Applied behavior analysis 1

Applied behavior analysis

Applied behavior analysis (ABA) is the science of applying experimentally derived principles of behaviorism to
modify behavior. ABA takes what we know about behavior and uses it to bring about changes of the behavior
(frequency, topography, latency, speed, fluency). The behavior is analyzed utilizing behavior assessment to
determine the functional relationship of the behavior within the environment.
Applied behavior analysis contributes to a full range of areas including: AIDS prevention,[1] conservation of natural
resources,[2] education,[3] gerontology,[4] health and exercise,[5] industrial safety,[6] language acquisition,[7]
littering,[8] medical procedures,[9] parenting,[10] seatbelt use,[11] severe mental disorders,[12] sports,[13] and zoo
management and care of animals.[14] ABA-based interventions are used to treat people with a wide variety of
behaviors and diagnoses, notably autism spectrum disorders.[15]

Definition
ABA is defined as the science in which the principles of the analysis of behavior are applied systematically to
improve socially significant behavior, and in which experimentation is used to identify the variables responsible for
change in behavior.[16] It is one of the three fields of behavior analysis. The other two are behaviorism, or the
philosophy of the science; and experimental analysis of behavior, or basic experimental research.[15]
Baer, Wolf, and Risley's 1968 article[17] is still used as the standard description of ABA.[18] It describes the seven
dimensions of ABA: application; a focus on behavior; the use of analysis; and its technological, conceptually
systematic, effective, and general approach.

Characteristics
Baer, Wolf, and Risley's seven dimensions are:
• Applied: ABA focuses on areas that are of social significance. In doing this, behavior scientists must take into
consideration more than just the short-term behavior change, but also look at how behavior changes can affect the
consumer, those who are close to the consumer, and how any change will affect the interactions between the two.
• Behavioral: ABA must be behavioral, i.e.: behavior itself must change, not just what the consumer says about the
behavior. It is not the goal of the behavior scientists to get their consumers to stop complaining about behavior
problems, but rather to change the problem behavior itself. In addition, behavior must be objectively measured. A
behavior scientist can not resort to the measurement of non-behavioral substitutes.
• Analytic: The behavior scientist can demonstrate believable control over the behavior that is being changed. In
the lab, this has been easy as the researcher can start and stop the behavior at will. However, in the applied
situation, this is not always as easy, nor ethical, to do. According to Baer, Wolf, and Risley, this difficulty should
not stop a science from upholding the strength of its principles.[17] As such, they referred to two designs that are
best used in applied settings to demonstrate control and maintain ethical standards. These are the reversal and
multiple baseline designs. The reversal design is one in which the behavior of choice is measured prior to any
intervention. Once the pattern appears stable, an intervention is introduced, and behavior is measured. If there is a
change in behavior, measurement continues until the new pattern of behavior appears stable. Then, the
intervention is removed, or reduced, and the behavior is measured to see if it changes again. If the behavior
scientist truly has demonstrated control of the behavior with the intervention, the behavior of interest should
change with intervention changes.
• Technological: This means that if any other researcher were to read the study's description, that researcher would
be able to "replicate the application with the same results".[17] This means that the description must be very
detailed and clear. Ambiguous descriptions do not qualify. Cooper et al. describe a good check for the
technological characteristic: "have a person trained in applied behavior analysis carefully read the description and
Applied behavior analysis 2

then act out the procedure in detail. If the person makes any mistakes, adds any operations, omits any steps, or has
to ask any questions to clarify the written description then the description is not sufficiently technological and
requires improvement."[19]
• Conceptually Systematic: A defining characteristic is in regards to the interventions utilized; and thus research
must be conceptually systematic by only utilizing procedures and interpreting results of these procedures in terms
of the principles from which they were derived.[19]
• Effective: An application of these techniques improve behavior under investigation. Specifically, it is not a
theoretical importance of the variable, but rather the practical importance (social importance) that is essential.[17]
• Generality: It should last over time, in different environments, and spread to other behaviors not directly treated
by the intervention. In addition, continued change in specified behavior after intervention for that behavior has
been withdrawn is also an example of generality.
In 2005, Heward, et al. added the following five characteristics:[20]
• Accountable: Direct and frequent measurement enables analysts to detect their success and failures to make
changes in an effort to increase successes while decreasing failures. ABA is a scientific approach in which
analysts may guess but then critically test ideas, rather than "guess and guess again".[21] this constant revision of
techniques, commitment to effectiveness and analysis of results leads to an accountable science.
• Public: Applied behavior analysis is completely visible and public. This means that there are no explanations that
cannot be observed. There are no mystical, metaphysical explanations, hidden treatment, or magic[20] . Thus,
ABA is produces results whose explanations are available to all of the public.
• Doable: ABA has a pragmatic element in that implementors of interventions can consist of a variety of
individuals, from teachers to the participants themselves. This does not mean that ABA requires one simply to
learn a few procedures, but with the proper planning, it can effectively be implemented by most everyone willing
to invest the effort.[20]
• Empowering: ABA provides tools to practitioners that allow them to effectively change behavior. By constantly
providing visual feedback to the practitioner on the results of the intervention, this feature of ABA allows
clinicians to assess their skill level and builds confidence in their technology.[22]
• Optimistic: According to several leading authors, practitioners skilled in behavior analysis have genuine cause to
be optimistic for the following reasons:
• The environmental view is essentially optimistic as it suggests that all individuals possess roughly equal
potential[23]
• Direct and continuous measurements enable practitioners to detect small improvements in performance that
might have otherwise been missed
• As a practitioner uses behavioral techniques with positive outcomes, the more they will become optimistic
about future success prospects[20]
• The literature provides many examples of success teaching individuals considered previously unteachable.

Concepts

Behavior
Behavior is the activity of living organisms. Human behavior is the entire gamut of what people do including
thinking and feeling.[24] Behavior can be determined by applying the Dead Man's test:
"If a dead man can do it, it ain't behavior. And if a dead man can't do it, then it is behavior"[25]
Behavior is that portion of an organism's interaction with its environment that is characterized by detectable
displacement in space through time of some part of the organism and that results in a measurable change in at least
one aspect of the environment.[26] Often, the term behavior is used to reference a larger class of responses that share
physical dimensions or function. In this instance, the term response indicates a single instance of that behavior.[27] If
Applied behavior analysis 3

a group of responses have the same function, this group can be classified as a response class. Finally, when
discussing a person's collection of behavior, repertoire is used. It can either pertain specifically to a set of response
classes that are relevant to a particular situation, or it can refer to every behavior that a person can do.

Operant conditioning
Operant behavior is that which is selected by its consequences. The conditioning of operant behavior is the result of
reinforcement and punishment. [28] Operand conditioning applies to voluntary responses, which an organism
performs deliberately, to produce a desirable outcome. The term operand emphasizes this point;the organism
operates on its environment to produce some desirable result. For example,operant conditioning is at work when we
learn that toiling industriously can bring about a raise or that studying hard results in good grade.

Respondent conditioning
All organisms respond in predictable ways to certain stimuli. These stimulus-response relations are called reflexes.
The response component of the reflex is called respondent behavior. It is defined as behavior which is elicited by
antecedent stimuli. Respondent conditioning (also called Classical Conditioning) is learning in which new stimuli
acquire the ability to elicit respondents. This is done through stimulus-stimulus pairing, for example, the stimulus
(smell of food) can elicit a person's salivation. By pairing that stimulus (smell) with another stimulus (word "food"),
the second stimulus can obtain the function

Environment
The environment is the entire constellation of circumstances in which an organism exists.[29] This includes events
both inside and outside of an organism, but only real physical events are included. The environment consists of
stimuli. A stimulus is an "energy change that affects an organism through its receptor cells."[29]
A stimulus can be described:
Formally by its physical features.
Temporally by when they occur in respect to the behavior.
Functionally by their effect on behavior.

Reinforcement
Reinforcement is the most important principle of behavior[30] and a key element of most behavior change
programs.[31] It is the process by which behavior is strengthened, if a behavior is followed closely in time by a
stimulus and this results in an increase in the future frequency of that behavior. The addition of a stimulus following
an event that serves as a reinforcer is termed positive reinforcement. If the removal of an event serves as a reinforcer,
this is termed negative reinforcement.[32] There are multiple schedules of reinforcement that affect the future
probability of behavior.

Punishment
Punishment is a process by which a consequence immediately follows a behavior which decreases the future
frequency of that behavior. Like reinforcement, a stimulus can be added (positive punishment) or removed (negative
punishment). Broadly, there are three types of punishment: presentation of aversive stimuli, response cost and time
out.[33] Punishment in practice can often result in unwanted side effects, and has as such been used only after
reinforcement-only procedures have failed to work. Unwanted side effects can include the increase in other
unwanted behavior as well as a decrease in desired behaviors.[34] Some other potential unwanted effects include
escape and avoidance, emotional behavior, and can result in behavioral contrast.
Applied behavior analysis 4

Extinction
Extinction is the technical term to describe the procedure of withholding/discontinuing reinforcement of a previously
reinforced behavior, resulting in the decrease of that behavior. The behavior is then set to be extinguished (Cooper,
et al.). Extinction procedures are often preferred over punishment procures that are frequently deemed unethical and
in many states prohibited. Nonetheless, extinction procedures must be implemented with utmost care by
professionals, as they are generally associated with extinction bursts. An extinction burst is the temporary increase in
the frequency, intensity, and/or duration of the behavior targeted for extinction. Other characteristics of an extinction
burst include a) extinction-produced aggression—the occurrence of an emotional response to an extinction procedure
often manifested as aggression; and b) extinction-induced response variability - the occurrence of novel behaviors
that did not typically occur prior to the extinction procedure. These novel behaviors are a core component of shaping
procedures.

Discriminated operant and three-term contingency

In addition to a relation being made between behavior and its consequences, operant conditioning also establishes
relations between antecedent conditions and behaviors. This differs from the S-R formulations (If-A-then-B), and
replaces it with an AB-because-of-C formulation. In other words, the relation between a behavior(B) and its
context(A) is because of consequences (C), more specifically, this relationship between AB because of C indicates
that the relationship is established by prior consequences that have occurred in similar contexts.[35] This
antecedent-behavior-consequence contingency is termed the three term contingency. A behavior which occurs more
frequently in the presence of an antecedent condition than in its absence is called a discriminated operant. The
antecedent stimulus is called a discriminative stimulus SD. The fact that the discriminated operant occurs only in the
presence of the discriminative stimulus is an illustration of stimulus control.[36]

Measuring behavior
When measuring behavior, there are both dimensions of behavior and quantifiable measures of behavior. In applied
behavior analysis, the quantifiable measures are a derivative of the dimensions. These dimensions are repeatability,
temporal extent, and temporal locus.[37]

Repeatability
Response classes occur repeatedly throughout time—ie how many times the behavior occurs.
• Count is the number of occurrences in behavior.
• Rate/Frequency is the number of instances of behavior per unit of time.
• Celeration is the measure of how the rate changes over time.

Temporal extent
This dimension indicates that each instance of behavior occupies some amount of time—ie how long the behavior
occurs.
• Duration is the amount of time in which the behavior occurs.

Temporal locus
Each instance of behavior occurs at a specific point in time—ie when the behavior occurs.
• Response latency is the measure of elapsed time between the onset of a stimulus and the initiation of the
response.
• Interresponse time is the amount of time that occurs between two consecutive instances of a response class.
Applied behavior analysis 5

Derivative measures
Derivative measures are unrelated to specific dimensions:
• Percentage is the ratio formed by combining the same dimensional quantities.
• Trials-to-criterion are the number of response opportunities needed to achieve a predetermined level of
performance.

Analyzing behavior change

Experimental control
In applied behavior analysis, all experiments should include the following:[38]
• At least one participant
• At least one behavior (dependent variable)
• At least one setting
• A system for measuring the behavior and ongoing visual analysis of data
• At least one treatment or intervention condition
• Manipulations of the independent variable so that its effects on the dependent variable
• An intervention that will benefit the participant in some way [39]

Functional analysis (psychology)

Functional Behavior Assessment (FBA)

Functional assessment of behavior provides hypotheses about the relationships between specific environmental
events and behaviors. Decades of research has established that both desirable and undesirable behaviors are learned
through interactions with the social and physical environment. FBA is used to identify the type and source of
reinforcement for challenging behaviors as the basis for intervention efforts designed to decrease the occurrence of
these behaviors.

Functions of behavior
The function of a behavior can be thought of as the purpose a behavior serves for a person. Function is identified in
an FBA by identifying the type and source if reinforcement for the behavior of interest. Those reinforcers might be
positive or negative social reinforcers provided by someone who interacts with the person, or automatic reinforcers
produced directly by the behavior itself.[40]
• Positive Reinforcement - social positive reinforcement (attention), tangible reinforcement, and automatic positive
reinforcement.[40]
• Negative Reinforcement - social negative reinforcement (escape), automatic negative reinforcement.[41]

Function versus topography

Behaviors may look different but can serve the same function and likewise behavior that looks the same may serve
multiple functions. What the behavior looks like often reveals little useful information about the conditions that
account for it. However, identifying the conditions that account for a behavior, suggests what conditions need to be
altered to change the behavior. Therefore, assessment of function of a behavior can yield useful information with
respect to intervention strategies that are likely to be effective.[41]
Applied behavior analysis 6

FBA methods
FBA methods can be classified into three types:
• Functional (experimental) Analysis
• Descriptive Assessment
• Indirect Assessment

Functional (experimental) analysis

A functional analysis is one in which antecedents and consequences are manipulated to indicate their separate effects
on the behavior of interest. This type of arrangement is often called analog because they are not conducted in a
naturally occurring context. However, research is indicating that functional analysis done in a natural environment
will yield similar or better results[42]
A functional analysis normally has four conditions (three test conditions and one control):
• Contingent attention
• Contingent escape
• Alone
• Control condition
Advantages - it has the ability to yield a clear demonstration of the variable(s)that relate to the occurrence of a
problem behavior. Serves as the standard of scientific evidence by which other assessment alternative are evaluated,
and represents the method most often used in research on the assessment and treatment of problem behavior.[43]
Limitations - assessment process may temporarily strengthen or increase the undesirable behavior to unacceptable
levels or result in the behavior acquiring new functions. Some behaviors may not be amenable to functional analysis
(e.g. those that, albeit serious, occur infrequently). Functional analysis conducted in contrived settings may not
detect the variable that accounts for the occurrence in the natural environment.

Indirect FBA
This method uses structured interviews, checklists, rating scales, or questionnaires to obtain information from
persons who are familiar with the person exhibiting the behavior to identify possible conditions or events in the
natural environment that correlate with the problem behavior. They are called "indirect" because they do not involve
direct observation of the behavior, but rather solicit information based on others' recollections of the behavior.[44]
• Advantages - some can provide a useful source of information in guiding subsequent, more objective assessments,
and contribute to the development of hypotheses about variable that might occasion or maintain the behaviors of
concern.
• Limitations - informants may not have accurate and unbiased recall of behavior and the conditions under which it
occurred.

Descriptive FBA
As with Functional Analysis, descriptive functional behavior assessment utilizes direct observation of behavior;
unlike functional analysis, however, observations are made under naturally occurring conditions. Therefore,
descriptive assessments involve observation of the problem behavior in relation to events that are not arranged in a
systematic manner.[44]
There are three variations of descriptive assessment:
• ABC (antecedent-behavior-consequence) continuous recording - observer records occurrences of targeted
behavior and selected environmental events in the natural routine.
• ABC narrative recording - data are collected only when behaviors of interest are observes, and the recording
encompasses any events that immediately precede and follow the target behavior.
Applied behavior analysis 7

• Scatterplots -a procedure for recording the extent to which a target behavior occurs more often at particular times
than others.[45]

Conducting an FBA
Provided the strengths and limitations of the different FBA procedures, FBA can best be viewed as a four-step
process:[46]
1. The gathering of information via indirect and descriptive assessment.
2. Interpretation of information from indirect and descriptive assessment and formulation of a hypothesis about the
purpose of problem behavior.
3. Testing of a hypothesis using a functional analysis.
4. Developing intervention options based on the function of problem behavior.

Technologies discovered through ABA research

Task analysis
Task analysis is a process in which a task is analyzed into its component parts so that those parts can be taught
through the use of chaining: forward chaining, backward chaining and total task presentation. Task analysis has been
used in organizational behavior management, a behavior analytic approach to changing organizations.[47] Behavioral
scripts often emerge from a task analysis.[48] [49] Bergan conducted a task analysis of the behavioral consultation
relationship[50] and Thomas Kratochwill developed a training program based on teaching Bergan's skills.[51] A
similar approach was used for the development of microskills training for counselors.[52] [53] Ivey would later call
this "behaviorist" phase a very productive one[54] and the skills-based approach came to dominate counselor training
during 1970–90.[55] Task analysis was also used in determining the skills needed to access a career.[56] In education,
Englemann (1968) used task analysis as part of the methods to design the Direct Instruction curriculum.[57]

Chaining
The skill to be learned is broken down into small units for easy learning. For example, a person learning to brush
teeth independently may start with learning to unscrew the toothpaste cap. Once they have learned this, the next step
may be squeezing the tube, etc.[58] [59]
For problem behavior, chains can also be analyzed and the chain can be disrupted to prevent the problem
behavior.[60] Some behavior therapies, such as Dialectical Behavior Therapy, make extensive use of behavior chain
analysis.[61]

Prompting
A prompt is a cue or assistance to encourage the desired response from an individual.[62] Prompts are often
categorized into a prompt hierarchy from most intrusive to least intrusive. There is some controversy about what is
considered most intrusive: physically intrusive versus hardest prompt to fade (ie. verbal). In an errorless learning
approach, prompts are given in a most-to-least sequence and faded systematically to ensure the individual
experiences a high level of success.[63] There may be instances in which a least-to-most prompt method is preferred.
Prompts are faded systematically and as quickly as possible to avoid prompt dependency. The goal of teaching using
prompts would be to fade prompts towards independence, so that no prompts are needed for the individual to
perform the desired behavior.[64] [65]
Types of prompts:
• Verbal prompts: Utilizing a vocalization to indicate the desired response.
• Visual Prompts: a visual cue or picture.
Applied behavior analysis 8

• Gestural prompts: Utilizing a physical gesture to indicate the desired response.

• Positional prompt: The target item is placed closer to the individual.
• Modeling: Modeling the desired response for the student. This type of prompt is best suited for individuals who
learn through imitation and can attend to a model.
• Physical prompts: Physically manipulating the individual to produce the desired response. There are many
degrees of physical prompts. The most intrusive being hand-over-hand, and the least intrusive being a slight tap to
initiate movement.[63]
This is not an exhaustive list of all possible prompts. When using prompts to systematically teach a skill, not all
prompts need to be used in the hierarchy; prompts are chosen based on which ones are most effective for a particular
individual.

Fading
The overall goal is for an individual to eventually not need prompts. As an individual gains mastery of a skill at a
particular prompt level, the prompt is faded to a less intrusive prompt. This ensures that the individual does not
become overly dependent on a particular prompt when learning a new behavior or skill.

Thinning
Thinning is often confused with fading. Fading refers to a prompt being removed, where thinning refers to the
spacing of a reinforcement schedule getting larger.[66] Some support exists that a 30% decrease in reinforcement can
be an efficient way to thin.[67] Schedule thinning is often an important and neglected issue in contingency
management and token economy systems, especially when developed by unqualified practitioners (see professional
practice of behavior analysis).[68]

Generalization
Generalization is the expansion of a student's performance ability beyond the initial conditions set for acquisition of
a skill.[69] Generalization can occur across people, places, and materials used for teaching. For example, once a skill
is learned in one setting, with a particular instructor, and with specific materials, the skill is taught in more general
settings with more variation from the initial acquisition phase. For example, if a student has successfully mastered
learning colors at the table, the teacher may take the student around the house or his school and then generalize the
skill in these more natural environments with other materials. Behavior analysts have spent considerable amount of
time studying factors that lead to generalization.[70]

Shaping
Shaping involves gradually modifying the existing behavior into the desired behavior. If the student engages with a
dog by hitting it, then he or she could have their behavior shaped by reinforcing interactions in which he or she
touches the dog more gently. Over many interactions, successful shaping would replace the hitting behavior with
patting or other gentler behavior. Shaping is based on a behavior analyst's thorough knowledge of operant
conditioning principles and Extinction (psychology). Recent efforts to teach shaping have used simulated computer
tasks.[71]
Applied behavior analysis 9

Video modeling
One teaching technique found to be effective with some students, particularly children, is the use of video modeling
(the use of taped sequences as exemplars of behavior). It can be used by therapists to assist in the acquisition of both
verbal and motor responses, in some cases for long chains of behavior.[72] [73]

Interventions based on an FBA

Critical to behavior analytic interventions is the concept of a systematic behavioral case formulation with a
functional behavioral assessment or analysis at the core.[74] [75] This approach should apply a behavior analytic
theory of change (see behavioral change theories). This formulation should include a thorough functional
assessment, a skills assessment, a sequential analysis (behavior chain analysis),an ecological assessment, a look at
existing evidenced-based behavioral models for the problem behavior (such as Fordyce's model of chronic pain)[76]
and then a treatment plan based on how environmental factors influence behavior. Some argue that behavior analytic
case formulation can be improved with an assessment of rules and rule governed behavior.[77] [78] [79] Some of the
interventions that result from this type of conceptualization involve training specific communication skills to replace
the problems behavior as well as specific setting, antecedent, behavior, and consequece strategies.[80]

Efficacy in autism
ABA-based techniques are often used to treat autism, so much so that ABA itself is often mistakenly considered to
be a therapy for autism.[15] Recent reviews of the efficacy of ABA-based techniques in autism include:
• A 2007 clinical report of the American Academy of Pediatrics concluded that the benefit of ABA-based
interventions in autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) "has been well documented" and that "children who receive
early intensive behavioral treatment have been shown to make substantial, sustained gains in IQ, language,
academic performance, and adaptive behavior as well as some measures of social behavior."[81]
• Researchers from the MIND Institute published an evidence-based review of comprehensive treatment
approaches in 2008.[82] On the basis of "the strength of the findings from the four best-designed, controlled
studies," they were of the opinion that one ABA-based approach (the Lovaas technique created by Ole Ivar
Lovaas) is "well-established" for improving intellectual performance of young children with ASD.[82]
• A 2009 review of psycho-educational interventions for children with autism whose mean age was six years or less
at intake found that five high-quality ("Level 1" or "Level 2") studies assessed ABA-based treatments.[83] On the
basis of these and other studies, the author concluded that ABA is "well-established" and is "demonstrated
effective in enhancing global functioning in pre-school children with autism when treatment is intensive and
carried out by trained therapists."[83]
• A 2009 paper included a descriptive analysis, an effect size analysis, and a meta-analysis of 13 reports published
1987-2007 of early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI, a form of ABA-based treatment with origins in the
Lovaas technique) for autism.[84] It determined that EIBI's effect sizes were "generally positive" for IQ, adaptive
behavior, expressive language, and receptive language.[84] The paper did note limitations of its findings including
the lack of published comparisons between EIBI and other "empirically validated treatment programs."[84]
• In a 2009 systematic review of 11 studies published 1987-2007, the researchers wrote "there is strong evidence
that EIBI is effective for some, but not all, children with autism spectrum disorders, and there is wide variability
in response to treatment."[85] Furthermore, any improvements are likely to be greatest in the first year of
intervention.[85]
• A 2009 meta-analysis of 9 studies published 1987-2007 concluded that EIBI has a "large" effect on full-scale
intelligence and a "moderate" effect on adaptive behavior in autistic children.[86]
A 2009 systematic review and meta-analysis by Spreckley and Boyd of four 2000-2007 studies (involving a total of
76 children) came to different conclusions than the aforementioned reviews.[87] Spreckley and Boyd reported that
applied behavior intervention (ABI), another name for EIBI, did not significantly improve outcomes compared with
Applied behavior analysis 10

standard care of preschool children with ASD in the areas of cognitive outcome, expressive language, receptive
language, and adaptive behavior.[87] In a letter to the editor, however, authors of the four studies meta-analyzed
claimed that Spreckley and Boyd had misinterpreted one study comparing two forms of ABI with each other as a
comparison of ABI with standard care, which erroneously decreased the observed efficacy of ABI.[88] Furthermore,
the four studies' authors raised the possibility that Spreckley and Boyd had excluded some other studies
unnecessarily, and that including such studies could have led to a more favorable evaluation of ABI.[88] Spreckley,
Boyd, and the four studies' authors did agree that large multi-site randomized trials are needed to improve the
understanding of ABA's efficacy in autism.[88]

See also
• Behavioral activation (BA)
• Educational psychology

Further reading
• Cooper JO, Heron TE, Heward WL (2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall.
ISBN 0-13-142113-1.
• Steege MW, Mace FC, Perry L, Longenecker H (2007). "Applied behavior analysis: beyond discrete trial
teaching". Psychol Schools 44 (1): 91–9. doi:10.1002/pits.20208.

External links
• Applied Behavioral Analysis: Overview and summary of scientific support. [89]
• Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis [90]
• Association for Behavior Analysis International [91]

References
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[3] Dardig, Jill C.; Heward, William L.; Heron, Timothy E.; Nancy A. Neef; Peterson, Stephanie; Diane M. Sainato; Cartledge, Gwendolyn;
Gardner, Ralph; Peterson, Lloyd R.; Susan B. Hersh (2005). Focus on behavior analysis in education: achievements, challenges, and
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