Articles On Hydraulics

Darcy-Weisbach Formula
Flow of fluid through a pipe
The flow of liquid through a pipe is resisted by viscous shear stresses within the liquid
and the turbulence that occurs along the internal walls of the pipe, created by the
roughness of the pipe material. This resistance is usually known as pipe friction and is
measured is feet or metres head of the fluid, thus the term head loss is also used to
express the resistance to flow.
Many factors affect the head loss in pipes, the viscosity of the fluid being handled, the
size of the pipes, the roughness of the internal surface of the pipes, the changes in
elevations within the system and the length of travel of the fluid.
The resistance through various valves and fittings will also contribute to the overall head
loss. A method to model the resistances for valves and fittings is described elsewhere.
In a well designed system the resistance through valves and fittings will be of minor
significance to the overall head loss, many designers choose to ignore the head loss for
valves and fittings at least in the initial stages of a design.
Much research has been carried out over many years and various formulae to calculate
head loss have been developed based on experimental data.
Among these is the Chézy formula which dealt with water flow in open channels. Using
the concept of ‘wetted perimeter’ and the internal diameter of a pipe the Chézy formula
could be adapted to estimate the head loss in a pipe, although the constant ‘C’ had to
be determined experimentally.
The Darcy-Weisbach equation
Weisbach first proposed the equation we now know as the Darcy-Weisbach formula or
Darcy-Weisbach equation:
hf = f (L/D) x (v2/2g)
where:
hf = head loss (m)
f = friction factor
L = length of pipe work (m)
d = inner diameter of pipe work (m)
v = velocity of fluid (m/s)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s²)
or:
hf = head loss (ft)

f = friction factor
L = length of pipe work (ft)
d = inner diameter of pipe work (ft)
v = velocity of fluid (ft/s)
g = acceleration due to gravity (ft/s²)
Copyright PipeFlow.co.uk 1
However the establishment of the friction factors was still an unresolved issue which
needed further work.
Friction Factors
Fanning did much experimentation to provide data for friction factors, however the head
loss calculation using the Fanning Friction factors has to be applied using the hydraulic
radius equation (not the pipe diameter). The hydraulic radius calculation involves
dividing the cross sectional area of flow by the wetted perimeter. For a round pipe with
full flow the hydraulic radius is equal to ¼ of the pipe diameter, so the head loss
equation becomes:
hf = f f(L/Rh) x (v2/2g) where Rh = hydraulic radius, f f = Fanning friction factor
Darcy introduced the concept of relative roughness, where the ratio of the internal
roughness of a pipe to the internal diameter of a pipe, will affect the friction factor for
turbulent flow. In a relatively smoother pipe the turbulence along the pipe walls has less
overall effect, hence a lower friction factor is applied.
The work of many others including Poiseuille, Hagen, Reynolds, Prandtl, Colebrook and
White have contributed to the development of formulae for calculation of friction factors
and head loss due to friction.
The Darcy Friction factor (which is 4 times greater than the Fanning Friction factor)
used with Weisbach equation has now become the standard head loss equation for
calculating head loss in pipes where the flow is turbulent. Initially the Darcy-Weisbach
equation was difficult apply, since no electronic calculators were available and many
calculations had to be carried out by hand.
The Colebrook-White equation which provides a mathematical method for calculation

of the friction factor (for pipes that are neither totally smooth nor wholly rough) has the
friction factor term f on both sides of the formula and is difficult to solve without trial and
error (i.e. mathematical iteration is normally required to find f).
e 
f  1.14  2 log10    for Re > 4000
9.35
 D Re f 
1/
 
where:
f = friction factor
e = internal roughness of the pipe
D = inner diameter of pipe work
Due to the difficulty of solving the Colebrook-White equation to find f, the use of the
empirical ‘Hazen-Williams’ formulae for flow of water at 60º F (15.5º C) has persisted for
many years. To use the Hazen-Williams formula a head loss coefficient must be used.
Unfortunately the value of the head loss coefficient can vary from around 80 up to 130
and beyond and this can make the ‘Hazen-Williams’ formulae unsuitable for accurate
prediction of head loss.
The Moody Chart
In 1944 LF Moody plotted the data from the Colebrook equation and this chart which is
now known as ‘The Moody Chart’ or sometimes the Friction Factor Chart, enables a
user to plot the Reynolds number and the Relative Roughness of the pipe and to
establish a reasonably accurate value of the friction factor for turbulent flow conditions.
The Moody Chart encouraged the use of the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor and this
quickly became the method of choice for hydraulic engineers. Many forms of head loss
calculator were developed to assist with the calculations, amongst these a round slide
rule offered calculations for flow in pipes on one side and flow in open channels on the
reverse side.
The development of the personnel computer from the 1980’s onwards reduced the time
needed to perform the friction factor and head loss calculations, which in turn has
widened the use of the Darcy-Weisbach formula to the point that all other formula are
now largely unused.
Fanning Friction Factor
The frictional head loss in pipes with full flow may be calculated by using the following
formula and an appropriate Fanning friction factor.
hf = f f (L/Rh) x (v2/2g)
where:
hf = head loss (m)
f f = Fanning friction factor
Rh = hydraulic radius of pipe work (m)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s²)
or:
hf = head loss (ft)
f f = Fanning friction factor
L = length of pipe work (ft)
Rh = hydraulic radius of pipe work (ft)
v = velocity of fluid (ft/s)
g = acceleration due to gravity (ft/s²)
The Fanning friction factor is not the same as the Darcy Friction factor (which is 4 times
greater than the Fanning Friction factor)
The above formula is very similar to the Darcy-Weisbach formula but the Hydraulic
Radius of the pipe work must used, not the pipe diameter.
The hydraulic radius calculation involves dividing the cross sectional area of flow by the
wetted perimeter.
For a round pipe with full flow the hydraulic radius is equal to ¼ of the pipe diameter.
i.e. Cross sectional area of flow / Wetted perimeter = (ð x d2 / 4) / (ð x d) = d/4
Published tables of Fanning friction factors are usually only applicable to the turbulent
flow of water at 60º F (15.5º C).
The development of ‘The Moody Chart’ which enables engineers to plot the Darcy
Friction factor and the use of the personnel computer to calculate the Darcy Friction
factor has led to a large reduction in the use of Fanning friction factors.
Hazen-Williams Formula
Empirical formulae are sometimes used to calculate the approximate head loss in a pipe
when water is flowing and the flow is turbulent. Prior to the availability of personal
computers the Hazen-Williams formula was very popular with engineers because of the
relatively simple calculations required.
Unfortunately the results depend upon the value of the friction factor C hw which must be
used with the formula and this can vary from around 80 up to 130 and higher,
depending on the pipe type, pipe size and the water velocity.
The imperial form of the Hazen-Williams formula is:
hf = 0.002083 L (100/C)1.85 x (gpm1.85/d4.8655)
where:
hf = head loss in feet of water
L = length of pipe in feet
C = friction coefficient
gpm = gallons per minute (USA gallons not imperial gallons)
d = inside diameter of the pipe in inches
The empirical nature of the friction factor C hw makes the ‘Hazen-Williams’ formula
unsuitable for accurate prediction of head loss.
The results are only valid for fluids which have a kinematic viscosity of 1.13 centistokes,
where the fluid velocity is less than 10 feet per sec and the pipe size is greater than 2”
diameter. Water at 60º F (15.5º C) has a kinematic viscosity of 1.13 centistokes.
Common Friction Factor Values of C hw used for design purposes are:
Asbestos Cement 140

Brass tube 130
Cast-Iron tube 100
Concrete tube110
Copper tube130
Corrugated steel tube 60
Galvanized tubing 120
Glass tube130
Lead piping130
Plastic pipe140
PVC pipe 150
General smooth pipes 140
Steel pipe 120
Steel riveted pipes 100
Tar coated cast iron tube 100
Tin tubing130
Wood Stave 110
These factors include some allowance to provide for the effects of changes to the
internal pipe surface due to the build up of deposits or pitting of the pipe wall during long
periods of use.
Non-Circular Pipe Friction
The frictional head loss in circular pipes is usually calculated by using the
Darcy-Weisbach formula with a Darcy Friction factor. For circular pipes the inner pipe
diameter is used is used to calculate the Reynolds number and to calculate the relative
roughness of the pipe, which are both used to calculate the Darcy Friction factor.
To calculate the frictional head loss non-circular pipes the method must be adapted to
use the Hydraulic Diameter instead of the internal dimensions of the pipe.
Hydraulic Diameter = 4 x cross sectional area of flow / wetted perimeter
For a round pipe the Dh = 4 x (ð x d2 / 4) / (ð x d) = d
For a rectangular duct the Dh = 4 x (w x h) / 2 x (w + h) where w = width, h = height
For an elliptical duct the Dh = 4 x (ð x a x b) / ð x √ [(2 x (a2 + b2)) – ((a - b)2/2)]

where a = major diameter / 2, b = minor diameter /2 ,
Note: the formula uses an approximation for the circumference of an elliptical duct.
For an annulus formed by placing a smaller diameter pipe inside a larger diameter pipe
the cross sectional area of flow will be the cross sectional area of the larger pipe
calculated using the inner pipe diameter minus the cross sectional area of the smaller
pipe calculated using the outer pipe diameter. The wetted perimeter will be the inner
circumference of the larger pipe plus the outer circumference of the smaller pipe.
Dh = 4 x (ð x (d12 – d22) / 4) / (ð x d1 + d2)
where d1 = inner diameter of larger pipe, d2 = outer diameter of smaller pipe
Example calculation of pipe friction factors:
1. Round pipe:
A round steel pipe 0.4 m internal diameter x 10.0 m long carries a water flow rate of
349.1 litres/sec (20.946 m3/min). The temperature of the water is 10o C (50o F).
Dh = Internal diameter of pipe = 0.4 m

Pipe cross sectional area = ð x 0.4002/4 = 0.1256 m2
Flow velocity = 20.94/0.1256/60 = 2.778 m/s
Relative roughness = 0.000046/0.4 = 0.000115
Re = v x Dh / (kinematic viscosity in m2/s) = 2.778 x 0.4 / 0.000001307 = 850191
Friction factor = 0.014 (plotted from Moody chart)
hf = f (L / Dh) x (v2 / 2g) = 0.014 x (10 / 0.4) x (2.7782 / (2 x 9.81)) = 0.138 m head
where:
hf = frictional head loss (m)
f = friction factor
Dh = Hydraulic diameter (m)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s ²)
2. Rectangular duct:
A rectangular steel duct 0.6 m wide x 0.3 m high x 10.0 m long carries a water flow rate
of 500 litres/sec (30 m3/min). The temperature of the water is 10o C (50o F).
Dh = 4 x (0.6 x 0.3) / 2 x (0.6 + 0.3) = 0.4 m

Duct cross sectional area = 0.6 x 0.3 = 0.18 m2
Flow velocity = 30.00/0.18/60 = 2.778 m/s
Relative roughness = 0.000046/0.4 = 0.000115
where:
f = friction factor
Pseudo check calculation: A steel pipe with an internal diameter of 0.400 m x 10 m long
carrying a water flow rate of 349.1 litres/sec (20.946 m3/min) will have the same flow
velocity as the rectangular duct. If the water temperature is 10o C (50o F) the calculated
frictional pressure drop through the steel pipe is 0.138 m head.
3. Elliptical duct:
An elliptical duct made from aluminium has internal dimensions of 0.8 m at its widest
point and 0.3 m at is highest point. The duct is 10.0 m long and carries a water flow rate
of 400 litres/sec (24 m3/min). The temperature of the water is 10o C (50o F).
a = major diameter / 2 = 0.800 / 2 = 0.400

b = minor diameter / 2 = 0.300 / 2 = 0.150
Duct cross sectional area = ð x a x b = ð x 0.400 x 0.150 = 0.1885 m2
Duct circumference = ð x √ [(2 x (a2 + b2)) – ((a - b)2/2)]
= ð x √ [(2 x (0.42 + 0.152)) – ((0.4 – 0.15)2/2)] = ð x √[0.365 – 0.03125] = 1.8149 m
Dh = 4 x 0.1885 / 1.8149 = 0.415 m
Flow velocity = 24.00 / 0.1885 / 60 = 2.1220 m/s
Relative roughness = 0.0000015 / 0.415= 0.000003615
where:
f = friction factor
Pseudo check calculation: An aluminium pipe with an internal diameter of 0.415 m x 10
m long carrying a water flow rate of 287.1 litres/sec (17.226 m3/min) will have the same
flow velocity as the elliptical duct. If the water temperature is 10o C (50o F) the calculated
frictional pressure drop is 0.069 m head.
4. Annulus:
An annulus section is formed by placing a stainless steel pipe with an outer diameter of
350 mm inside a stainless steel pipe with an inner diameter of 600. The annulus
section is 10 m long and carries a water flow rate of 600 litres/sec (36.00 m3/min). The
water temperature is 20o C (68o F).
Inner cross sectional area of the larger pipe = ð x 0.6002 / 4 = 0.2827 m2

Outer cross sectional area of the smaller pipe = ð x 0.3502 / 4 = 0.0962 m2
Cross sectional area of the annulus = 0.2827 - 0.0962 = 0.1865 m2
Inner circumference of the larger pipe = ð x 0.600 = 1.8850 m

Outer circumference of the smaller pipe = ð x 0.350 = 1.0995 m
Wetted perimeter = 1.8850 + 1.0995 = 2.9845 m
Dh = 4 x 0.1865 / 2.9845 = 0.250 m

Flow velocity = 36.00 / 0.1865 / 60 = 3.217 m/s
Relative roughness = 0.000045 / 0.250 = 0.000180
where:
f = friction factor
Pseudo check calculation: A stainless steel pipe with an internal diameter of 0.250 m x
10 m long carrying a water flow rate of 157.917 litres/sec (9.475 m3/min) will have the
same flow velocity as the annulus. If the water temperature is 20o C (68o F) the
calculated frictional pressure drop through the steel pipe is 0.307 m head.
Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow of Fluids
Resistance to flow in a pipe
When a fluid flows through a pipe the internal roughness (e) of the pipe wall can create
local eddy currents within the fluid adding a resistance to flow of the fluid. Pipes with
smooth walls such as glass, copper, brass and polyethylene have only a small effect on
the frictional resistance. Pipes with less smooth walls such as concrete, cast iron and
steel will create larger eddy currents which will sometimes have a significant effect on
the frictional resistance.
The velocity profile in a pipe will show that the fluid at the centre of the stream will move
more quickly than the fluid towards the edge of the stream. Therefore friction will occur
between layers within the fluid.
Fluids with a high viscosity will flow more slowly and will generally not support eddy
currents and therefore the internal roughness of the pipe will have no effect on the
frictional resistance. This condition is known as laminar flow.
Reynolds Number
The Reynolds number (Re) of a flowing fluid is obtained by dividing the kinematic
viscosity (viscous force per unit length) into the inertia force of the fluid (velocity x
diameter)
Kinematic viscosity = dynamic viscosity

fluid density
Reynolds number = Fluid velocity x Internal pipe diameter

_____________________________ ________________
Kinematic viscosity
Laminar Flow
Where the Reynolds number is less than 2300 laminar flow will occur and
the resistance to flow will be independent of the pipe wall roughness.
The friction factor for laminar flow can be calculated from 64 / Re.
Turbulent Flow
Turbulent flow occurs when the Reynolds number exceeds 4000.
Eddy currents are present within the flow and the ratio of the internal roughness of the
pipe to the internal diameter of the pipe needs to be considered to be able to determine
the friction factor. In large diameter pipes the overall effect of the eddy currents is less
significant. In small diameter pipes the internal roughness can have a major influence
on the friction factor.
The ‘relative roughness’ of the pipe and the Reynolds number can be used to plot the
friction factor on a friction factor chart.
The friction factor can be used with the Darcy-Weisbach formula to calculate the
frictional resistance in the pipe. (See separate article on the Darcy-Weisbach Formula).
Between the Laminar and Turbulent flow conditions (Re 2300 to Re 4000) the flow
condition is known as critical. The flow is neither wholly laminar nor wholly turbulent.
It may be considered as a combination of the two flow conditions.
The friction factor for turbulent flow can be calculated from the Colebrook-White
equation:
e 
f  1.14  2 log10    for Re > 4000
9.35
 D Re f 
1/
 
Internal roughness (e) of common pipe materials.
Cast iron (Asphalt dipped) 0.1220 mm 0.004800”

Cast iron 0.4000 mm 0.001575”
Concrete 0.3000 mm 0.011811”
Copper 0.0015 mm 0.000059”
PVC 0.0050 mm 0.000197”
Steel 0.0450 mm 0.001811”
Steel (Galvanised) 0.1500 mm 0.005906”
Net Positive Suction Head
Net positive suction head is the term that is usually used to describe the absolute
pressure of a fluid at the inlet to a pump minus the vapour pressure of the liquid.
The resultant value is known as the Net Positive Suction Head available.
The term is normally shortened to the acronym NPSHa, the ‘a’ denotes ‘available’.
A similar term is used by pump manufactures to describe the energy losses that occur
within many pumps as the fluid volume is allowed to expand within the pump body.
This energy loss is expressed as a head of fluid and is described as NPSHr (Net
Positive Suction Head requirement) the ‘r’ suffix is used to denote the value is a
requirement.
Different pumps will have different NPSH requirements dependant on the impellor
design, impellor diameter, inlet type, flow rate, pump speed and other factors.
A pump performance curve will usually include a NPSH requirement graph expressed in
metres or feet head so that the NPSHr for the operating condition can be established.
Pressure at the pump inlet
The fluid pressure at a pump inlet will be determined by the pressure on the fluid
surface, the frictional losses in the suction pipework and any rises or falls within the
suction pipework system.
NPSHa calculation
The elements used to calculate NPSHa are all expressed in absolute head units.
The NPSHa is calculated from:
Fluid surface pressure + positive head – pipework friction loss – fluid vapour pressure
or
Fluid surface pressure - negative head – pipework friction loss – fluid vapour pressure
Gas bubbles within the fluid (cavitation)
The ‘Vapour pressure’ of a fluid is the pressure at which the fluid will boil at ambient
temperature.If the pressure within a fluid falls below the vapour pressure of the fluid,
gas bubbles will form within the fluid (local boiling of the fluid will occur).
If a fluid which contains gas bubbles is allowed to move through a pump, it is likely that
the pump will increase the pressure within the fluid so that the gas bubbles collapse.
This will occur within the pump and reduce the flow of delivered fluid. The collapse of
the gas bubbles may cause vibrations which could result in damage to the pipework
system or the pump. This effect is known as cavitation.
To avoid cavitation the pressure within the fluid must be higher than the fluid vapour
pressure at all times.
Avoiding cavitation
In a system where the pipe work layout provides a positive head, the motive force to
move the fluid to the pump will be the fluid surface pressure plus the positive head.
Incorrect sizing of the supply pipe work and isolating valves may result in high frictional
losses which can still lead to situations where the NPSHa is still too low to prevent
cavitation.
Understanding NPSHa and NPSHr
In a system where the fluid needs to be lifted to the pump inlet , the negative head
reduces the motive force to move the fluid to the pump.
In these instances it is essential to size the supply pipe work and isolating valves
generously so that high frictional losses do not reduce the NPSHa below the NPSHr.
Comparison of NPSHa and NPSHr
All calculated values must be in the same units either m hd or ft hd.
If the NPSHa is greater than the NPSHr cavitation should not occur.
If the NPSHr is lower than the NPSHr then gas bubbles will form in the fluid and
caviation will occur.
Increasing the NPSH available
Many systems suffer from initial poor design considerations.
To increase the NPSHa consider the following:
a. Increase the suction pipe work size to give a fluid velocity of about 1 m/sec or 3
ft/sec
b. Redesign the suction pipework to eliminate bends, valves and fittings where
possible.
c. Raise the height of the fluid container.
d. Pressurise the fluid container, but ensure that the pressure in the container is
maintained as the fluid level is lowered.
High Fluid temperature
If the temperature of the fluid to be pumped is higher than normal the relative density of
the fluid will reduce. This may result in a reduction in pipe work friction losses, but this
reduction may be offset (or exceeded) by an increase in Fluid Vapour Pressure.
An example:
Water at 20°C (68°F) has a density of 998 kg/m3 (62.303 lbs/ft3) the vapour
pressure of the fluid is 2.339 kPa.a (0.339 psi.a).
Water at 60°C (140°F) has a density of 984 kg/m3 (61.429 lbs/ft3) the vapour
pressure of the fluid is 19.946 kPa.a (2.893 psi.a).
A comparison of the system with the two fluid temperatures:

The frictional resistance of the pipe work will reduce by about 10% due to the reduced
density and viscsoity of the fluid, but the vapour pressure of the fluid will increase by
about 1.8 m head (5.9 ft head).
It will be normally necessary to check the NPSHa for a normal ambient fluid
temperature and the higher fluid temperature under these circumstances.
Pumping Fluids and Getting Fluid to the Pump
Pump suction
The energy to move a fluid to the pump inlet is not provided by the pump.
The popular view that a pump ‘sucks’ fluid from the supply source is false.
Consider the case of ‘Flooded suction’ where the supply container is positioned well
above the pump inlet. If the ‘suction’ pipework has been designed properly the fluid
head available will be sufficient to overcome the frictional resistance of the pipework
allowing fluid to flow freely into the pump inlet.
If the pump inlet connection is removed the fluid will still flow out of the suction
pipework.
In most instances where the fluid has to be ‘lifted’ the fluid pressure at the pump inlet
will be lower than atmospheric pressure. The energy to move the fluid is provided by the
pressure on the fluid surface. The frictional losses in the suction pipework and rises in
the suction pipework system will reduce the fluid pressure at the pump inlet.
If the pump inlet connection is removed the fluid will not flow out of the suction
pipework.
The pump moves fluid from the inlet port to the outlet port.
This action allows the external forces acting on the fluid intake system to push some of
the fluid in the supply system into the pump inlet port.
If the pump type is not ‘self-priming’ it will be necessary to fill the system with fluid, to
allow pumping to commence.
The supply pipework system must be designed to provide enough pressure at the pump
inlet to avoid caviation occurring within the pump.
See separate discussion about Net Positive Suction Head.
Atmospheric pressure
Standard pressure at sea level provided by the weight of the atmosphere is 101325 Pa.
This value can be expressed as 0.0 bar gauge or 1.01325 bar absolute.
The equivalent imperial values are 0.0 psi g or 14.696 psi a.
Atmospheric pressure applied against a perfect vacuum can support a column of water
of 10.33 m high (33.89 feet high).
Mercury has a much higher density than water so that atmospheric pressure will support
a column of mercury 760 mm high (29.92 in. high) against a perfect vacuum.
Getting fluid to the pump
Atmospheric pressure on the fluid surface is the usual energy source used to push the
fluid into the pump. The friction within the fluid and the pipework will oppose the fluid
flow and reduce the pressure at the pump inlet.
If the suction pipework is resistance is too high it may not be possible to deliver the full
design flow rate to the pump, in these circumstances the system will operate at some
reduced flow rate and cavitation may occur.
A good design guide is to size the pipework to give a pump suction velocity of between
0.75 m/sec and 1.25 m/sec (2.5 ft/sec and 4.0 ft/sec)
If the fluid has a high viscosity the resistance to flow may be mainly due to sliding
between adjacent layers of fluid, the flow will probably be ‘laminar’ and the pipework
friction will be negligible. In these instances the best solution is to raise the position of
the supply container, to increase the positive head available.
If the supply container cannot be raised some positive pressure (above atmospheric)
will need to be applied to the fluid surface.
A sealed supply container could be pressurised to increase the force available to move
the fluid. This pressurisation must be maintained as the container is emptied, otherwise
the force to move the fluid will reduce.
Pump power calculations
The work performed in pumping a fluid will depend on the volume flow rate, the density
of the fluid, the additional head to be added to the fluid pressure and the efficiency of
the pump.
Hydraulic power:
Kw = Flow rate (m3/s) x m head x g x fluid density (kg/m3) ÷ 1000
Hp = Flow rate (US gpm) x ft head x fluid density (lb/ft3) x 231 ÷ 1728 ÷ 33000
Using the example of ‘Flooded suction’ shown above: The pump inlet pressure is 2 m
head and the resistance to flow in the outlet system is 30 m head, so the pump would
need to add the energy to raise the fluid pressure by 28 m head (91.86 ft head).
If the flow rate was 1136 litre/min (300 US gpm) and the fluid was water at 20°C (68°F)
the hydraulic power required would be:
1136 ÷ 1000 ÷ 60 x 28.0 x 9.806 x 998 ÷ 1000 = 5.188 Kw

or 300 x 91.89 x 62.303 x 231 ÷ 1728 ÷ 33000 = 6.955 Hp
If the efficiency of the pump was 70% the hydraulic power would have to be divided by
0.70 to give the actual power consumed of 7.41 Kw (9.936 Hp)
Where the fluid inlet pressure is a suction value, as the case shown above where the
fluid has to be ‘Lifted’ the power provided by the pump must make up the difference
between the suction value and the resistance to flow in the outlet system.
In this instance the pump must add 34 m head (111.55 ft head).
If the flow rate was 30 litre/sec (475.5 US gpm) and the fluid was water at 10°C (50°F)
the hydraulic power required would be:
30 ÷ 1000 x 34.0 x 9.806 x 1000 ÷ 1000 = 10.002 Kw

or 475.5 x 111.55 x 62.428 x 231 ÷ 1728 ÷ 33000 = 13.414 Hp
If the efficiency of the pump was 63% the hydraulic power would have to be divided by
0.63 to give the actual power consumed of 15.876 Kw (21.292 Hp)
Viscosity and Density (Metric SI Units)
In the SI system of units the kilogram (kg) is the standard unit of mass, a cubic meter is
the standard unit of volume and the second is the standard unit of time.
Density p
The density of a fluid is obtained by dividing the mass of the fluid by the volume of the
fluid. Density is normally expressed as kg per cubic meter.
p = kg/m3
Water at a temperature of 20°C has a density of 998 kg/m3

Sometimes the term ‘Relative Density’ is used to describe the density of a fluid.
Relative density is the fluid density divide by 1000 kg/m3
Water at a temperature of 20°C has a Relative density of 0.998
Dynamic Viscosity ì
Viscosity describes a fluids resistance to flow.

Dynamic viscosity (sometimes referred to as Absolute viscosity) is obtained by dividing
the Shear stress by the rate of shear strain.
The units of dynamic viscosity are: Force / area x time
The Pascal unit (Pa) is used to describe pressure or stress = force per area
This unit can be combined with time (sec) to define dynamic viscosity.
ì = Pa•s
1.00 Pa•s = 10 Poise = 1000 Centipoise
Centipoise (cP) is commonly used to describe dynamic viscosity because water at a

temperature of 20°C has a viscosity of 1.002 Centipoise.
This value must be converted back to 1.002 x 10-3 Pa•s for use in calculations.
Kinematic Viscosity v
Sometimes viscosity is measured by timing the flow of a known volume of fluid from a
viscosity measuring cup. The timings can be used along with a formula to estimate the
kinematic viscosity value of the fluid in Centistokes (cSt).
The motive force driving the fluid out of the cup is the head of fluid.
This fluid head is also part of the equation that makes up the volume of the fluid.
Rationalizing the equations the fluid head term is eliminated leaving the units of
Kinematic viscosity as area / time
v = m2/s
1.0 m2/s = 10000 Stokes = 1000000 Centistokes
Water at a temperature of 20°C has a viscosity of 1.004 x 10-6 m2/s
This evaluates to 1.004000 Centistokes.
This value must be converted back to 1.004 x 10-6 m2/s for use in calculations.
The kinematic viscosity can also be determined by dividing the dynamic viscosity by the
fluid density.
Kinematic Viscosity and Dynamic Viscosity Relationship
Kinematic Viscosity = Dynamic Viscosity / Density

v=ì/p
Centistokes = Centipoise / Density
To understand the metric units involved in this relationship it will be necessary to use an
example:
Dynamic viscosity ì = Pa•s

Substitute for Pa = N/m2 and N = kg• m/s2
Therefore ì = Pa•s = kg/(m•s)
Density p = kg/m3
Kinematic Viscosity = v = ì/p = (kg/(m•s) x 10-3) / (kg/m3) = m2/s x 10-6
Viscosity and Density (Imperial Units)

In the Imperial system of units the pound (lb) is the standard unit of weight, a cubic foot
is the standard unit of volume and the second is the standard unit of time.
The standard unit of mass is the slug.
This is the mass that will accelerate by 1 ft/s when a force of one pound (lbf) is applied
to the mass. The acceleration due to gravity (g) is 32.174 ft per second per second.
To obtain the mass of a fluid the weight (lb) must be divided by 32.174.
Density p
Density is normally expressed as mass (slugs) per cubic foot.

The weight of a fluid can be expressed as pounds per cubic foot.
p = slugs/ft 3
Water at a temperature of 70°F has a density of 1.936 slugs/ft3 (62.286 lbs/ft3)
Dynamic Viscosity ì
The units of dynamic viscosity are: Force / area x time
ì = lb•s/ft2
Water at a temperature of 70°F has a viscosity of 2.04 x 10-5 lb•s/ft2
1.0 lb•s/ft2 = 47880.26 Centipoise
Kinematic Viscosity v
The units of Kinematic viscosity are area / time
v = ft2/s
1.00 ft 2/s = 929.034116 Stokes = 92903.4116 Centistokes
Water at a temperature of 70°F has a viscosity of 10.5900 x 10-6 ft2/s

(0.98384713 Centistokes)
Kinematic Viscosity and Dynamic Viscosity Relationship
Kinematic Viscosity = Dynamic Viscosity / Density

v=ì/p
The imperial units of kinematic viscosity are ft2/s
To understand the imperial units involved in this relationship it will be necessary to use
an example:
Dynamic viscosity ì = lb•s/ft2

Density p = slugs/ft3
Substitute for slug = lb/32.174 ft•s2

Density p = (lb/32.174 ft•s2)/ft3= (lb/32.174•s2)/ft4
Note: slugs/ft3 can be expressed in terms of lb•s2/ft 4
Kinematic Viscosity v = (lb•s/ft2)/(slugs/ft3)

Substitute lb•s2/ft 4 for slugs/ft3
Kinematic Viscosity v = (lb•s/ft2 )/(lb•s2/ft4) = ft2/s
Proprties of Common Liquids and Gases
Properties of common liquids

°C °F
3 3 Viscosity Vapor press Vapor press
Fluid kg/m lbs/ft
Centipoise kPa (abs) psi (abs)
Acetic acid 20 68 1049 65.469 1.127 1.584 0.2297
Acetone 20 68 780 48.680 0.325 24.220 3.5128
Aniline 20 68 1022 63.784 4.565 0.400 0.0580
Benzene 20 68 879 54.859 0.654 10.100 1.4649
Bromine 20 68 3100 193.473 0.997 23.330 3.3837
Carbon disulphide 20 68 1293 80.697 0.366 14.000 2.0305
Carbon
tetrachloride 20 68 1632 101.854 0.979 12.000 1.7405
Chloroform 20 68 1490 92.992 0.567 21.198 3.0745
Corn oil 20 68 922 57.543 71.400 0.000 0.0000
Ether diethyl 20 68 714 44.561 0.242 55.075 7.9880
Ethyl alcohol 20 68 789 49.242 1.190 7.900 1.1458
Gasoline (typical) 20 68 719 44.873 0.292 55.100 7.9916
Glycerol 20 68 1262 78.762 1495.000 0.000 0.0000
Linseed oil 20 68 925 57.730 43.500 0.000 0.0000
Mercury 20 68 13546 845.415 1.559 0.000 0.0000
Methyl alcohol 20 68 791 49.367 0.594 12.930 1.8753
Nitrobenzene 20 68 1175 73.333 2.052 0.020 0.0029
Olive oil 20 68 920 57.418 83.676 0.000 0.0000
Phenol 20 68 1073 66.967 12.740 0.029 0.0042
Sunflower oil 20 68 920 57.418 64.073 0.000 0.0000
Toluene 20 68 867 54.110 0.585 2.914 0.4226
Turpentine 20 68 870 54.297 1.490 0.250 0.0363
Water 0 32 1000 62.411 1.792 0.611 0.0886
Water 5 41 1000 62.411 1.518 0.873 0.1266
Water 10 50 1000 62.411 1.306 1.228 0.1781
Water 15 59 999 62.348 1.138 1.706 0.2474
Water 20 68 998 62.286 1.002 2.339 0.3392
Water 25 77 997 62.223 0.890 3.170 0.4598
Water 30 86 996 62.161 0.797 4.247 0.6160
Water 35 95 994 62.036 0.719 5.629 0.8164
Water 40 104 992 61.911 0.653 7.384 1.0710
Water 45 113 990 61.787 0.596 9.594 1.3915
Water 50 122 988 61.662 0.547 12.351 1.7914
Water 55 131 986 61.537 0.504 15.761 2.2859
Water 60 140 984 61.412 0.466 19.946 2.8929
Water 65 149 981 61.225 0.433 25.041 3.6319
Water 70 158 978 61.038 0.404 31.201 4.5253
Water 75 167 975 60.850 0.378 38.595 5.5977
Water 80 176 971 60.601 0.354 47.415 6.8770
Water 85 185 968 60.414 0.333 57.867 8.3929
Water 90 194 965 60.226 0.314 70.182 10.1790
Water 95 203 962 60.039 0.297 84.609 12.2715
Water 100 212 958 59.789 0.282 101.325 14.6960
Water sea 10 50 1030 64.283 1.346 1.300 0.1885
Water sea 20 68 1028 64.158 1.070 2.340 0.3394
Properties of some common gases (at atmospheric pressure)
°C °F
3 3 Viscosity
Gas kg/m lbs/ft
Centipoise
Air 0 32 1.293 0.081 0.017
Air 5 41 1.27 0.079 0.018
Air 10 50 1.247 0.078 0.018
Air 15 59 1.226 0.077 0.018
Air 20 68 1.205 0.075 0.018
Air 25 77 1.185 0.074 0.018
Air 30 86 1.165 0.073 0.019
Air 35 95 1.146 0.072 0.019
Air 40 104 1.128 0.070 0.019
Air 45 113 1.11 0.069 0.019
Air 50 122 1.093 0.068 0.020
Ammonia 20 68 0.708 0.044 0.010
Carbon dioxide 20 68 1.83 0.114 0.015
Carbon monoxide 20 68 1.164 0.073 0.018
Helium 20 68 0.166 0.010 0.020
Hydrogen 20 68 0.084 0.005 0.009
Methane 20 68 0.667 0.042 0.011
Nitrogen 20 68 1.165 0.073 0.018
Oxygen 20 68 1.33 0.083 0.020
Sulphur dioxide 20 68 2.659 0.166 0.013

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Darcy-Weisbach Formula

Flow of fluid through a pipe

The Darcy-Weisbach equation

hf = head loss (ft)

hf = f f(L/Rh) x (v2/2g) where Rh = hydraulic radius, f f = Fanning friction factor

The Colebrook-White equation which provides a mathematical method for calculation

The Moody Chart

The imperial form of the Hazen-Williams formula is:

hf = 0.002083 L (100/C)1.85 x (gpm1.85/d4.8655)

Common Friction Factor Values of C hw used for design purposes are:

Asbestos Cement 140

Hydraulic Diameter = 4 x cross sectional area of flow / wetted perimeter

For a round pipe the Dh = 4 x (ð x d2 / 4) / (ð x d) = d

For a rectangular duct the Dh = 4 x (w x h) / 2 x (w + h) where w = width, h = height

For an elliptical duct the Dh = 4 x (ð x a x b) / ð x √ [(2 x (a2 + b2)) – ((a - b)2/2)]

Example calculation of pipe friction factors:

Dh = Internal diameter of pipe = 0.4 m

Dh = 4 x (0.6 x 0.3) / 2 x (0.6 + 0.3) = 0.4 m

a = major diameter / 2 = 0.800 / 2 = 0.400

Inner cross sectional area of the larger pipe = ð x 0.6002 / 4 = 0.2827 m2

Inner circumference of the larger pipe = ð x 0.600 = 1.8850 m

Dh = 4 x 0.1865 / 2.9845 = 0.250 m

Resistance to flow in a pipe

Kinematic viscosity = dynamic viscosity

Reynolds number = Fluid velocity x Internal pipe diameter

Turbulent flow occurs when the Reynolds number exceeds 4000.

Cast iron (Asphalt dipped) 0.1220 mm 0.004800”

Pressure at the pump inlet

Understanding NPSHa and NPSHr

Comparison of NPSHa and NPSHr

All calculated values must be in the same units either m hd or ft hd.

Increasing the NPSH available

Many systems suffer from initial poor design considerations.

To increase the NPSHa consider the following:

High Fluid temperature

A comparison of the system with the two fluid temperatures:

Getting fluid to the pump

Pump power calculations

1136 ÷ 1000 ÷ 60 x 28.0 x 9.806 x 998 ÷ 1000 = 5.188 Kw

30 ÷ 1000 x 34.0 x 9.806 x 1000 ÷ 1000 = 10.002 Kw

Water at a temperature of 20°C has a density of 998 kg/m3

Viscosity describes a fluids resistance to flow.

1.00 Pa•s = 10 Poise = 1000 Centipoise

Centipoise (cP) is commonly used to describe dynamic viscosity because water at a

1.0 m2/s = 10000 Stokes = 1000000 Centistokes

Kinematic Viscosity and Dynamic Viscosity Relationship

Kinematic Viscosity = Dynamic Viscosity / Density

Dynamic viscosity ì = Pa•s

Kinematic Viscosity = v = ì/p = (kg/(m•s) x 10-3) / (kg/m3) = m2/s x 10-6

Viscosity and Density (Imperial Units)

Density is normally expressed as mass (slugs) per cubic foot.

Water at a temperature of 70°F has a density of 1.936 slugs/ft3 (62.286 lbs/ft3)

The units of dynamic viscosity are: Force / area x time

1.0 lb•s/ft2 = 47880.26 Centipoise

The units of Kinematic viscosity are area / time

1.00 ft 2/s = 929.034116 Stokes = 92903.4116 Centistokes

Water at a temperature of 70°F has a viscosity of 10.5900 x 10-6 ft2/s

Kinematic Viscosity and Dynamic Viscosity Relationship

Kinematic Viscosity = Dynamic Viscosity / Density

The imperial units of kinematic viscosity are ft2/s

Dynamic viscosity ì = lb•s/ft2

Substitute for slug = lb/32.174 ft•s2