Front. Energy Power Eng.
China 2007, 1(2): 239–244
DOI 10.1007/s11708-007-0033-7
RESEARCH ARTICLE
HUANG Yongcheng, ZHOU Longbao, PAN Keyu
Combustion characteristics of a direct-injection diesel engine
fueled with Fischer-Tropsch diesel
© Higher Education Press and Springer-Verlag 2007
Abstract Fischer-Tropsch (F-T) diesel fuel is characterized
by a high cetane number, a near-zero sulphur content and
a very low aromatic level. On the basis of the recorded in-
cylinder pressures and injector needle lifts, the combustion
characteristics of an unmodified single-cylinder direct-
injection diesel engine operating on F-T diesel fuel are ana-
lyzed and compared with those of conventional diesel fuel
operation. The results show that F-T diesel fuel exhibits a
slightly longer injection delay and injection duration, an aver-
age of 18.7% shorter ignition delay, and a comparable total
combustion duration when compared to those of convention-
al diesel fuel. Meanwhile, F-T diesel fuel displays an average
of 26.8% lower peak value of premixed burning rate and a
higher peak value of diffusive burning rate. In addition,
the F-T diesel engine has a slightly lower peak combustion
pressure, a far lower rate of pressure rise, and a lower
mechanical load and combustion noise than the conventional
diesel engine. The brake specific fuel consumption is lower
and the effective thermal efficiency is higher for F-T diesel
fuel operation.
Keywords direct injection diesel engine, F-T diesel fuel,
combustion characteristics
1 Introduction
Diesel engines have been widely used because of their high
thermal efficiency, high power output, and low CO2 emission.
However, high engine-out emissions of particulate matter
(PM) and nitrogen oxides (NOx), which are difficult to reduce
simultaneously, have become the main factors preventing
the development of diesel engines. In order to meet the ever-
tightening standards for exhaust emissions, it has become a
Translated from Journal of Xi’an Jiaotong University, 2006, 40(1): 5–9
[译自: 西安交通大学学报]
HUANG Yongcheng (
), ZHOU Longbao, PAN Keyu
School of Energy and Power Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University,
Xi’an 710049, China
E-mail: huangyc@mail.xjtu.edu.cn
major research task in engine development to reduce PM and
NOx emissions from diesel engines simultaneously. In addition
to the application of high pressure fuel injection system,
turbocharging, exhaust gas recirculation and exhaust aftertreat-
ment technologies, the use of clean alternative fuels is also an
effective way to reduce PM and NOx emissions from diesel
engines.
Recently, a new type of clean fuel, Fischer-Tropsch (F-T)
diesel, has attracted increasing attention as a high quality, low
emission diesel substitute, which is characterized by a high
cetane number, a near-zero sulphur content and a very low
aromatic level. Fischer-Tropsch diesel fuel is produced from
synthetic gas (CO and H2) through the F-T synthetic process-
es, using either natural gas or coal as the feedstock. Some
preliminary studies conducted on unmodified diesel engines
have shown that the exhaust emissions are reduced signifi-
cantly with the use of F-T diesel fuel [1]. Schaberg et al. [2]
reported that the F-T diesel fuel showed a reduction of 27%
in NOx, and a reduction of 21% in PM when compared with
conventional diesel fuel. Ricardo Inc. [3] reported that a 2002
Cummins ISM heavy-duty diesel engine optimized to exploit
the unique properties of F-T diesel fuel could meet federal
2007 heavy-duty on-highway emissions standards. Although
the effects of F-T diesel fuel on engine-out emissions have
been well documented in the literature, there are very few
published reports on the combustion characteristics of F-T
diesel fuel [4,5].
The objectives of this paper are to investigate combustion
characteristics such as the ignition delay, rate of pressure rise
and heat release of the engine fueled with F-T diesel and to
compare the combustion parameters with those of the engine
operating on conventional diesel fuel on the basis of the
recorded in-cylinder pressures and injector needle lifts.
2 Experimental apparatus and fuel
characteristics
The engine tests were carried out on a single-cylinder, four-
stroke, water-cooled, naturally aspirated, direct-injection
diesel engine. The engine specifications are listed in Table 1.
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Table 1 Engine specifications (3) The aromatic content of F-T diesel fuel is much lower
Property Parameter than that of No.0 diesel, which will improve the combustion
process and reduce the carcinogenic hydrocarbons, NOx, PM
Borexstroke/(mmxmm) 100x115
and CO emissions [1].
Displacement/cm3 903
Rated speed/(r · min−1) 2,300 (4) Fischer-Tropsch diesel fuel has a lower density but
Rated power/kW 11 higher gravimetric energy content than No.0 diesel fuel. The
Compression ratio 18 volumetric energy content of F-T diesel fuel is about 94% of
Fuel delivery advance angle/(°) 25 that of No.0 diesel, so the engine does not need to be modified
Swirl ratio 2.3
when operating on F-T diesel fuel.
Injector open pressure/MPa 19
Nozzle numberxOrifice diameter/mm 4x0.30 (5) The boiling point of F-T diesel fuel is lower than that
of No.0 diesel, so its evaporation process and the subsequent
fuel vapor-air mixing process are faster, which can improve
The engine remained unmodified in the experiment when the combustion process and reduce PM and HC emissions
operating on F-T diesel fuel or No.0 diesel (conventional [1].
diesel fuel). The in-cylinder pressure was obtained by a (6) Fischer-Tropsch diesel fuel can be blended with No.0
Kistler piezo-electric sensor type 6125A; the output of the diesel fuel at random proportion to improve the properties of
pressure transducer was amplified by a Kistler charge ampli- the base fuel.
fier type 5015A and then converted to digital signals and
recorded by a data acquisition apparatus type CS2092H. The
signals of the crank angle and injector needle lift were also 3 Combustion characteristics analysis
recorded by CS2092H.
The F-T diesel fuel used in the test was produced by the The fuel injection delay (h) is defined, in this paper, as the
Institute of Coal Chemistry of the Chinese Academy of time interval between the beginning of fuel supply and the
Sciences. Fischer-Tropsch diesel fuel is a colorless and trans- beginning of nozzle valve lift. The ignition delay is defined
parent liquid, which is mainly composed of normal straight as the time interval between the beginning of nozzle valve
chain saturated hydrocarbons and branched isomeric saturat- lift and the beginning of rapid pressure rise. The rapid
ed hydrocarbons. Besides, F-T diesel fuel has a higher H/C combustion duration is defined as the duration of premixed
ratio. A comparison between the properties of F-T diesel combustion. The total combustion duration is defined as the
and those of No.0 diesel is shown in Table 2, which can be time interval from the beginning of heat release to the end of
summarized as follows. heat release.

3.1 Fuel injection delay

Table 2 Main properties of F-T and No.0 diesel fuels
Property F-T diesel No.0 diesel A comparison of the injection delay between the engine
−3
operating on F-T fuel and the engine operating on No.0 diesel
Liquid density(at 20°C)/(g · cm ) 0.76 0.831 2
Kinematic viscosity(at 20°C)/(mm2 · s) 3.276 3.0–8.0 fuel versus the brake mean effective pressure (BMEP)(pme) is
Flash point/°C 74 >65 illustrated in Fig. 1, in which the fuel delivery advance angles
Freezing point/°C −2 <0 for the two fuels are the same. It can be seen that the fuel
Cold filter plugging point/°C 2 <4 injection delay of F-T diesel fuel, in crank angle (CA), shows
Initial boiling point/°C 150 180
a 0.4–1° longer than that of No.0 diesel at the same engine
Final boiling point/°C 350 370
w(sulfur)/% <5x10-5 <0.2 speed. This phenomenon is caused by the different velocities
φ(aromatics)/% 0.1 34.68 of pressure wave propagation in the fuel pipe for the two
Lower heating value/(MJ · kg−1) 43.9 42.6
Cetane number 74.8 <45
Carbon mass content/% 85 86
Hydrogen mass content/% 15 14

(1) The cetane number of F-T diesel fuel is much higher

than that of No.0 diesel, and therefore a shorter period of
ignition delay and lower combustion noise are expected when
compared with those of diesel operation. Furthermore, lower
NOx emissions can be realized.
(2) The sulfur content of F-T diesel fuel is almost zero,
which makes it easy to reduce the PM emission since the
sulfur content will result in the formation of the sulphate
portion of PM [1]. Fig. 1 Comparison of fuel injection delay

fuels. The density of F-T diesel fuel is lower than that of
No.0 diesel, so the compressibility of F-T diesel fuel is larger,
which means that pressure wave propagation will take a
longer time for F-T diesel operation compared with No.0
diesel. Thus, F-T diesel fuel has a longer fuel injection delay
than No.0 diesel.
3.2 Injection duration
A comparison of the injector needle lifts (h) between the
engine operating on F-T fuel and the engine operating on
No.0 diesel fuel under the same engine speed and BMEP are
shown in Fig. 2, in which Q is the crank angle. The injection
duration for F-T diesel fuel operation is 22.2°, which is 0.91%
longer than that for No.0 diesel operation, which is 22°. In
theory, when considering the lower volumetric energy con-
tent of F-T diesel fuel, approximately 6% more fuel volume
would be expected to be injected per cycle at the same engine
output, which would result in a 6% longer injection duration
than for No.0 diesel operation. The reason why the actual
difference in injection duration between F-T diesel and
No.0 diesel is smaller than the theoretical difference seems to
be the improvement in thermal efficiency for F-T diesel fuel
operation, which will reduce the injected fuel per cycle at the
same engine output.
Fig. 2 Comparison of injector needle lift
3.3 Ignition delay
A comparison of the ignition delay (v) between F-T fuel and
the engine fueled with No.0 diesel fuel at load characteristics
are shown in Fig. 3. It can be seen that the ignition delays of
the two fuels have similar trends at various engine speeds and
loads, while F-T diesel fuel exhibits an average of 18.7%
shorter ignition delay owing to its higher cetane number com-
pared with No.0 diesel. In addition, the longer injection delay
of F-T diesel fuel results in the fuel injected into the cylinder
being at higher pressure and temperature. All those factors
favor a reduction in ignition delay.
3.4 Heat release analysis
The rates of heat release (ηh) of the engine fueled with F-T and
that of the engine fueled with No.0 diesel at two different
241
Fig. 3 Comparison of ignition delay
loads are shown in Fig. 4. It can be seen that the peak value of
premixed burning rate for F-T diesel fuel operation is much
lower and the amount of energy released in premixed com-
bustion is smaller, while the peak value of diffusion burning
rate is higher and the duration of diffusion combustion is
longer compared with those of No.0 diesel.
Fig. 4 Comparison of heat release rate for F-T and No.0 diesel
fuels (n = 1,800 rev/min)
The peak values of premixed burning rate (gpp) and diffu-
sion burning rate (gpd) and their corresponding crank angles
for F-T fuel and those for No.0 diesel fuel versus BMEP is
illustrated in Fig. 5. It can be seen from Fig. 5(a) that the peak
value of premixed burning rate for F-T diesel fuel exhibits
an average lower value of 26.8% compared with that for
No.0 diesel at load characteristics. This phenomenon is more
obvious at medium and high loads. The reason for this is that
F-T fuel has a shorter ignition delay owing to its higher cetane
number. A shorter ignition delay results in a reduction in
the mass of injected fuel and quantity of fuel evaporation
occurring before ignition, therefore resulting in a much lower
burning rate and a smaller amount of energy released during
the premixed combustion phase. It can also be seen that the
peak value of premixed burning rate for F-T diesel fuel occurs
earlier due to the shorter ignition delay.
It can be seen from Fig. 5(b) that the peak value of diffu-
sion burning rate with F-T fuel is 6.4% higher compared with
that of No.0 diesel. The reason for this is that since the amount
of energy released during the premixed combustion phase is
smaller as mentioned before, the diffusion combustion must
contain more energy. Moreover, the boiling point of F-T fuel
is lower, and it readily vaporizes and mixes with air in the
242
Fig. 5 Peak values of premixed burning rate and diffusion burn-
ing rate and their corresponding crank angles for F-T and No.0
diesel fuels (n = 1 800 r/min)
(a) Premixed burning rate; (b) Diffusion burning rate
cylinder, resulting in fast diffusion mixing and diffusion com-
bustion velocity. Therefore, the peak value of diffusion burn-
ing rate with F-T fuel is higher. It can also be seen that the
peak value of diffusion burning rate with F-T fuel occurs
earlier.
A comparison of the rapid combustion duration and the
total combustion duration between the engine operating on
F-T fuel and the engine operating on No.0 diesel fuel at
load characteristics is shown in Fig. 6. It can be seen that F-T
diesel fuel shows a shorter rapid combustion duration and a
Fig. 6 Comparison of rapid combustion duration and total
combustion duration between F-T fuel and No.0 diesel fuel
comparable total combustion duration compared with those
of No.0 diesel fuel.
3.5 Peak combustion pressure and maximum rate of
pressure rise
The in-cylinder pressure (pi) of the engine fueled with F-T
and No.0 diesel fuels versus the crank angle at two different
loads is illustrated in Fig. 7. It can be seen that the combustion
pressure of F-T diesel fuel rises earlier and more smoothly;
and the peak combustion pressure of F-T diesel fuel is slight-
ly lower occurring at a later crank angle in comparison with
that of No.0 diesel.
Fig. 7 Comparison of in-cylinder pressure between F-T fuel and
No.0 diesel fuel (n = 1 800 r/min)
The peak combustion pressure (ppc) and the maximum rate
of pressure rise of the engine fueled with F-T diesel and the
engine fueled with No.0 diesel versus BMEP is shown in
Fig. 8. It can be seen that, in comparison with No.0 diesel, the
peak combustion pressure with F-T diesel fuel is 1.6% lower
on average and its corresponding crank angle is 0.75° later;
the maximum rate of pressure with F-T diesel fuel is 21.9%
lower on average and its corresponding crank angle is 0.7°
earlier at 1,800 rev/min. The reason for this is that the greater
cetane number of F-T diesel fuel can considerably shorten the
ignition delay and reduce the premixed combustion phase,
resulting in a reduction in the maximum combustion pressure
and rate of pressure rise in the cylinder. The lower maximum
pressure and rate of pressure rise with F-T diesel fuel result in
a reduction in mechanical load and combustion noise.
3.6 Brake-specific fuel consumption and effective thermal
efficiency
A comparison of the brake-specific fuel consumption and the
effective thermal efficiency between the engine fueled with
F-T diesel and the engine fueled with No.0 diesel at load char-
acteristics is shown in Fig. 9. The effective thermal efficiency
was calculated by
3.6x106
get = x100%
H l Cb

Fig. 8 Peak combustion pressure and maximum rate of pressure
rise and the corresponding crank angles of F-T fuel and No.0 diesel
fuel (n=1 800 rev/min)
(a) Peak combustion pressure; (b) Maximum rate of pressure rise
where Hl is the lower heating value of the fuel, Cb is the
brake-specific fuel consumption.
At 1 800 r/min, the brake-specific fuel consumption with
F-T diesel fuel is reduced by an average of about 6.6%, and
the effective thermal efficiency with F-T diesel fuel is
increased by an average of about 4.5% compared with No.0
diesel. The reason for the improvement in fuel economy is
that some chemical and physical properties of F-T diesel fuel,
such as absence of aromatics and composition based on para-
ffin and lower boiling point, seem to improve the combustion
process. In addition, the engine fueled with F-T diesel has a
lower peak value of in-cylinder pressure and a much lower
rate of pressure rise, which reduce the mechanical load and
realize the smooth combustion, thus improving the thermal
efficiency.
4 Conclusions
The combustion characteristics of an unmodified direct-injec-
tion diesel engine operating on F-T diesel fuel have been in-
vestigated and compared with that operating on No.0 diesel
fuel, and the main results can be summarized as follows.
1. Fischer-Tropsch diesel fuel shows a slightly longer
injection delay and injection duration than No.0 diesel fuel.
The experimental difference in injection duration between
F-T diesel and No.0 diesel is smaller than the theoretical
difference.
243
Fig. 9 Brake-specific fuel consumption and effective thermal
efficiency of F-T and No.0 diesel fuels
(a) Brake-specific fuel consumption; (b) Effective thermal
efficiency
2. In comparison with No.0 diesel fuel, F-T diesel fuel
exhibits an average of 18.7% shorter ignition delay, an aver-
age of 26.8% lower peak value of premixed burning rate, and
an average of 6.4% higher peak value of diffusion burning
rate, and has a shorter rapid combustion duration and a
comparable total combustion duration. The pattern of heat
release of the engine operating on F-T diesel fuel approaches
the ideal pattern of that in compression ignition engines.
3. The engine fueled with F-T diesel fuel has a slightly
(an average of about 1.6%) lower peak combustion pressure
occurring at a later crank angle and a far (an average of
about 21.9%) lower rate of pressure rise compared with No.0
diesel, and thus the engine with F-T diesel fuel has a lower
mechanical load and combustion noise.
4. The engine fueled with F-T diesel has a lower specific
fuel consumption and a higher effective thermal efficiency in
comparison with No.0 diesel operation.
Acknowledgements This work was sponsored by the National Natural
Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 50306020).
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