources, and

organization contact information.

Nowell, Richard; Innes, Joseph. “Educating Children who are Deaf or Hard of
 Hearing: Inclusion.” ERIC Digest # E557. ERIC Clearinghouse on

Disabilities and Gifted Education. Reston, VA. August 1997. ERIC

Accessed 10/17/04.

Summarizes the basic issues of including deaf and hard of hearing children in

mainstream classrooms. Covers history of the inclusion movement and

identifies the two positions of the debate. Education from an educator’s

perspective, focusing on the mainstreaming of deaf and hard of hearing children,

with an emphasis on preschool and elementary age. Narrowly focused article.

Credible source, it comes from the ERIC Clearing House on Disabilities and

Gifted Education and its sponsoring agency is the Office of Educational

Research and Improvement in Washington, DC. Gets at the central issues of the

mainstream movement. Includes: A reference page and author contact

information.

Ogden, Paul W., and Susanne Lipsett. The Silent Garden: Understanding the

Hearing Impaired Child. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1982.

Explains how parents are to understand their deaf child. Tells what parents need

to do, how to create a healthy family environment, the different modes of

communication, and how to help the child in school. Book is aimed at educating

parents, not useful for educators. Credible source; has good suggestions. Very

useful for someone studying deafness from a parents point of view. Credible

source, Ogden has a Ph.D. and is Associate Professor of Communicative

 disorders at California State University. Includes: appendix with resources and

suggestions for parents and an index of terms.

Siegal, Lawrence. “The Educational and Communication needs of Deaf and Hard

of Hearing Children: A Statement of Principle Regarding Fundamental

Systemic Educational Changes.” American Annals of the Deaf Vol. 145(2).

(April 2001). ERIC Accessed 10/14/04.

Persuasive paper arguing that deaf and hard of hearing children deserve a

communication rich environment in which they can flourish and one that will

develop their language skills. Goes point by point over its argument, with

numerous sources and reasons why those ideas should be implemented. Covers

aspects of education that need to be changed to accommodate deaf and hard of

hearing children. Lists recognition of the need, a paradigm shift to change

direction, and (if that wasn’t clear enough) a description of the paradigm needed

to effectively teach deaf children. Describes what needs to be done and how.

Broad but useful. Credible source, Gaulladet University and National

Association of the Deaf are a few of its sources. Lawrence Siegal is Director of

the National Deaf Education Project, received his A.B. and M. A. degrees from

the Univ. of California at Berkeley and his J.D. from Hastings College of Law.

Large size of paper limits usefulness. Includes: Footnotes with commentary on

sources.

Winzer, Margaret A. The History of Special Education: From Isolation to

Integration. Washington, D. C.: Gallaudet University Press, 1993.

Covers the history of people with disabilities from 400 B. C. to today. Covers

all types of disabilities. Main focus is on the treatment of disabled people during

history, the types of institutions that arose to accommodate disabled people

during history, and the progress made from 400 BC to now in educating disabled

people. Very useful for those writing about the history of people with

disabilities. Credible source; Winzer is a Professor of Special Needs Education

at the University of Lethbridge, Canada. Includes: bibliography, index and

authors index.
Common Classroom Problems

As aforementioned in Section 2, ambient noise can present a serious problem to a

child’s learning process in the classroom. Hearing aids amplify ALL sounds, not just

what the teacher is saying. It is imperative that the room be designed to reduce as much

ambient noise as possible (Ogden 154).

One mustn’t assume that the child is simply mad because they are deaf, it may be

because their mom left to go shopping without them, maybe they want to help cook

dinner but aren’t allowed, maybe they just can’t communicate something and blow up.

Give the child deaf role models, people to look up to. Give them goals to aspire

too, get them involved in activity. Involve them in deaf culture. Let them know there is

a whole community and culture out there for people just like them.

The one thing that cannot be allowed to happen to a child, is for them to become

isolated.

Give your child the best hearing aids possible. Challenge your child, keep them

from giving up.

Learning will be more difficult for your child, because there won’t be direct

communication. It will come through an interpreter or translator. The child will have to

learn to rely on a note taker.

What cultural considerations must be taken into account? What is the child’s

ethnicity? Will the child be properly assessed? This is a problem, if the school doesn’t

have adequate testing resources or if the educator is unaware of how to use the

resources.
 Eventually the child will reach a stage where they will want independence, and

as a parent it must be decided what is best.

http://spot.pcc.edu/~mdembrow/wr123draft4.htm