first break volume 22, July 2004
Prospect hunting below Deccan basalt:
imaging challenges and solutions
Dhananjay Kumar,1,2 Ravi Bastia,2 and Debajyoti Guha2
Abstract
Thick Mesozoic sediments under the basalt cover of the
Deccan traps along the northwest coast of India are consid-
ered to be potential targets for hydrocarbon exploration
together with the Indus basin of Pakistan. Sub-basalt seismic
imaging is difficult in these formations, as the Deccan traps
are composed of multilayered lava flows. Seismic imaging
issues associated with high velocity basalt include:
1. Multiples generated in interbedded units of basalt and
between the top of the basalt and the sea floor.
2. Energy scattering from and absorption by hetero-
geneities.
3. Wave mode conversion at the top of the basalt.
Radon-based analysis can solve some of the difficulties relat-
ed to multiples. The use of low frequency sources and multi-
component technology are other methods commonly sug-
gested to improve sub-basalt imaging. The Deccan basalt
area is very heterogeneous and has not been mapped effec-
tively by high resolution seismic. At present, only standard
streamer data are available in this area. Model-based imag-
ing together with other methods can improve the sub-basalt
image and add confidence in the reservoir modelling.
Imaging challenges in this setting are discussed using exam-
ples from the Kutch basin on the northwest coast of India,
where the primary reservoir (Bhuj formation) is overlain by
thick basalt.
Introduction
The Gulf of Kutch on the northern part of the west coast of
India is a unique basin where the basaltic flow separates the
Tertiary from the Mesozoic sediments below. These
Cretaceous basaltic rocks are known as the Deccan traps.
The basalt is composed of multi-layered extrusive flows that
suggest at least 40 periodic pulses of lava forming inter-trap
deposits (ref. Short and Blair, 1986, Chapter 3). This gener-
ates heterogeneous basalt layers, which makes sub-basalt
imaging more difficult. Sub-basalt imaging has become an
important topic in geosciences communities, as targets are
obscured by the distinct elastic wave behaviour of the basalt.
Seismic velocities in basalt (P-wave velocities range from 4 to
6 km/s) are higher than those of surrounding sediments,
resulting in ray turning, wave-mode conversion, and scatter-
1
Corresponding address: Dhananjay Kumar, John A. and Katherine G. School of Geosciences, University of Texas Institute
for Geophysics, 4412 Spicewood Springs Rd., Bldg. 600, Austin, TX 78759, USA, Email: dhananjay@mail.utexas.edu
2
Address: Oil & Gas Division, Dhirubhai Ambani Knowledge City (DAKC), Thane Belapur Road, Navi Mumbai-400709
India, Email: Ravi_Bastia@ril.com, Debajyoti_Guha@ril.com
© 2004 EAGE
technical article
ing of seismic waves. A special issue on sub-basalt imaging
(Geophysical Prospecting, May 2003) covered various acqui-
sition and processing challenges in basaltic formations.
Fundamental issues identified are:
1. Multiple events generated in interbedded units of basalts
and between the top of the basalt and the sea floor.
2. Energy scattering and absorption from the hetero-
geneities.
3. Wave mode conversion at the top of the basalt.
Various authors have suggested different methods to improve
sub-basalt imaging dependent on the area and the associated
problems. The major concern is when multiples interfere
with primary reflections, which is typically tackled with
Radon filtering (ref. Yilmaz, 2001, Chapter 6; Spitzer et al.,
2003). Loss of frequency content at the interface of basalt
and sedimentary layers caused by the differential scattering
of high frequency components is another problem.
Ziolkowski, et al. (2003) propose to use a low frequency
source (less than 30 Hz) which can allow seismic energy to
penetrate through basalt. Also there is strong seismic wave-
mode conversion at the basalt-sediment interface due to the
high velocity contrast. Primary wave (P-wave) energy is con-
verted to shear wave (S-wave) energy at that interface. In this
geological setting, multicomponent data can give a better
image below basalt (Wang and Singh, 2003) by combining P-
wave and S-wave information. Hanssen, et al. (2000, 2003)
also conclude that locally converted shear waves (with a
weak signal) are difficult to use for imaging below basalt.
Another concern is the amplitude attenuation (seismic inelas-
tic behaviour) caused by heterogeneities, which should be
compensated for during seismic data analysis. Inverse Q-fil-
tering (Yilmaz, 2001) can be used to compensate the inelas-
tic effects. According to the work referred to, there is no sin-
gle method or processing flow which is robust for sub-basalt
imaging in all geological settings.
Though thick Mesozoic sediments with hydrocarbon
prospectivity occur below the Deccan traps, few geoscientific
studies have been carried out so far because of inadequate
seismic data and the sub-basalt imaging problems. Sain et al.
(2002) try to image the sub-basalt Mesozoic sediments using
wide-angle data but only demonstrate large scale features,
whereas for hydrocarbon exploration we are interested in
35
 technical article
Figure 1 Isopach map of the Deccan traps in the Kutch basin.
The area of interest is highlighted. Indus fan is also a current
area of exploration interest.
detailed images of the reservoir. We propose three studies to
achieve this objective:
1) Imaging problems associated with basalt,
2) Solutions to improve the image, and
3) Identification of potential hydrocarbon traps.
This article focusses on the Kutch basin, NW coast of India
(Figure 1). In this basin, the Bhuj formation is the main reser-
voir, and this is overlain by the thick basalt, which makes
imaging difficult.
Geology and lithology of the Kutch basin
The Kutch basin forms the northern part of the western con-
tinental margin of India that is classified as a passive margin.
Three contiguous NW-SE trending major tectonic elements
have been identified in the offshore Kutch basin (Figure 2).
36
first break volume 22, July 2004
These are:
1) The Kori Comorin depression.
2) The Kori Comorin ridge.
3) The Laxmi-Laccadive depression.
Figure 2 also shows four E-W trending onshore ridges. The
basin is pericratonic and can be sub-divided into NE-SW to
E-W trending and westerly plunging ridges and depressions.
The broad lithology of the Deccan trap associated system is
as follows.
The upper stratigraphy is composed of Tertiary sediments
dominated by limestone, sand and shale underlain by thick
basalt of Upper-Cretaceous to Palaeozoic, overlying Mesozoic
sediments. The thickness of basalt cover varies from 300 m in
the northwest to 2000 m in the southwest (Figure 1).
Seismic imaging problems and possible solutions
Many geoscientists have studied specific imaging problems
associated with basalts above reservoirs. Here we discuss the
issues related to sub-basalt imaging in the offshore Kutch
basin (Deccan basalt). The basalt in the Kutch basin differs
from many basalts in other parts of the world, as the thick-
ness of the basalt, composed of extrusive lava flows, varies
considerably. Therefore the basin is highly heterogeneous.
Seismic velocities are complex, and together with velocity
inversions introduce multiples, scattering, attenuation and
mode conversion.
Seismic multiples
In the offshore Kutch basin, there are three strong seismic
reflection interfaces:
1) The sea floor.
2) The top of the basalt.
3) The base of the basalt.
Figure 2 Tectonic trends in the Kutch
basin. Three continuous NW-SE trend-
ing tectonic elements in the offshore
Kutch basin and four E-W trending
onshore ridges are shown.
© 2004 EAGE
first break volume 22, July 2004
The strongest reflector is the top of the basalt. Therefore very
little energy passes through the basalt and this has a reduced
frequency content. Strongly reflected energy from the top of
basalt reflects many more times at interfaces between the sea
floor and basalt before it is recorded. The primary reflection
response from the top of the basalt is stronger than the mul-
tiples, and the multiples are stronger than the reflection
response from the sub-basalt reflectors. Radon filtering is
effective in suppressing multiples. Figure 3 shows the effects
of Radon filtering on seismic data from the Kutch basin.
Above the basalt, multiple events have been reduced signifi-
cantly (Figure 3).
The heterogeneous basalt in the Gulf of Kutch generates
interbed multiples and the signal to noise ratio deteriorates.
As shown in Figure 3, inside the basalt layers conventional-
© 2004 EAGE
technical article
Figure 3 Improvement in sub-basalt
image with radon transform, a) before
radon filtering, and b) after radon fil-
tering. In the intra-basalt portion of the
radon section (b) overall resolution is
poor, as we limit the frequency range
for the parabolic transformation.
Figure 4 A typical processed seismic
section in the Gulf of Kutch.
Resolution below traptop is poor.
Various horizons have been marked
including the Bhuj formation, which is
the primary zone of interest.
ly processed data show better resolution than Radon filtered
data, due to the limitation of the frequency range used for
the parabolic radon transformation (Spitzer et al., 2003). As
P-wave energy penetrates below the basalt, the signal
becomes very weak. In general, multiple energy dominates
over the signal. With Radon filtering, very little improve-
ment below the basalt is observed. Ringing has been reduced
and some amplitudes have been enhanced (Figure 3). Due to
the complicated velocity model, post-stack time migration
(Figure 4) is not effective. Pre-stack depth migration with an
anisotropy correction is recommended to collapse the scat-
tered energy at the correct position. (Silva and Corcoran,
2002). However, pre-stack depth migration is sensitive to
the velocity (and anisotropy parameters) and is also very
costly.
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 technical article
Figure 5 A 2D geological model of the Kutch basin. The Bhuj sand formation is the prime reservoir below basalt. This model
is based on the seismic data bearing in mind the tectonic picture of the Gulf of Kutch.
Scattering, frequency loss and attenuation
At the top of basalt and within the basalt there is a strong
scattering of seismic energy, which reduces both higher fre-
quencies and the strength of the signal (Figure 4). Some low
frequency seismic energy passes through the basalt, with a
consequent loss in resolution. Moderate frequencies (approx.
40 Hz central frequency) are used in present seismic data
acquisition. Seismic energy is highly attenuated in the com-
plex multi-layered basalt formation of the Kutch basin which
reduces the sub-basalt signal. Spitzer et al. (2003) model the
heterogeneous basalt layer with an attenuation factor (Q) of
30. Low Q indicates high attenuation, 30 is a low Q value.
This effect is normally not considered during seismic data
processing. However, inverse Q filtering can be a solution to
suppress the attenuation effects.
Mode conversion
Mode conversion of the incident wave (P-wave to S-wave
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first break volume 22, July 2004
Figure 6 A 3D geological model of the
Kutch basin. This is the overall geolog-
ical model in the Gulf of Kutch (scale is
approximate). It is based on the gener-
al geology and not on the seismic data.
and vice-versa) occurs at seismic interfaces. At the top of
basalt, non-vertically incident P-wave energy partly converts
to S-wave energy, and there is strong ray turning of P-waves
entering the basalt. Since the P-wave velocity of the overbur-
den sediment is close to the S-wave velocity of the basalt
layer, the geometry for the converted S-waves inside the
basalt is relatively simple. This converted wave (PS-wave)
can again convert back to a P-wave (PSP-wave) at the sea
floor before it is recorded. Converted P-waves (PSP- or PSSP-
waves) can be used for sub-basalt imaging (Barzaghi et al.
2002), but in practice they are very weak. For improved res-
olution, multicomponent data recording is required, which is
possible in a marine environment with ocean-bottom
receivers. At present, no multicomponent data are available
in the Kutch basin, however, if used, we expect imaging
improvements should be possible. The combined effects of
the above make sub-basalt imaging difficult. None of the
suggested mitigation methods are robust. Seismic wave prop-
© 2004 EAGE
first break volume 22, July 2004
agation effects are angle dependent; therefore the effect of
the issues discussed will be dependent on the angle of wave
propagation. Angle stack panels should be analyzed to select
the best image.
Potential hydrocarbon traps, offshore Kutch
Sub-basalt seismic imaging in the Kutch basin has been a
challenge to geoscientists. Two dimensional (Figure 5) and
three dimensional (Figure 6) geological models have been
developed to illustrate possible concepts. Two dimensional
models are based on seismic data bearing in mind the geolog-
ic and tectonic picture. These models cannot be correlated
exactly with the seismic data due to the poor images. Three
dimensional models are based on the geological information
and not on the seismic data; they show an overall model for
the Kutch basin. There are two phases of rifting in the Kutch
basin (Figure 5), first in the sand-prone Kaladongar, and later
in the Lower Bhuj (also sandy) formations. Between the two
was a calm period of carbonate deposition in the Jhurio and
Jumara formations. Carbonate deposits were followed by the
Jhuran (a good source rock), and Lower Bhuj (sand) forma-
tions. With the Upper Bhuj deposition the sag phase com-
menced (still a topic of discussion), followed by the Naliya
and Mundra (sag phase) formations. The Deccan traps over-
ly the sag phase. Exploration targets are the Bhuj sands
below the basalt.
Discussion and conclusions
The following seismic acquisition and processing techniques
are suggested for improving the seismic image:
1) Radon filtering for multiple suppression.
2) Pre-stack depth migration (with anisotropy correction, if
possible) for correct imaging.
3) Angle domain analysis to reduce the angle-dependent
wave propagation effects.
4) Use of low-frequency seismic sources to reduce scattering.
5) Inverse-Q filtering to compensate for the effects of atten-
uation.
6) Multi- component seismic data.
Even if only P-wave data with moderate source frequency are
available, pre-stack depth migration can improve the image
provided good interpretive knowledge has been incorporated
into the velocity model. With long offset seismic experi-
ments, rays can penetrate below the basalt, but this gives a
low resolution image and requires the application of higher
order normal move-out corrections during data processing.
Although geoscientists are often mainly concerned with mul-
tiples, it is both the effect of scattering and attenuation due
to heterogeneity and the presence of multiples which has
made sub-basalt imaging difficult.
The Mesozoic sediments below the Deccan basalt are
probable hydrocarbon reservoirs, but imaging is a problem
with the present data and methods available. Scattering at
the top of basalt redistributes the seismic energy, and only
© 2004 EAGE
technical article
low energy, low frequency signal passes through basalt.
Radon filtering helps improve the image above the top of
the basalt, as there is a high velocity contrast between pri-
mary and multiples, and a good signal to noise ratio. But
below the basalt, Radon filtering gives little improvement.
Long offset pre-stack multicomponent seismic data can help
improve the image. Model-based imaging together with
other discussed methods helped build the reservoir model in
the Kutch basin.
Acknowledgements
We thank Reliance Industries, Mumbai for allowing publica-
tion of this work, and its geosciences team for its help and
suggestions. We also thank Mrinal K Sen, University of Texas
Institute for Geophysics, for his suggestions. The authors
thank reviewers for their constructive suggestions.
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