Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Why do we use steam? ...................................................................................................... 1
1.2 What is steam? .................................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Steam quality...................................................................................................................... 8
2. STEAM DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM ............................................................................... 8
2.1 What is the steam distribution system? ........................................................................... 8
2.2 Pipes................................................................................................................................... 10
2.3 Drain points....................................................................................................................... 16
2.4 Branch lines ...................................................................................................................... 17
2.5 Strainers ............................................................................................................................. 19
2.6 Filters ................................................................................................................................. 23
2.7 Separators .......................................................................................................................... 25
2.8 Steam traps ........................................................................................................................ 27
2.9 Air vents ............................................................................................................................ 36
2.10 Condensate recovery ..................................................................................................... 40
2.11 Insulation of steam pipelines and hot process equipments ....................................... 43
3. ASSESSMENT OF STEAM DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM ....................................... 47
3.1 Assessment of steam traps .............................................................................................. 47
3.2 Assessment of heat losses from un-insulated surfaces ................................................ 49
3.3 Assessment of savings from condensate recovery....................................................... 52
4. ENERGY EFFICIENCY OPPORTUNITIES .............................................................. 54
5. OPTION CHECKLIST ...................................................................................................... 65
6. WORKSHEETS................................................................................................................... 66
7. REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................... 67
1. INTRODUCTION
This chapter explains what steam is, its properties and why we use steam.
Steam1 has come a long way from its traditional associations with locomotives and the
Industrial Revolution. Steam today is an integral and essential part of modern technology.
Without it, our food, textile, chemical, medical, power, heating and transport industries could
not exist or perform as they do. Steam provides a means of transporting controllable amounts
of energy from a central, automated boiler house, where it can be efficiently and
1
This section is a summary of Module 1.1 Steam –The Energy Fluid, In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 1,
‘Introduction’.www.spiraxsarco.com
economically generated, to the point of use. Therefore as steam moves around a plant it can
equally be considered to be the transport and provision of energy.
For many reasons, steam is one of the most widely used commodities for conveying heat
energy. Its use is popular throughout industry for a broad range of tasks from mechanical
power production to space heating and process applications. Reasons for using steam
include:
§ Steam is efficient and economic to generate
§ Steam can easily and cost effectively be distributed to the point of use
§ Steam is easy to control
§ Energy is easily transferred to the process
§ The modern steam plant is easy to manage
§ Steam is flexible
The alternatives to steam include water and thermal fluids such as high temperature oil. Each
method has its advantages and disadvantages, as shown in Table 1.
A molecule is the smallest amount of any element or compound substance still poss essing all
the chemical properties of that substance which can exist. Molecules are made up of even
smaller particles called atoms, which define the basic elements such as hydrogen and oxygen.
The specific combinations of these atomic elements provide comp ound substances. One such
compound is represented by the chemical formula H2O, having molecules made up of two
atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. The reason water is so plentiful on the earth is
because hydrogen and oxygen are amongst the most abundant elements in the universe.
Carbon is another element of significant abundance, and is a key component in all organic
matter.
Most mineral substances can exist in the three physical states (solid, liquid and vapour),
which are referred to as phases. In the case of H2O, the terms ice, water and steam are used
to denote the three phases respectively.
The molecular structure of ice, water, and steam is still not fully understood, but it is
convenient to consider the molecules as bonded together by electrical charges (referred to as
the hydrogen bond). The degree of excitation of the molecules determines the physical state
(or phase) of the substance
Ice
In ice, the molecules are locked together in an orderly lattice type structure and can only
vibrate. In the solid phase, the movement of molecules in the lattice is a vibration about a
mean bonded position where the molecules are less than one molecular diameter apart. The
continued addition of heat causes the vibration to increase to such an extent that some
molecules will eventually break away from their neighbors, and the solid starts to melt to a
liquid state (always at the same temperature of 0°C whatever the pressure). Heat that breaks
the lattice bonds to produce the phase change while not increasing the temperature of the ice,
is referred to as enthalpy of melting or heat of fusion. This phase change phenomenon is
reversible when freezing occurs with the same amount of heat being released back to the
surroundings. For most substances, the density decreases as it changes from the solid to the
2
This section is taken fromModule 2.2 What is Steam?, In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 2, ‘Steam Engineering
Principles and Heat Transfer’. www.spiraxsarco.com
liquid phase. However, H2 O is an exception to this rule as its density increases upon melting,
which is why ice floats on water.
Water
In the liquid phase, the molecules are free to move, but are still less than one molecular diameter
apart due to mutual attraction, and collisions occur frequently. More heat increases molecular
agitation and collision, raising the temperature of the liquid up to its boiling temperature.
Steam
As the temperature increases and the water approaches its boiling condition, some molecules
attain enough kinetic energy to reach velocities that allow them to momentarily escape from the
liquid into the space above the surface, before falling back into the liquid. Further heating causes
greater excitation and the number of molecules with enough energy to leave the liquid increases.
As the water is heated to its boiling point, bubbles of steam form within it and rise to break
through the surface. Considering the molecular structure of liquids and vapours, it is logical that
the density of steam is much less than that of water, because the steam molecules are further
apart from one another. The space immediately above the water surface thus becomes filled with
less dense steam molecules.
When the number of molecules leaving the liquid surface is more than those re-entering, the water
freely evaporates. At this point it has reached boiling point or its saturation temperature, as it is
saturated with heat energy. If the pressure remains constant, adding more heat does not cause the
temperature to rise any further but causes the water to form saturated steam. The temperature of the
boiling water and saturated steam within the same system is the same, but the heat energy per unit
mass is much greater in the steam.
At atmospheric pressure the saturation temperature is 100°C. However, if the pressure is increased,
this will allow the addition of more heat and an increase in temperature without a change of phase.
Therefore, increasing the pressure effectively increases both the enthalpy of water, and the
saturation temperature. The relationship between the saturation temperature and the pressure is
known as the steam saturation curve (Figure 1).
If the steam is able to flow from the boiler at the same rate that it is produced, the addition
of further heat simply increases the rate of production. If the steam is restrained from
leaving the boiler, and the heat input rate is maintained, the energy flowing into the boiler
will be greater than the energy flowing out. This excess energy raises the pressure, in turn
allowing the saturation temperature to rise, as the temperature of saturated steam correlates
to its pressure.
1.2.2 Enthalpy
Enthalpy of water, liquid enthalpy or sensible heat (h f) of water
This is the heat energy required to raise the temperature of water from a datum point of 0°C to its
current temperature. At this reference state of 0°C, the enthalp y of water has been arbitrarily set to
zero. The enthalpy of all other states can then be identified, relative to this easily accessible
reference state. Sensible heat was the term once used, because the heat added to the water produced
a change in temperature. However, the accepted terms these days are liquid enthalpy or enthalpy of
water. At atmospheric pressure (0 bar g), water boils at 100°C, and 419 kJ of energy are required to
heat 1 kg of water from 0°C to its boiling temperature of 100°C. It is from these figures that the
value for the specific heat capacity of water (CP ) of 4.19 kJ/kg °C is derived for most calculations
between 0°C and 100°C.
hg = hf + hf g
Where:
hg = Total enthalpy of saturated steam (Total heat) (kJ/kg)
hf = Liquid enthalpy (Sensible heat) (kJ/kg)
hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation (Latent heat) (kJ/kg)
The enthalpy (and other properties) of saturated steam can easily be referenced using the
tabulated results of previous experiments, known as steam tables. The steam tables list the
properties of steam at varying pressures. They are the results of actual tests carried out on
steam.
Therefore:
Because the specific volume of water is several orders of magnitude lower than that of steam, the
droplets of water in wet steam will occupy negligible space. Therefore the specific volume of
wet steam will be less than dry steam:
As water is heated from 0°C to its saturation temperature, its condition follows the saturated
liquid line until it has received all of its liquid enthalpy, hf, (A - B).If further heat continues to
be added, it then changes phase to saturated steam and continues to increase in enthalpy while
remaining at saturation temperature, hfg, (B - C). As the steam/water mixture increases in
dryness, its condition moves from the saturated liquid line to the saturated vapour line.
Therefore at a point exactly halfway between these two states, the dryness fraction (x) is 0.5.
Similarly, on the saturated vapour line the steam is 100 percent dry. Once it has received all of
its enthalpy of evaporation, it reaches the saturated vapour line. If it continues to be heated
after this point, the temperature of the steam will begin to rise as superheat is imparted (C - D).
The saturated liquid and saturated vapour lines enclose a region in which a steam /water
mixture exists - wet steam. In the region to the left of the saturated liquid line only water
exists, and in the region to the right of the saturated vapour line only superheated steam exists.
The point at which the saturated liquid and saturated vapour lines meet is known as the critical
point. As the pressure increases towards the critical point the enthalpy of evaporation
decreases, until it becomes zero at the critical point. This suggests that water changes directly
into saturated steam at the critical point.
Above the critical point only gas may exist. The gaseous state is the most diffuse state in which
the molecules have an almost unrestricted motion, and the volume increases without limit as the
pressure is reduced. The critical point is the highest temperature at which a liquid can exist. Any
compression at constant temperature above the critical point will not produce a phase change.
Compression at co nstant temperature below the critical point however, will result in liquefaction
of the vapour as it passes from the superheated region to the wet steam region. The critical point
occurs at 374.15 o C and 221.2 bara for steam. Above this pressure the steam is termed
supercritical and no well-defined boiling point applies.
1.3 Steam quality
This section describes the steam distribution system and its various components.
The steam distribution system4 is the essential link between the steam generator and the steam
user. There are various methods to carry steam from a central source to the point of use. The
central source might be a boiler house or the discharge from a co-generation plant. The boilers
may burn primary fuel, or be waste heat boilers using exhaust gases from high temperature
processes, engines or even incinerators. Whatever the source, an efficient steam distribution
system is essential if steam of the right quality and pressure is to be supplied, in the right
quantity, to the steam using equipment. Installation and maintenance of the steam system are
important issues, and must be considered at the design stage.
An understanding of the basic steam circuit or ‘steam and condensate loop’ is required (see
Figure 3). As steam condenses in a process, flow is induced in the supply pipe. Condensate has a
very small volume compared to the steam, and this causes a pressure drop, which causes the
steam to flow through the pipes.
The steam generated in the boiler must be conveyed through pipework to the point where its heat
energy is required. Initially there will be one or more main pipes, or 'steam mains', which carry
steam from the boiler in the general direction of the steam using plant. Smaller branch pipes can
then carry the steam to the individual pieces of equipment.
When the boiler main isolating valve (sometimes referred to as the ‘ crown’valve) is opened,
steam immediately passes from the boiler into and along the steam mains to the points at lower
pressure. The pipework is initially cooler than the steam, so heat is transferred from the steam to
the pipe. The air surrounding the pipes is also cooler than the steam, so the pipework will begin
to transfer heat to the air.
3
More details on steam quality criteria can be found in Module 2.4 Steam Quality, In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 2,
‘Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer’. www.spiraxsarco.com
4
Section 2.1 is a summary of Module 10.1 Introduction to Steam Distribution, In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 10,
Steam Distribution. www.spiraxsarco.com
Figure 3. A Typical Steam Circuit (Spirax Sarco)
Steam on contact with the cooler pipes will begin to condense immediately. On start-up of the
system, the condensing rate will be at its maximum, as this is the time where there is maximum
temperature difference between the steam and the pipework. This condensing rate is commonly
called the ‘starting load’. Once the pipework has warmed up, the temperature difference between
the steam and pipework is minimal, but some condensation will occur as the pipework still
continues to transfer heat to the surrounding air. This condensing rate is commonly called the
‘running load’.
The resulting condensation (condensate) falls to the bottom of the pipe and is carried along by the
steam flow and assisted by gravity, due to the gradient in the steam main that should be arranged to
fall in the direction of steam flow. The condensate will then have to be drained from various strategic
points in the steam main.
When the valve on the steam pipe serving an item of steam using plant is opened, steam flowing
from the distribution system enters the plant and again comes in contact with cooler surfaces. The
steam then transfers its energy in warming up an equipment and product (starting load), and, when up
to temperature, continues to transfer heat to the process (running load).
There is now a continuous supply of steam from the boiler to satisfy the connected load and to
maintain this supply more steam must be generated. In order to do this, more water (and fuel to heat
this water) is supplied to the boiler to make up for the water which has previously been evaporated
into steam. The condensate formed in both the steam distribution pipework and in the process
equipment is a convenient supply of useable hot boiler feedwater. Although it is important to
remove this condensate from the steam space, it is a valuable commodity and should not be allowed
to run to waste. Returning all condensate to the boiler feedtank closes the steam energy loop, and
should be practiced wherever practical.
The distribution pressure of steam is influenced by a number of factors, but is limited by:
§ The maximum safe working pressure of the boiler
§ The minimum pressure required at the plant
As steam passes through the distribution pipework, it will inevitably lose pressure due to:
§ Frictional resistance within the pipework
§ Condensation within the pipework as heat is transferred to the environment.
Therefore allowance should be made for this pressure loss when deciding upon the initial
distribution pressure.
A kilogram of steam at a higher pressure occupies less volume than at a lower pressure. It
follows that, if steam is generated in the boiler at high pressure and also distributed at a high
pressure, then the size of the distribution mains will be smaller than that for the same heat load.
Generating and distributing steam at higher pressure offers three important advantages:
§ The thermal storage capacit y of the boiler is increased, helping it to cope more efficiently
with fluctuating loads, minimizing the risk of producing wet and dirty steam.
§ Smaller bore steam mains are required, resulting in lower capital cost, for materials such as
pipes, flanges, supports, insulation and labour.
§ Smaller bore steam mains cost less to insulate.
Having distributed at a high pressure, it will be necessary to reduce the steam pressure to each
zone or point of use in the system in order to correspond with the maximum pressure required by
the application. Local pressure reduction to suit individual plant will also result in drier steam at
the point of use.
The most important components of a steam distribution system are described in the next sections:
§ Pipes (2.2)
§ Drain points (2.3)
§ Branch lines (2.4)
§ Strainers (2.5)
§ Filters (2.6)
§ Separators (2.7)
§ Steam traps (2.8)
§ Air vents (2.9)
2.2 Pipes
5
Section 2.2 is a summary of information in Module 10.2 Pipes and Pipe Sizing, and Module 10.3 Steam Mains and
Drainage. In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 10, ‘Steam Distribution’
. www.spiraxsarco.com
chromium and molybdenum, are included to improve tensile strength and creep resistance at high
temperatures. Typically, pipes are supplied in 6- meter lengths.
The require pipeline size can be calculated based on pressure drop and velocity described below.
Given:
§ Inlet pressure P1 = 7 bar g
§ Steam flowrate = 286 kg/h
§ Minimum allowable P2 = 6.6 bar g
§ Length of pipeline = 165 m
= 0.24 bar
Determine the pipeline size based on the pressure drop using the nomogram in Figure 4:
§ Select the point on the saturated steam line at 7 bar g, and mark Point A.
§ From point A, draw a horizontal line to the steam flowrate of 286 kg/h, and mark Point B.
§ From point B, draw a vertical line towards the top of the nomogram (Point C).
§ Draw a horizontal line from 0.24 bar/100 m on the pressure loss scale (Line DE).
§ The point at which lines DE and BC cross will indicate the pipe size required. In this case, a
40 mm pipe is too small, and a 50 mm pipe would be used.
Figure 4. Steam Pipeline Sizing Chart – pressure drop approach (Spirax Sarco)
Table 2. Saturated Steam Pipeline Capacities in kg/h for Different Velocities, schedule 40
pipe (Spirax Sarco)
Thermal Equipment: Steam distribution and utilization
Superheated steam can be considered as a dry gas and therefore carries no moisture.
Consequently there is no chance of pipe erosion due to suspended water droplets, and steam
velocities can be as high as 50 to 70 m/s if the pressure drop permits this.
Pipe sizing based upon the velocity approach for saturated and superheated steam can be
done using the nomogram as shown in Figure 5. Those who prefer tables instead of graphs
can use Table 2 to determine the pipeline size.
Given:
§ Inlet pressure: 7 bar g
§ Steam flowrate: 5000 kg/h
§ Maximum velocity: 25 m/s
Calculate the pipeline size based on velocity using the nomogram in Figure 5
§ Draw a horizontal line from the saturation temperature line at 7 bar g (Point A) on the
pressure scale to the steam mass flowrate of 5 000 kg/h (Point B).
§ From point B, draw a vertical line to the steam velocity of 25 m/s (Point C). From point C,
draw a horizontal line across the pipe diameter scale (Point D).
§ A pipe with a bore of 130 mm is required; the nearest commercially available size, 150 mm,
would be selected.
The amount of condensate formed in a large steam main under start-up conditions is sufficient to
require the provision of drain points at intervals of 30m to 50m, as well as natural low points
such as at the bottom of rising pipework. In normal operation, steam may flow along the main at
speeds of up to 145 km/h, dragging condensate along with it. Figure 7 shows a 15 mm drain pipe
connected directly to the bottom of a main.
Although the 15 mm pipe has sufficient capacity, it is unlikely to capture much of the condensate
moving along the main at high speed. This arrangement will be ineffective. A more reliable
solution for the removal of condensate is shown in Figure 8. The trap line should be at least 25 to
30 mm from the bottom of the pocket for steam mains up to 100 mm, and at least 50 mm for
larger mains. This allows a space below for any dirt and scale to settle. Such dirt and scale can
easily be removed if the bottom of the pocket is fitted with a removable flange or blowdown
valve.
6
Section 2.3 is taken fromModule 10.3 Steam Mains and Drainage. In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 10, ‘Steam
Distribution’. www.spiraxsarco.com
7
Section 2.4 is taken fromModule 10.3 Steam Mains and Drainage. In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 10, Steam
Distribution. www.spiraxsarco.com
2.5 Strainers
As the marketplace becomes increasingly competitive, more emphasis has been placed on reducing
plant downtime and maintenance. In steam and condensate systems, damage to plant is frequently
caused by pipeline debris such as scale, rust, jointing compound, weld metal and other solids,
which may find their way into the pipeline system. Strainers are devices which arrest these solids
in flowing liquids or gases, and protect equipment from their harmful effects, thus reducing
downtime and maintenance. A strainer should be fitted upstream of every steam trap, flow meter
and control valve.
Strainers can be classified into two main types according to their body configuration; namely the
Y-type and the basket type. Typical examples of these types of strainers can be seen in Figure 14.
8
Section 2.5 is taken fromModule 12.4 Strainers. In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 12, ‘Pipeline Ancillaries’.
www.spiraxsarco.com
A
Figure 14a. Y-Type Strainer Figure 14b. Basket Type Strainer
(Spirax Sarco) (Spirax Sarco)
Although there are exceptions, size for size, Y-type strainers have a lower dirt holding capacity
than basket strainers, which means that they require more frequent cleaning. On steam systems,
this is generally not a problem, except where high levels of rust are present, or immediately after
commissioning when large amounts of debris can be introduced. On applications where significant
amount of debris are expected, a blowdown valve can usually be fitted in a strainer cap, which
enables the strainer to use the pressure of the steam to be cleaned, and without having to shut down
the plant.
Y-type strainers in horizontal steam or gas lines should be installed so that the pocket is in the
horizontal plane (Figure 15a). This stops water collecting in the pocket, helping to prevent water
droplets being carried over, which can cause erosion and affect heat transfer processes. On liquid
systems however, the pockets should point vertically downwards (Figure 15c).
Although it is advisable to install strainers in horizontal lines, this is not always possible, and they
can be installed in vertical pipelines if the flow is downwards, in which case the debris is naturally
directed into the pocket (Figure 15b). Installation is not possible with upward flow, as the strainer
would have to be installed with the opening of the pocket pointing downwards and the debris would
fall back down the pipe.
(b) Flow
vertically
downwards
(a). Steam or gas applications
When basket type strainers are used on steam systems, a significant amount of condensate
may be formed. Consequently, strainers designed for use in steam systems usually have a
drain plug, which can be fitted with a steam trap to remove the condensate. Basket type
strainers are commonly found in a duplex arrangement. A second strainer is placed in
parallel with the primary strainer, and flow can be diverted through either of the two
strainers. This facilitates cleaning of the strainer unit whilst the fluid system is still
operating, reducing the downtime for maintenance.
Magnetic Inserts
A magnetic insert may be placed in a basket type strainer in order to remove small iron or steel
debris. Small particles of iron or steel may be present in a fluid where there is wear of iron or
steel parts. These particles will pass through even the finest mesh screens, and it is necessary to
use a magnetic insert. The insert is designed so that all the fluid passes over the magne t at
relatively low velocity and the magnetic element is powerful enough to catch and hold all the
metal particles present. The magnetic material is usually encased in an inert material such as
stainless steel to prevent corrosion.
Temporary Strainers
Temporary strainers are designed for protection of equipment and instrumentation during start-
up periods. The strainer is usually installed between a set of flanges for an initial period after a
new plant has been installed.
2.6 Filters
Filters are used to remove smaller particles.9 Whilst strainers remove all visible particles in
the steam, it is sometimes necessary to remove smaller particles, for example, in the
following applications:
§ When there is direct injection of steam into a process, which may cause contamination of
the product. Example: In the food industry, and for the sterilization of process equipment
in the pharmaceutical industry.
§ Where dirty steam may cause rejection of a product or process batch due to staining or
visible particle retention. Example: Sterilizers and paper/board machines.
§ Where minimal particle emission is required from steam humidifiers. Example:
Humidifiers used in a “clean”environment.
9
Section 2.6 is taken fromModule 12.4 Strainers. In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 12, ‘Pipeline Ancillaries’.
www.spiraxsarco.com
§ For the reduction of the steam water content, ensuring a dry, saturated supply.
In such 'clean steam' applications, strainers are not suitable and filters must be used. A filter
used in a steam system typically consists of a sintered stainless steel filter element. The
sintering process produces a fine porous structure in the stainless steel, which removes any
particles from fluid passing through it. Filters capable of removing particles as small as 1
/gym are available, conforming to the good practice needs of culinary steam.
The fine porous nature of the filter element will create a large pressure drop across the filter
than that associated with the same size strainer; this must be given careful consideration
when sizing such filters. In addition filters are easily damaged by excessive flow rates, and
the manufacturers’limits should not be exceeded.
When the filter is used in steam applications, a separator should be fitted upstream of the
filter to remove any droplets of condensate held in suspension. In addition to improving the
quality of the steam, this will prolong the life of the filter. A Y-type strainer should also be
fitted upstream of the filter to remove all larger particles which would otherwise rapidly
block the filter, increase the amount of cleaning required and reduce the life of the filter
element. By installing pressure gauges either side of the filter, the pressure drop across the
filter can be measured, which can then be used to identify when the filter requires cleaning.
An alternative to this is to install a pressure switch on the downstream side of the filter.
When the downstream pressure decreases below a set level, an alarm light can be switched
on in a control room alerting an operator who can then clean the filter.
2.7 Separators
Separators 10 are used to remove suspended water droplets from steam. Wet steam is steam
containing a degree of water, and is one of the main concerns in any steam system. It can
reduce plant productivity and product quality, and can cause damage to most items of plant
and equipment. Whilst careful drainage and trapping can remove most of the water, it will
not deal with the water droplets suspended in the steam. To remove these suspended water
droplets, separators are installed in steam pipe lines.
The steam produced in a boiler designed to generate saturated steam is inherently wet.
Although the dryness fraction will vary according to the type of boiler, most shell type steam
boilers will produce steam with a dryness fraction of between 95 and 98 percent.
The water content of the steam produced by the boiler is further increased if priming and
carryover occur. There is always a certain degree of heat loss from the distribution pipe,
which causes steam to condense. The condensed water molecules will eventually gravitate
towards the bottom of the pipe forming a film of water. Steam flowing over this water can
raise ripples that can build up into waves. The tips of the waves tend to break off, throwing
droplets of condensate into the steam flow.
Although there are a number of different designs of separator, they all attempt to remove the
moisture that remains suspended in the steam flow, which cannot be removed by drainage
and steam trapping.
10
Section 2.7 is taken fromModule 12.5 Separators. In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 12, ‘Pipeline Ancillaries’.
www.spiraxsarco.com
Furthermore, as the separator has a large cross-sectional area, there is a resulting reduction in
the speed of the fluid. This reduces the kinetic energy of the water droplets, and most of them
will fall out of suspension. The Condensate collects in the bottom of the separator, where it is
drained away through a steam trap.
It is common to find separators, which combine both coalescence and cyclonic type
operations. By combining the two methods, the overall efficiency of the separator is
improved.
The quantity of condensate a steam trap has to deal with may vary considerably. It may have to
discharge condensate at steam temperature (i.e. as soon as it forms in the steam space) or it may
be required to discharge below steam temperature, giving up some of its 'sensible heat' in the
process.
11
Section 2.8.1 is a summary of Module 11.1 Introduction –Why steam traps? In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 11,
‘Steam Traps and Steam Trapping’. www.spiraxsarco.com
The pressures at which steam traps can operate may be anywhere from vacuum to well over a
hundred bar. To suit these varied conditions there are many different types, each having their
own advantages and disadvantages. One type of steam trap cannot possibly be the correct choice
for all applications. Considerations for steam trap selection include the ability of the steam trap
to:
§ Vent air at 'start- up', i.e. the beginning of the process when the heater space is filled with air,
which unless displaced, will reduce heat transfer and increase the warm- up time
§ Remove condensate but not the steam
§ Maximize plant performance. Simply put, unless specifically designed to waterlog, for a heat
exchanger to operate at its best performance, the steam space must be filled with clean dry
steam. The type of steam trap will influence this.
There are three basic types of steam trap into which all variations fall. All three are classified by
International Standard ISO 6704:1982. These are shown in Figure 22 and include:
§ Thermostatic (operated by changes in fluid temperature). The temperature of saturated
steam is determined by its pressure. In the steam space, steam gives up its enthalpy of
evaporation (heat), producing condensate at steam temperature. As a result of any further
heat loss, the temperature of the condensate will fall. A thermostatic trap will pass
condensate when this lower temperature is sensed. As steam reaches the trap, the temperature
increases and the trap closes.
§ Mechanical (operated by changes in fluid density). This range of steam traps operates by
sensing the difference in density between steam and condensate. These steam traps include
'ball float traps' and 'inverted bucket traps'. In the 'ball float trap', the ball rises in the presence
of condensate, opening a valve, which passes the denser condensate. With the 'inverted
bucket trap', the inverted bucket floats when steam reaches the trap and rises to shut the
valve. Both are essentially 'mechanical' in their method of operation.
§ Thermodynamic (operated by changes in fluid dynamics). Thermodynamic steam traps rely
partly on the formation of flash steam from condensate. This group includes
'thermodynamic', 'disc', 'impulse' and 'labyrinth' steam traps.
Steam Traps
Also loosely included in this type are 'fixed orifice traps', which cannot be clearly defined as
automatic devices as they are simply a fixed diameter hole set to pass a calculated amount of
condensate under one set of conditions. All rely on the fact that hot condensate, released under
dynamic pressure, will flash-off to give a mixture of steam and water.
Because mechanical steam traps are most commonly used, only these will be described in more
detail. For more details on all types of steam traps please refer to the Spirax Sarco Learning
Centre (www.spiraxsarco.com).
Figure 23a. Float Trap with Air Cock Figure 23b. Float Trap with Thermostatic
(Spirax Sarco) Air Vent (Spirax Sarco)
The automatic air vent uses the same balanced pressure capsule element as a thermostatic steam
trap, and is located in the steam space above the condensate level. After releasing the initial air, it
remains closed until air or other non-condensable gases accumulate during normal running and
cause it to open by reducing the temperature of the air/steam mixture. The thermostatic air vent
offers the added benefit of significantly increasing condensate capacity on cold start- up.
12
Section 2.8.2 is taken from Module 11.3 Mechanical Steam Traps. In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 11, ‘Steam
Traps and Steam Trapping’. www.spiraxsarco.com
In the past, the thermostatic air vent was a point of weakness if water hammer was present in the
system. Even the ball could be damaged if the water hammer was severe. However, in modern
float traps the air vent is a compact, very robust, all stainless steel capsule, and the modern
welding techniques used on the ball makes the complete float-thermostatic steam trap very
robust and reliable in waterhammer situations (for information on waterhammer see item 8 in
section 4).
In many ways the float-thermostatic trap is the closest to an ideal steam trap. It will discharge
condensate as soon as it is formed, regardless of changes in steam pressure.
and sinks, allowing live steam to pass through the trap orifice. Only if sufficient condensate
reaches the trap will the water seal form again, and prevent steam wastage.
§ If an inverted bucket trap is used on an application where pressure fluctuation of the plant
can be expected, a check valve should be fitted on the inlet line in front of the trap. Steam
and water are free to flow in the direction indicated, while reverse flow is impossible, as the
check valve would be forced onto its seat.
§ The higher temperature of superheated steam is likely to cause an inverted bucket trap to lose
its water seal. A check valve in front of the trap should be regarded as essential under such
conditions. Some inverted bucket traps are manufactured with an integral check valve as
standard.
§ The inverted bucket trap is likely to suffer damage from freezing if installed in an exposed
position with sub-zero ambient conditions. As with other types of mechanical traps, suitable
lagging can overcome this problem if conditions are not too severe. If ambient conditions
well below zero are to be expected, then it may be prudent to consider a more robust type of
trap to do the job. In the case of mains drainage, a thermodynamic trap would be the first
choice.
Table 3. Selection of suitable steam traps for different process applications (BEE, 2004)
Application Feature Suitable trap
Steam mains § Open to atmosphere, small Thermodynamic,
capacity Mechanical:
§ Frequent change in pressure Float
§ Low pressure - high pressure
§ Equipment § Large capacity Mechanical:
§ Reboiler § Variation in pressure and Float
§ Heater temperature is undesirable Bucket
§ Dryer § Efficiency of the equipment is a Inverted bucket
§ Heat exchanger etc. problem
§ Tracer line § Reliability with no over heating Thermodynamic,
§ Instrumentation Thermostatic: Bimetallic
When selecting and installing a steam trap, the following sho uld be considered:13
a) Waterhammer
Waterhammer is condensate in the steam system that is picked up by moving steam and can
cause damage to pipelines, fittings and steam traps. Symptoms of waterhammer are often
attributed to malfunction of the steam trap. A more likely explanation is that a faulty steam trap
has been damaged by waterhammer. Waterhammer can be caused in a number of ways,
including:
§ Failure to remove condensate from the path of high velocity steam in the pipework.
13
Section 2.8.3 is a summary of (a) Module 11.5 Considerations for Selecting Steam Traps. In: Spirax Sarco Learning
Centre, Block 11, ‘Steam Traps and Steam Trapping’. www.spiraxsarco.com, and (b) Energy Efficiency in Thermal Utilities.
Book 2, by the India Bureau of Energy Efficiency, 2004
§ From an application, which is temperature controlled and where condensate has to lift to a
return line, or return to a pressurized system.
§ The inability of condensate to properly enter or travel along an undersized return line, due to
either (a) flooding, or (b) overpressurisation with the throttling effects of flash steam.
The problem of waterhammer can be eliminated by positioning the pipes so that there is a
continuous slope in the direction of flow. A slope of at least 12 mm in every 3 metres is
necessary, as also an adequate number of drain points every 30 to 50 metres.
b) Dirt
Dirt is another major factor which must be considered when selecting traps. Although steam
condenses to distilled water, it can sometimes contain trace products of boiler feed treatment
compound and natural minerals found in water. Pipe dirt created during installation and the
products of corrosion also need to be considered.
c) Strainers
These devices are frequently forgotten about in steam systems, often, it seems, in an effort to
reduce installation costs. Pipe scale and dirt can affect control valves and steam traps, and reduce
heat transfer rates. It is extremely easy and inexpensive to fit a strainer in a pipe, and the low cost
of doing so will pay dividends throughout the life of the installation. Scale and dirt are arrested,
and maintenance is usually reduced as a result.
Selection is simple. The strainer material is selected to match the type of installation and the
system pressure up to which it is expected to operate. Different filter screen sizes may be
considered for differing degrees of protection. The finer the filter, the more often it may need
cleaning. One thing is certain, strainers are far easier and cheaper to buy and maintain than
control valves or steam traps.
d) Steam locking
The possibility of steam locking can sometimes be a deciding factor in the selection of steam
traps. It can occur whenever a steam trap is fitted remotely from the plant being drained. It can
become acute when condensate is removed through a syphon or dip pipe. To relieve this problem
a trap is needed with a 'steam lock release' valve. This is an internal needle valve which allows
the steam locked in the syphon pipe to be bled away past the main valve. The float trap is the
only type of trap with this facility and is the correct choice on rotating machinery such as drying
cylinders.
e) Group trapping
Group trapping describes the use of one trap serving more than one application (Figure 25). The
original reason for group trapping was that there used to be only one kind of steam trap. It was
the forerunner of the present day bucket trap, and was very large and expensive. Steam traps
today are considerably smaller and cost effective, allowing individual heat exchangers to be
properly drained. It is always better for steam using equipment to be trapped on an individual
basis rather than on a group basis.
The only satisfactory arrangement is to drain each steam space with own trap and then connect
the outlets of the various traps to the common condensate return main (Figure 25).
f) Diffusers
With steam traps draining to atmosphere from open ended pipes, it is possible to see the
discharge of hot condensate. A certain amount of flash steam will also be present relative to the
condensate pressure before the trap. This can present a hazard to passers by, but the risks can be
minimized by reducing the severity of the discharge. This may be achieved by fitting a simple
diffuser (Figure 25) to the end of the pipe which reduces the ferocity of discharge and sound.
Typically, sound levels can be reduced by up to 80%.
g) Drain point
The drain point should be large enough and should be located to allow the condensate to flow
into the trap easily. For example, a 150 mm steam main will require a drain of at least 100 mm
diameter and 150 mm deep located at the bottom of the main. Table 4 can be used to select the
drain point dimensions.
h) Pipe sizing
The pipes leading to and from steam traps should be of adequate size. This is particularly
important in the case of thermodynamic traps, because their correct operation can be disturbed
by excessive resistance to flow in the condensate pipework. Pipe fittings such as valves, bends
and tees close to the trap could also cause excessive back pressures and should be avoided.
i) Air venting
When air is carried into the trap space by the steam, the trap function can be affected unless
adequate provision is made for removing air either through the steam trap or a separate air vent.
If air is not vented properly, the plant can take a long time to warm up and may operate below its
potential output.
This section explains the use of air vents in a steam distribution system. 14
The thermal conductivity of air is 0.025 W/m °C, while the corresponding value for water is
typically 0.6 W/m °C, for iron it is about 75 W/m °C and for copper about 390 W/m °C. A film
of air only 1 mm thick offers about the same resistance to heat flow as a wall of copper some
15 metres thick!
It is unlikely that the air exists as an even film inside the heat exchanger. More probably, the
concentration of air close to the condensing surface is higher, and lower further away. It is
convenient however, to deal with it as a homogenous layer when trying to show its resistance to
heat flow.
When air is added to steam, the heat content of a given volume of the mixture is lower than the
same volume of pure steam, so the mix temperature is lowered. Hence, the presence of air has a
double effect:
§ It offers a resistance to heat transfer via its layering effect
§ It reduces the temperature of the steam space thus reducing the temperature gradient across
the heat transfer surface
14
Section 2.9 is a summary of Module 11.12 Air Venting Theory. In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 11, ‘Steam Traps
and Steam Trapping’.www.spiraxsarco.com
The overall effect is to reduce the heat transfer rate below that which may be required by a
critical process, and in worst cases may even prevent a final required process temperature being
reached. In many processes, a minimum temperature is needed to achieve a chemical or physical
change in a product, just as a minimum temperature is essential in a sterilizer. The presence of
air is particularly problematic because it will cause a pressure gauge to mislead. It follows that
the temperature cannot be inferred from the pressure.
For maximum removal of air, the discharge should be as free as possible. A pipe is often fitted to
carry the discharge to a safe location, preferably not a condensate return line, which could
restrict the free release of air and may also encourage corrosion.
Figure 28. Jacketed Pan with Figure 29: End of Main Automatic
Automatic Air Vent (Spirax Sarco) Air Vent (Spirax Sarco)
When an air vent is fitted to bypass a steam trap (Figure 29), it will act as a steam trap after the
air is vented, and may from time to time discharge condensate. In such cases it is necessary to
reconnect the air vent to the condensate line after the trap.
If the condensate discharge line from a trap rises to high level, the flooded line imposes a
backpressure on the trap and the air vent. The ability of the air vent to discharge air is reduced,
especially at start-up. This applies equally when the air vent is incorporated within a steam trap.
When the shape of the application steam space and the location of the steam inlet mean that most
of the air leaves through the condensate outlet, it is preferable if discharge lines from the steam
trap and air vent do not rise to high level.
When a coil or a vessel has a relatively small cross-section, the steam admitted to it will act like
a piston, pushing the air to a point remote from the steam inlet. This 'remote point' is usually the
best location for the air vent. In the case of a steam user of the shape shown in Figure 29, some
of the air will pass through the condensate outlet, according to the provision made in the trap, or
in a bypass, for handling air. The rest of the air might collect as indicated, forming a cold spot on
the heating surface. The unit cannot warm up evenly, and distortion may be caused in some
equipment, such as the beds of laundry ironers.
As an air/steam mixture is denser than pure steam at the same pressure, it is usually sufficient to
provide air venting capability within the low- lying steam trap. However, the mode of operation
of the trap means that condensate forms a water seal at the trap inlet sometimes preventing air
from reaching the trap.
There may be the need to consider an automatic air vent connected to the steam space above the
level of any condensate. Often it is convenient and sufficiently effective to connect it to the top
of the steam space, as in Figure 30.
Figure 30. Air Vent at the opposite end of the Steam Inlet (Spirax Sarco)
However, in the case of two steam spaces of the same size and shape but with different steam
inlet positions, the location of the air vent could be different. In Figure 31 and Figure 32,
condensate drains from the bottom of the vessel but with the bottom steam inlet, at start-up, air
would tend to be pushed to the remote point which is at the top. It may be best to locate an air
vent at the top whilst a float-thermostatic steam trap will handle any residual air which has
collected at the bottom of the vessel.
With top steam entry, the air will tend to be pushed to the bottom at start- up, and provision
should be made for venting it at low level. Usually, a trap with a high air venting capability such
as a float-thermostatic trap will do the job. However, in practice, to ensure complete removal of
air during running conditions, a separate air vent fitted at the top of the vessel (as shown in
Figure 32) may again often prove beneficial, especially on irregularly shaped vessels .
Saturated steam used for heating gives up its latent heat (enthalpy of evaporation), which is a
large proportion of the to tal heat it contains. The remainder of the heat in the steam is retained in
the condensate as sensible heat (enthalpy of water) as shown in Figure 33.
Figure 33. After giving up its latent heat to heat the process, steam turns
to water containing only sensible heat (Spirax Sarco)
As well as having heat content, the condensate is basically distilled water, which is ideal for use
as boiler feedwater. An efficient steam system will collect this condensate and either return it to
a deaerator, a boiler feedtank, or use it in another process. Only when there is a real risk of
contamination should condensate not be returned to the boiler. Even then, it may be possible to
collect the condensate and use it as hot process water or pass it through a heat exchanger where
its heat content can be recovered before discharging the water mass to drain.
Condensate is discharged from steam plant and equipment through steam traps from a higher to a
lower pressure. As a result of this drop in pressure, some of the condensate will re-evaporate into
‘flash steam’. The proportion of steam that will ‘flash off’in this way is determined by the
amount of heat that can be held in the steam and condensate. A flash steam amount of 10% to
15% by mass is typical. However, the percentage volumetric change can be considerably more.
Condensate at 7 bar g will lose about 13% of its mass when flashing to atmospheric pressure, but
the steam produced will require a space some 200 times larger than the condensate from which it
was formed. This can have the effect of choking undersized trap discharge lines, and must be
taken into account when sizing these lines.
15
Section 2.10 is taken from Module 14.1 Introduction to Condensate Recovery. In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 14,
‘Condensate Recovery’. www.spiraxsarco.com
dissolved solids in the boiler water. Returning more condensate to the feedtank reduces the
need for blowdown and thus reduces the energy lost from the boiler.
The subject of condensate piping will divide naturally into four basic types where the
requirements and considerations of each will differ. These four basic types are defined and
illustrated in Figure 35.
16
Section 2.10.4 is a summary of Module 14.2 Layout of Condensate Return Lines and of Module 14.3 Sizing of Condensate
Return Lines. In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 14, ‘Condensate Recovery’
. www.spiraxsarco.com. More detailed
explanations can be found in these modules.
In addition, staff working conditions are improved because insulation protects them from
exposure to hot surfaces and radiant heat and because insulation reduces noise levels.
The table below describes the applications, advantages and disadvantages of various insulating
materials. Insulation materials can also be obtained in bulk in the form of moulded sections, for
example, semi-cylindrical for pipes and slabs for vessels, flanges, valves etc. The main advantage
of moulded sections is the ease of installation of new insulation and replacement or repair of
existing insulation.
Figure 37 gives an indication of the amount of heat loss from un-insulated pipelines. An
explanation of how to calculate the required thickness of insulation is given in section 3.
Figure 37. Heat loss from a 1-metre un-insulated pipe at various pipe
diameters (SEAV, 2005)
Steam traps themselves do not use a lot of energy. But malfunctioning steam traps can result in
large energy losses of the steam system. The assessment of steam trap performance is therefore
concerned with answering the following two questions:18
§ Is the trap working correctly or not?
§ If not, has the trap failed in the open or closed position?
Traps that fail in the ‘open’position cause energy losses. Any condensate not returned into the
steam system causes the boiler to heat up new water to make more steam. The steam heating
capacity may also be reduced, resulting in indirect energy losses. Traps that have failed open will
also pressurise the condensate discharge lines and affect the discharge efficiency of other traps.
Traps that fail ‘closed’do not result in energy or water losses, but can result in significantly
reduced heating capacity and damage to steam heating equipment.
Four steam trap performance tests exist: visual, sound, temperature and integrated. Worksheet 2 in
section 6 of this chapter can be used to carry out a steam trap audit.
Figure
18
Section 3.1 is an edited version of Energy Efficiency in Thermal Utilities. Book 2, by the India Bureau of Energy
Efficiency, 2004, page 63-64
For testing a steam trap, there should be an isolating valve provided downstream of the trap and a
test valve in the trap discharge. When the test valve is in the open position, the following should
be observed:
§ Condensate discharge. Inverted bucket and thermodynamic disc traps should have intermittent
condensate discharge. Float and thermostatic traps should have a continuous condensate
discharge. Thermostatic traps can have either continuous or intermittent discharge depending
upon the load. If inverted bucket traps are used for extremely small load, it will have a
continuous condensate discharge.
§ Flash steam. This should not be mistaken for a steam leak in the trap. It is difficult to visually
identify whether a trap is blowing flash steam or live steam but, generally, if steam blows out
continuously in a blue stream, it is leaking live steam. If steam floats out intermittently in a
white cloud, it is flash steam.
§ Continuous steam blow and no flow indicate that there is a problem in the trap. Whenever a
trap fails to operate and the reasons are not immediately obvious, check for any lack of
discharge from the trap, steam loss, continuous flow, sluggish heating, to find out whether it is
a system problem or the mechanical problem in the steam trap.
19
Module 11.14 Testing and Maintenance of Steam Traps. In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 11, ‘Steam Traps and Steam
Trapping’. www.spiraxsarco.com
§ Monitoring can be done locally, remotely, manually or automatically, and can detect
immediate failure, thus minimizing waste and maximizing investment.
Heat losses from un-insulated surfaces can be substantial and should therefore be assessed. 20
I+H
Cost I
H
M
Insulation Thickness
I : Cost of Insulation H : Cost of Heat Loss
I + H : Total Cost M : Economic Thickness
Figure 40. Determination of the Economic Thickness of Insulation Material (BEE, 2004)
20
Section 3.2 is an edited version of Energy Efficiency in Thermal Utilities. Book 2, by the India Bureau of Energy
Efficiency, 2004, page 99-102
S = [10+(Ts-Ta)/20] (Ts-Ta)
Where:
S = Sur face heat loss in kCal/hr m2
A = Surface area in m2
Ts = Hot surface temperature in o C
Ta = Ambient temperature in oC
Note: This equation can be used for surface temperatures up to 2000C. Factors like wind
velocities, and conductivity of insulating material have not been considered.
The additional energy costs associated with heat loss can be calculated with the following
equations:
Where:
GCV = Gross Calorific Value of fuel kCal/kg
?b = Boiler efficiency in percent
Question: A 100 m steam pipe line with a 100 mm diameter is not insulated and supplies steam at
10 kg/cm2 to the equipment. Calculate the fuel savings if the steam pipeline would be insulated
with 65 mm glass wool with aluminum cladding.
Assumptions:
Boiler efficiency = 80 percent
Step 1: calculate the surface heat loss and total heat loss of the un-insulated pipeline (S1 and
Hs1)
S1 = [10+ (Ts-Ta)/20] x (Ts-Ta)
Ts = 170oC
Ta = 25o C
S1 = [10+(170-25)/20] x (170-25)
= 2500 kCal/hr m2
Step 2: calculate the surface heat loss and total heat loss of the insulated pipeline (S2)
S2 = [10+ (Ts-Ta)/20] x (Ts-Ta)
Ts = 65o C
Ta = 25o C
S2 = [10+(65-25)/20] x (65-25)
= 480 kCal/hr m2
Step 3: calculate the yearly fuel savings and cost savings (Hf and US$)
The procedure for calculating the energy and cost savings that can be achieved by condensate
recovery is explained in Figure 41.
Figure 41. Calculations of Energy and Cost Savings from Condensate Recovery
(UNEP, 2004)
21
Item 1 is a summary of Module 11.14 Testing and Maintenance of Steam Traps. In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 11,
‘Steam Traps and Steam Trapping’. www.spiraxsarco.com
leakage based on plume length. For example, if the plume length is 700 mm then the steam loss
is 10 kg/hr.
Wet steam can reduce plant productivity and product quality, and can cause damage to most
items of plant and equipment. Whilst careful drainage and trapping can remove most of the
water, it will not deal with the water droplets suspended in the steam. To remove these
suspended water droplets, separators are installed in steam pipelines. The steam produced in a
boiler designed to generate saturated steam is inherently wet. Although the dryness fraction will
vary according to the type of boiler, most shell type steam boilers will produce steam with a
dryness fraction of between 95 and 98 percent. The water content of the steam produced by the
boiler is further increased if priming and carryover occur. A steam separator may be installed on
the steam main as well as on the branch lines to reduce wetness in steam and improve the quality
of the steam going to the units.
A more efficient way to inject steam into water is to use a properly manufactured steam injector.
Good injectors are designed such that the steam creates a venturi action to coincidentally draw
cool water through the injector. The heat in the steam is transferred much faster and more
completely than by a sparge pipe, ensuring that all injected steam is absorbed by the water before
it is able to escape from the water surface, thus reducing heat losses.
Filmwise condensation
The elimination of the condensate film is not quite as simple. As the steam condenses to give up
its enthalpy of evaporation, droplets of water may form on the heat transfer surface. These may
then merge together to form a continuous film of condensate. The condensate film may be
between 100 and 150 times more resistant to heat transfer than a steel heating surface, and 500 to
600 times more resistant than copper.
22
Item 6 is taken from Module 2.5 Heat Transfer. In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 2, ‘Steam Engineering Principles and
Heat Transfer’. www.spiraxsarco.com
Dropwise condensation
If the droplets of water on the heat transfer surface do not merge immediately and no continuous
condensate film is formed, ‘dropwise’condensation occurs. The heat transfer rates which can be
achieved during dropwise condensation are generally much higher than those achie ved during
filmwise condensation.
As a larger proportion of the heat transfer surface is exposed during dropwise condensation, heat
transfer coefficients may be up to ten times greater than those for filmwise condensation. In the
design of heat exchangers where dropwise condensation is promoted, the thermal resistance it
produces is often negligible in comparison to other heat transfer barriers. However, maintaining
the appropriate conditions for dropwise condensation has proved to be very difficult to achieve.
If the surface is coated with a substance that inhibits wetting, it may be possible to maintain
dropwise condensation for a period of time. For this purpose, a range of surface coatings such as
Silicones, PTFE and an assortment of waxes and fatty acids are sometimes applied to surfaces in
a heat exchanger on which condensation is to be promoted. However, these coatings will
gradually lose their effectiveness due to processes such as oxidation or fouling, and film
condensation will eventually predominate.
As air is such a good insulator, it provides even more resistance to heat transfer. Air may be
between 1 500 and 3 000 times more resistant to heat flow than steel, and 8 000 to 16 000 more
resistant than copper. This means that a film of air only 0.025 mm thick may resist as much heat
transfer as a wall of copper 400 mm thick! Of course all of these comparative relationships
depend on the temperature profiles across each layer.
Figure 44 illustrates the effect this combination of layers has on the heat transfer process. These
barriers to heat transfer not only increase the thickness of the entire conductive layer, but also
greatly reduce the mean thermal conductivity of the layer. The more resistant the layer to heat
flow, the larger the temperature gradient is likely to be. This means that to achieve the same
desired product temperature, the steam pressure may need to be significantly higher. The
presence of air and water films on the heat transfer surfaces of either process or space heating
applications is not unusual. It occurs in all steam heated process units to some degree.
To achieve the desired product output and minimize the cost of process steam operations, a high
heating performance may be maintained by reducing the thickness of the films on the condensing
surface. In practice, air will usually have the most significant effect on heat transfer efficiency,
and its removal from the supply steam will increase heating performance
.
Figure 44. Temperature Gradients across Heat Transfer Barriers
(Spirax Sarco)
Air in a steam system will also affect the system temperature. Air will exert its own pressure
within the system, and will be added to the pressure of the steam to give a total pressure.
Therefore, the actual steam pressure and temperature of the steam/air mixture will be lower than
that suggested by a pressure gauge.
Of more importance is the effect air has upon heat transfer. A layer of air only 1 mm thick can
offer the same resistance to heat as a layer of water 25 µm thick, a layer of iron 2 mm thick or a
layer of copper 15 mm thick. It is very important therefore to remove air from any steam system.
Automatic air vents for steam systems (which operate on the same principle as thermostatic
steam traps) should be fitted above the condensate level so that only air or steam/air mixtures can
reach them. The best location for them is at the end of the steam mains. The discharge from an
air vent must be piped to a safe place. In practice, a condensate line falling towards a vented
receiver can accept the discharge from an air vent. In addition to air venting at the end of a main,
air vents should also be fitted:
§ In parallel with an inverted bucket trap or, in some instances, a thermodynamic trap. These
traps are sometimes slow to vent air on start-up.
§ In awkward steam spaces (such as at the opposite side to where steam enters a jacketed pan).
23
Item 7 is taken from Module 10.5 Air Venting, Heat Losses and Summary of Various Pipe Related Standards. In: Spirax Sarco
Learning Centre, Block 10, ‘Steam Distribution’. www.spiraxsarco.com
§ Where there is a large steam space (such as an autoclave), and a steam/air mixture could
affect the process quality.
8. Minimize waterhammer24
Waterhammer is the noise caused by slugs of condensate colliding at high velocity into pipework
fittings, plant, and equipment. This has a number of implications:
§ Because the condensate velocity is higher than normal, the dissipation of kinetic energy is
higher than would normally be expected.
§ Water is dense and incompressible, so the ‘ cushioning’ effect experienced when gases
encounter obstructions is absent.
§ The energy in the water is dissipated against the obstructions in the piping system such as
valves and fittings.
Indications of waterhammer include a banging noise, and perhaps movement of the pipe. In
severe cases, waterhammer may fracture pipeline equipment with almost explosive effect, with
consequent loss of live steam at the fracture, leading to an extremely hazardous situation. Good
engineering design, installation and maintenance will avoid waterhammer; this is far better
practice than attempting to contain it by choice of materials and pressure ratings of equipment.
Commonly, sources of waterhammer occur at the low points in the pipework (Figure 46). Such
areas are due to:
§ Sagging in the line, perhaps due to failure of supports.
§ Incorrect use of concentric reducers (see Figure 10.3.7) - Always use eccentric reducers with
the flat at the bottom.
§ Incorrect strainer installation - They should be fitted with the basket on the side.
§ Inadequate drainage of steam lines.
§ Incorrect operation - Opening valves too quickly at start- up when pipes are cold.
24
Item 8 is taken from Module 10.4 Steam Mains and Drainage. In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 10, ‘Steam
Distribution’. www.spiraxsarco.com
25
Item 10 is taken from Module 14.1 Introduction to Condensate Recovery. In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 14,
‘Condensate Recovery’. www.spiraxsarco.com
If use is to be made of flash steam, it is helpful to know how much of it will be available. The
quantity is readily determined by calculation, or can be read from simple tables or charts.
26
Item 11 is a summary of part of Module 14.6 Flash Steam. In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 14, ‘Condensate
Recovery’. www.spiraxsarco.com
Typical applications of flash steam include heating (with air heater batteries and space heating
installations using either radiant panels or unit heaters), steam heated hot water calorifier and a
steam to water calorifier. Boiler blowdown can also be recovered as flash steam, as is explained
in the separate Boiler Chapter.
The Spirax Sarco Learning Centre provides more information on flash steam recovery vessels,
requirements for successful recovery applications, and typical applications of flash steam.
DISCHARGE
MOTIVE STEAM
STEAM M.P.
H.P.
SUCTION STEAM
L.P.
Figure 49. Thermocompressor
5. OPTION CHECKLIST
This section includes most important energy efficiency options
§ Fix steam leaks and condensate leaks (a 3 mm diameter hole on a pipe line carrying 7 kg/cm 2
steam would waste 33 kilolitres of fuel oil per year)
§ Accumulate work orders for repair of steam leaks that cannot be fixed unless the plant is shut
down. Provide each leak with tag.
§ Use back pressure steam turbines to produce lower steam pressures
§ Use more efficient steam desuperheating methods
§ Ensure process temperatures are correctly controlled
§ Maintain lowest acceptable process steam pressures
§ Reduce hot water wastage to drain
§ Remove or isolate all redundant steam piping
§ Ensure condensate is properly removed from process and heating equipment
§ Ensure condensate is returned or re- used in the process. (60 C raise in feed water temperature
by economizer/condensate recovery corresponds to a 1 percent saving in fuel consumption,
in boiler)
§ Preheat boiler feed-water with condensate and flash steam wherever possible. Where not
possible, heat with live steam from the boiler by steam injection method.
§ Recover the heat from continuous (TDS) boiler blowdown
§ Check operation of steam traps
§ Minimize waterhammer
§ Remove air from indirect steam using equipment (a 0.25 mm thick air film offers the same
resistance to heat transfer as a 330 mm thick copper wall)
§ Inspect steam traps regularly and repair malfunctioning traps promptly
§ Consider recovery of vent steam (e.g. on large flash vessels
§ Use waste steam for water heating
§ Use an absorption chiller to condense exhaust steam before returning the condensate to the
boiler
§ Establish a steam efficiency- maintenance programme. Start with an energy audit and follow
up, then make a steam efficiency-maintenance programme a part of your continuous energy
management programme
6. WORKSHEETS
This section includes following worksheets:
• Technical Specifications of Steam Traps
• Steam Trap Audit
• Insulation Losses
Trap type
Trap size
Trap ref.
Type of discharge
Trap capacity
(No)
status of trap
Section no.
Functional
Trap type
Trap size
Remarks
location
kg/cm2
Trap
7. REFERENCES
Copyright:
Copyright © United Nations Environment Programme (year 2006)
This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit purposes without special
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Disclaimer:
This energy equipment module was prepared as part of the project “Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction from Industry in Asia
and the Pacific” (GERIAP) by the National Productivity Council, India. While reasonable efforts have been made to ensure that
the contents of this publication are factually correct and properly referenced, UNEP does not accept responsibility for the
accuracy or completeness of the contents, and shall not be liable for any loss or damage that may be occasioned directly or
indirectly through the use of, or reliance on, the contents of this publication.