1. Ideological context of Islamic architecture.

All civilizations have a characteristic architectural expression which is created in response to a

series of climatic and cultural conditions. Just as classicism, as built in America or in Europe,
recalls to Greek-Roman Mediterranean, Islamic architecture maintains a deep relationship with
Arabic origins of Islam.

1.1.- Life of Muhammad.

Islam emerged in 7th century polytheistic Arabia when Muhammad, a merchant from Mecca,
begins to have a series of divine revelations in which he is threatened to be "sent from God" (610
AD) and to preach their teachings while fighting against traditional polytheism of the region. This
fight against traditional religions created serious problems in Mecca, from where he decided to
emigrate (hidjra, Hegira) in 622, along with his followers, to the nearby city of Medina. This marks
the beginning of the Islamic calendar and his stay in Medina will fully define the structure of the
new religion, as well as giving us the typological base for Islamic religious building: the mosque as
a representation of Muhammad's house.

Over the years he spent in Medina, Muhammad gave a municipal regulation to the nascent Muslim
community and came into contact with the Jewish community (623), which would be eventually
expelled from the city, after appropriating a part of their beliefs, as the consideration of Abraham as
the first Muslim who aimed a monotheistic god (hanif) and founder of Kaaba in Mecca as a place of
worship of one God, Allah. In 624 he changes the direction of prayer towards Mecca (South -East),
as had hitherto been Jerusalem (Northwest). Between 625 and 630, a series of skirmishes between
the people of Medina, where Muhammad showed his skills as a strategist who gave successive
victory and consolidated the position of the growing community. Finally in 630 Muhammad entered
Mecca victorious, "purified" the Kaaba idol, and established the pilgrimage to Mecca as a Muslim
institution. Shortly after his "farewell pilgrimage" to Mecca in March 632, Muhammad died in
Medina on June 8 of that year, while planning the conquest of Byzantium and Persia.

1.2 .- Religious basis of Islam. Koran and the five pillars of Islamic life.
All the teachings of Muhammad were recorded in the Qur'an, which canonical composition takes
place during the reign of the third caliph (644-656). Koran is divided into suras, which contain
verses; its organization does not correspond to its original chronology, but are ordered according to
their length in decreasing sequence preceded by a theme. According to Muslim belief, the original
writing of the Koran is registered in heaven since the beginning of time and the revealed Qur'an
coincides exactly with it. Hence its immutability and the need for Muslims to learn Arabic, languaje
in which was revealed. This aspect will be a cultural unity to Islam, as Latin and Greek were for
Christians and Hebrew for Jews.

Muslim religious life is based on the five pillars or foundations (Arkan), which insist on the unity of
the Islamic community (umma) and general obligations to God and neighbor:
1 .- Public profession of faith (Shahada): "There is no God but Allah and Muhammad is his
prophet" as an affirmation of the oneness of God and the legitimate mission of Muhammad. It is the
first step to convert to Islam.
2 .- Ritual prayer (salat) is performed five times a day at the call of the muezzin from the mosque
minaret. Prayer can be performed anywhere, after a series of ablutions as a purification ritual and is
always in the direction of Mecca as a sign of the unity of all Muslims. In the mosque, men and
women pray separately in rows behind the imam, which has its place before the mirhab (niche
indicating the direction of prayer). Most important prayer is at noon Friday, including a sermon by
the imam from the minbar (pulpit). These elements are particularly relevant in Islamic architecture.
Unlike Judaism and Christianity, Friday is not holiday for Muslims.
3 .- Giving alms to the poor (Zakat): voluntary in the origins, a tax system will be soon structured
and designed to protect most disadvantaged (poor, widows, orphans, the sick, pilgrims, debtors and
fighters of the faith) as a kind of Social Security.
4 .- Ritual Fasting (Saum) during the month of Ramadan (ninth month of Islamic year and varies
from one year to another as the Islamic calendar is lunar-based): During this month Muslims abstain
from eating, drinking, smoking and sexual relations from sunrise to sunset. This is a period of
conversion and penance during which daytime social life freezes while the night is full of
ceremonies and social events.
5 .- Pilgrimage to Mecca and around (Hadjdj) is required for every adult Muslim at least once in
their life. Pilgrimage leads to the holy cities of Islam, in which center is Kaaba, cubic formed and
cover with a black veil, with its sacred "black stone" inside the Great Mosque of Mecca (in the
Koran, was erected by Abraham and his son Ishmael), often also combined with a visit to the house
of Muhammad in Medina.

Together with these five pillars, Koranic law (sharia) checks all aspects of Muslim life. Islam is
both a "secular religion", because there is no religious hierarchy, as a "legal religion" because who
attends daily and behavioral issues is a lawyer and not a priest. Islamic scholars (ulama) are
knowledgeable about religion and laws, definitely codified in 9th century from the immediate
successors of Muhammad (sunna, custom, hence the name Sunni, which is majority Islam). By
contrast, Muslims who were positioned against the sunna ended professing Islam Shia (from Shiat
Ali, a supporter of Ali, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, as the legitimate successor of the
Prophet).

1.3 .- Tolerance in Islam.

Muhammad shows himself as the last and final prophet belonging to a line of illuminated who,
since primitive times, preached monotheism. According to Islam, God would have made a covenant
with the descendants of Adam, especially with Noah; Abraham is considered the first prophet,
believing in the oneness of God; Moses is the writer and holder of the Torah; and Jesus the admired
preacher who spread the gospel and outstanding prophet direct ancestor of Muhammad. This
sequence ends with Mohammed, the "last (ring) of the prophets", and God's Revelation through the
prophets is completed. Hence, early Muslims considered themselves superior to believers of the two
other monotheistic religions, Christianity and Judaism, but also showed some initial tolerance with
them because according to Mohammed, they should not have shown difficulty in accepting Islam
since they had already been offered the true religion but had rejected it. Over time, and as Islamic
communities grow, initial tolerance gradually disappears, although it is a cycle and periods of
religious tolerance are followed by other of intransigence.
2. Historical context of Islamic architecture.

2.1 .- The "four rightful caliphs" (632-661).

The time period between Muhammad's death and the coming to power of the Umayyad dynasty
(661) is very important for understanding Islam. In the Sunni tradition, the time of the "four rightful
caliphs" is considered a golden age, when the community (umma) was conducted fairly and pious,
lived under the laws of the Prophet and Islam began to display their power. The Shiites, however,
consider that first three caliphs are mere usurpers and recognize only the Imam Ali, the fourth
caliph of the Sunnis, and their blood descendants, as the right of succession. In fact, the era of the
"four rightful caliphs" plays an important role in the debate over social order as life experiences
from this period form the basis of Islamic legislation.

The first caliph (khalifa, "representative") Abu Bakr (632-634) was Muhammad's father-in-law and
was one of the first to follow him in the Hijrah in 622. During Muhammad's illness had led
congregational prayers and that helped him to the succession; considered by many as the Prophet's
"alter ego", he knew how to use his authority to consolidate the union between different Arab tribes.

Second caliph, Omar ibn al-Khattab (634-644) was also a father-in-law and friend of the Prophet in
Medina and was one his main advisers. During his government foundations of the Islamic empire
are settled, thanks to his conquests planned with his generals Khalid ibn al-Walid, Amr ibn al-As
and Sad ibn Abu Waqqas and social reforms carried out since year 637. Pious man, added to the
caliph the title of "Lord of the believers." He was killed in 644 by a Christian while he was walking
to a mosque.

Third caliph, Uthman ibn Affan (644-656), Mohammed's son-in-law was member of the Umayyad
family, and one of the richest merchants of Mecca. He was a pious man, but without personal
ambition or leadership, he delegated political responsibilitiesin his relatives, which made him
unpopular. He was forced to resign and when refused was murdered in his home while praying.

Fourth Caliph, Ali ibn Abu Talib (656-661) was both Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law. He was
one of the first Muslims and their supporters consider him the first Muslim after the Prophet's wife.
Since Muhammad's death he had supporters who wanted him to assure the caliphate, designating
themselves as "Shiat Ali", a supporter of Ali, from where the word "Shiite" comes. Despite being
elected caliph in 656, neither Mohammed's widow nor Uthman's relatives, recognized him as
caliph, making a tense situation for the young religion. In 657 a cousin of Uthman, Muawiyah,
governor of Syria, rebelled against Ali, who, to avoid a civil war, agreed to share sovereignty.
However, this did not please much of the community and appointed Muawiya as Caliph and
launched another rebellion; despite being defeated by Ali in 658, the fourth Caliph was finally killed
in 661 when he was walking to a mosque, starting the Umayyad Dinasty.

On the death of Ali, Islamic empire had overcome Arabian Peninsula natural limits and spread from
Libya and Egypt to Mesopotamia and Persia. Until then, Islamic architecture was limited to semi-
nomad buildings typical from desert; but after conquering prosperous Egypt, Syria and
Mesopotamia, and needing to give material expression to their power and their faith, Muslims will
use Persian and Greek-Roman architectural tradition for their mosques, palaces and fortifications.

2.2 .- Umayyad Dynasty (661-750)

After the battle of Siffin Muawiyah I power is consolidated on Islamic Caliphate. Muawiyah moved
the capital from Medina to Damascus, placing the center of Muslim power in a thriving cultural
area whose architecture will be the basis for the entire Umayyad building industry. The Umayyads
absorbed and incorporated Hellenistic and Byzantine legacy, and merged the classical tradition of
the Mediterranean in a different and innovative mold. Islamic Art was formed, therefore, in Syria,
and architecture, unmistakably Islamic due to their founders personality, didn't loose its connection
with Christian and Byzantine art. The most important monuments are the Umayyad Dome of the
Rock in Jerusalem, the oldest example of monumental Islamic shrine, the Great Mosque of
Damascus, who served as model for later mosques, and the desert palaces of Syria, Jordan and
Palestine. Buildings of this period will have a decisive influence on the development of all later
Islamic architecture.

2.3 .- Abbasid Dynasty (750-1258)

Abbasid Dynasty based its origins in Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (566-652), one of Prophet
Muhammad's youngest uncles. Their descendants settled in Persia, where led a revolt against the
Umayyads in 747, organized by Ibrahim, fourth-generation descendant of Abbas. Defeated and
executed, his brother Abdullah, known as Abu al-`Abbas as-Saffah, continued the fight and after a
decisive victory in the Great Zab River in 750, crushed the Umayyads and was proclaimed caliph
(750-754). His brother and successor, Al-Mansur (754-775) moved the political center of Islam
from Mediterranean to Mesopotamia, founding the city of Baghdad in 762. This factor influenced
the development of Islamic civilization, and whole range of cultural and artistic events was marked
by this change.

Abbasid art and architecture were inspired by three great traditions: Sassanid, Central Asian and
Seljuk. Influence of Central Asia was already present in Sassanid architecture, but in Samarra this
influence was reflected in the way of working with arabesque stucco ornaments which quickly
spread throughout the Islamic world. Influence of Abbasid monuments can be seen in buildings
constructed during that period in other regions of the empire, but especially in Egypt and Ifriqiya.
Ibn Tulun Mosque (876-879) in Cairo is a masterpiece notable for its plant and its unity of
conception. It was inspired by the model of the Great Abbasid Mosque of Samarra, especially its
spiral minaret. In Kairouan, capital of Tunisia, the Aghlabids (800-909), vassals of Abbasid caliphs,
extended Kairouan Great Mosque, one of most venerable congregational mosques in Maghreb and
its mirhab is lined with Mesopotamian tiles.

2.4 .- Fatimid Dynasty (909-1171).

The Fatimid dynasty owes its name to Fatima, Muhammad's daughter who was married with third
Caliph Ali (and therefore Shiite profession), but was founded by a local leader of Algeria, who
proclaimed his kinship with the prophet and rebelled against Abbasids, forming a powerful empire
that occupied all of northern Africa. This period is notable in history of Islamic Mediterranean and
Sicily countries. Some architectural examples remain as testimony to its past glory: in central
Maghrib, Bani Hammad Qal'a and the Mahdia Mosque; in Sicily, Cuba and Zisa in Palermo, built
by Fatimids craftsmen under the reign of Norman king William II; in Cairo, the al-Azar Mosque is
the most prominent example of Fatimid architecture in Egypt.

2.5 .- Ayyubid dynasty (1171-1250)

Ayyubid dynasty has its origins in the help request made by the last Fatimid sultan, Al Adid, to Nur-
al-Din, Sultan of Syria, to raise the Siege of Cairo in the context of Third Crusade. Nur-al-Din sent
General Saladin who finally proclaimed Sultan after Al Adid's death. Later, after Nur-al-Din's death,
Saladin also proclaimed Sultan of Syria and will shake the states created by Christians in the first
crusades.

Ayyubids were important architecture patrons. They established religious institutions (madrasas,
khanqa) for spreading Sunni Islam (as Egypt had been Shiite during Fatimid dinasty) as well as
mausoleums and social welfare establishments, and imposing fortifications resulting from military
conflict with Crusaders. Aleppo Citadel in Syria is a remarkable example of their military
architecture.

2.6 .- Mamluk Dynasty (1250-1517)

Mamluks were initially Turkish origin slaves used by Ayyubid to protect their borders from
Crusaders and Mongols. After consolidating their borders and demising Crusaders states after
Seventh Crusade, Mamluk general Muizz Izz-al-Din Aybak murdered the widow of last Ayyubid
sultan and proclaimed himself monarch.

Mamluks were able to drive again in Syria and Egypt, and built a strong empire that would
eventually be defeated by Ottomans. Wealth and luxury reigned in Cairo, Mamluk Sultans court and
because of this artists and architects will develop an unique and elegant architecture. For Islamic
world, Mamluk period marks a time of renewal and rebirth. Mameluks enthusiastically founded
religious institutions and reconstructed existing ones, which places them among the biggest islamic
drivers of art and architecture. A typical example of this period is Hassan Mosque (1356), a
cruciform plan tomb mosque in which its four cross arms are formed by four iwans surrounding a
central courtyard.

2.7 .- Seljuk Dynasty (1075-1318)

Anatolia was the birthplace of two major Islamic dynasties: Seljuks (1075-1318), who introduced
Islam in the region, and Ottomans (1299-1922), who conquered Constantinople and ended
Byzantine Empire, consolidating its hegemony in the region.

Seljuk art and architecture led to a flourishing style from the fusion of influences from Central Asia,
Iran, Mesopotamia and Syria, with elements derived from Christian Anatolia and Antiquity. Konya,
the new capital of Central Anatolia, like other cities, was enriched with many new buildings
constructed in Seljuk style. There are numerous mosques, madrasas, turbets, and caravanserais that
have survived to our days, richly decorated with stucco and tiles with various figurative
representations.

2.8 .- Ottoman Dynasty (1299-1922)

As Seljuk Emirates disintegrated and Byzantium went into decline, Ottomans rapidly expanded its
territory and moved the capital from Iznik to Bursa and later to Edirne. The conquest of
Constantinople in 1453 by Sultan Mehmet II printed the necessary impetus for transition from an
emerging state to a great empire, a superpower whose borders came to Vienna, including the
Balkans to the west and Iran to the east and north Africa from Egypt to Algeria. Mediterranean thus
became an Ottoman sea. The race to surpass the splendor of inherited Byzantine churches, which
best example is Hagia Sophia, culminated in the construction of Istanbul great mosques. Most
significant of these is Süleymaniye Mosque, conceived in 16th century by famous Ottoman
architect Sinan, who is the most significant example of architectural harmony in a dome. Most of
great Ottoman mosques were part of large groups of buildings called külliye, composed of several
madrasas, a Koranic school, a library, a hospital (Darüşşifa), a hostel (weave), a public kitchen, a
caravanserai and several mausoleums. Since the early 18th century, during the so-called Tulip
Period, Ottoman architectural and decorative style reflected the influence of French Baroque and
Rococo, thus heralding the stage of westernization of Islamic arts and architecture.

2.9 .- Al-Andalus (711-1492)

Located in Islamic world western sector, al-Andalus became cradle of a great artistic and cultural
splendorous expresion. Abd al-Rahman I established an independent Umayyad caliphate (750-1031)
whose capital was Córdoba. The Mosque of this city would become predecessor of the most
innovative artistic trends, with elements such as two-color overlapping arches and panels with
decorative plants, which would become part of formal artistic Andalusian repertoire.

In 11th century, Caliphate of Cordoba was fragmented into a series of principalities unable to cope
with the gradual advance of Reconquista, initiated by Christian states from northwestern Iberian
Peninsula. These kingdoms, or Taifa kingdoms appealed to Almoravids in 1086, and the Almohads
in 1145, to repel Christian advance and partially restore Al-Andalus unity. Through their
intervention in Iberian Peninsula, Almoravids (1036-1147) came into contact with a new civilization
and were immediately captivated by Andalusian refined art, as reflected in their capital, Marrakech,
where they built a large mosque and several palaces. The influence of architecture from other cities
such as Cordoba and Seville was felt in all Almoravids monuments from Tlemcen or Algiers to Fez.

Under Almohads rule (1121-1269), who extended their hegemony to Tunisia, Western Islamic art
reached its peak time. During this period, artistic creativity originated under Almoravids sovereign
was renewed and several masterpieces of Islamic art were created. Among most notable examples
are Great Mosque of Seville, with its minaret, the Giralda, Kutubiya of Marrakech, Hassan Mosque
in Rabat, and Tinmel Mosque in Morocco Atlas Mountains. After Almohad Empire dissolution,
Nasrid dynasty (1232-1492) settled in Granada and reached its zenith in the fourteenth century.
Granada civilization was to become a cultural model for centuries to come in Spain (Mudejar art)
and especially in Morocco, where this artistic tradition enjoyed great popularity and has remained
until today in architecture, decoration, music and cooking. Famous al-Hamra (Alhambra) of
Granada palaces and forts said the highlight of Andalusian art and has all the elements of his artistic
repertoire.

2.10.- Maghreb (1243-2010)

In Morocco, Marinids (1243-1471) replaced Almohads, while in Algeria ruled Abd al-Wadid (1235-
1516) and Hafsids in Tunisia (1228-1534). Marinids perpetuated Andalusian art, enriching it with
new elements. They embellished their capital, Fez, with many mosques, palaces and madrasas,
considering all these buildings, with ceramic tiles and zelish panels decorating the walls, as the
most perfect examples of Islamic art. The last Moroccan dynasties, Saadian (1527-1659) and Alawi
(1659-present), continued the artistic tradition of Andalusian exiles from their homeland in 1492. To
build and decorate their monuments, these dynasties continued using the same formulas and the
same decorative themes that previous dynasties, and added innovative touches of their own creative
genius. In early 17th century, Andalusian migrants (Morisco) who established their residences in
northern cities of Morocco introduced many Andalusian art elements. Today, Morocco is one of the
few countries that has kept alive Andalusian traditions in architecture and furnishings, upgraded by
the incorporation of 20th century techniques and architectural styles.