Time-Harmonic EM Fields

by Roger F. Harrington
Chapter 2: Introduction to Waves

Reporter: Jason Wang

Advisor: Prof. Jean-Fu Kiang
 Notation
• Vectors
E → E
H → H
• Unit vector
ux → xˆ
uy → yˆ
uz → zˆ
• Admittivity and impedivity
yˆ → σ + jωε
zˆ → jωµ
 Wave Equation
• Wave: a field that is a function of both time and space
coordinates, solution to a wave equation
• Complex field equations
∇ × E = − jωµ H
∇ × H = jωε E
• Complex vector wave equation
∇ ×∇ × E − k 2E = 0
∇ × ∇ × H − k 2H = 0
– Wave number of the medium k = − ( jωµ )( jωε )
– H is a solution to the same complex wave equation as E
– Taking the divergence: ∇ ⋅ E = 0 ∇⋅H = 0
 Scalar Wave Equation
• Vector wave equations
∇2 E + k 2 E = 0
∇2 H + k 2 H = 0
• Complex scalar wave equation (Helmholtz
∇ψ +k ψ =0
equation)
2 2

– Wave function ψ
– EM fields can be constructed by choosing
k = ω εµ
solutions that satisfy the Helmholtz
d 2 Eequation
2
x
+ k 2
Ex = 0
– Perfect dielectric: dz
– One-dimensional Helmholtz equation
 Uniform Plane Wave
• Consider the solution: Ex = E0e−jkz
Ex µ
– Wave impedance η = =
Hy ε

• Intrinsic impedance of medium µ0

η0 = ≈ 120π ≈ 377 ohms
• Vacuum ε0
– Instantaneous fields 2
Ex ,inst = 2 E0 cos (ωt − kz ) H x ,inst = E0 cos (ωt − kz )
η

• Physical concept E H
– Plane wave: phase (kz) of and is constant over a set of
equiphase surfaces (z = constant)
E H
– Uniform: amplitudes of and are constant over set of
equiphase planes
 Parameters of Plane Wave
– In phase: same phases at any point ( E and H )
– Traveling wave: direction of travel; in this solution +z
direction
– Polarization: specify the behavior of E ; in this solution the
wave is linearly polarized (E lines are always parallel to
the x axis)
– Phase velocity: velocity at which an equiphase surface
travels dz p ω 1
vp = = =
• Intrinsic phase velocity dt k εµ
– Wavelength: distance in which the phase increases by 2π
2π 2π v p v p
λ= = =
k ω f
• Usual circuit theory based on assumption that distance are much
shorter than wavelength
 Uniform Plane Wave
• Given a plane-wave solution, other uniform plane-
wave solutions can be obtained by rotations of the
coordinate axis
– For waves traveling in +z and –z directions
+ − jkz + A
E = Ae H = e − jkz
x y
η
−B
E y+ = Be − jkz H x+ = e − jkz
η
−C
Ex− = Ce jkz H y− = e jkz
η
D
E y− = De jkz H x− = e jkz
η
 Uniform Plane Wave
• Consider the wave
E0
Ex = E0 e − jkz Hy = e − jkz
η
– Energy and power quantities
ε 2 ε
we = Einst = ε E02 cos 2 (ωt − kz ) wm = 2
H inst = ε E02 cos 2 (ωt − kz )
2 2
2
Sinst = Einst × H inst = zˆ E02 cos 2 (ωt − kz )
η
E02
S = E × H = zˆ
*

η
– Velocity of propagation of energy
power flow density Sinst
ve = =
energy density we + wm
1
• Uniform traveling wave: ve =
µε
 Standing Wave
• Consider standing wave solution
E0
Ex = E0 sin kz Hy = j cos kz
η
E0
Ex ,inst = 2 E0 sin kz cos ωt H y ,inst = − 2 cos kz sin ωt
η
– Phase is independent of z, there is no traveling motion
– Uniform plane wave and linearly polarized
– Energy and power quantities
ε µ
we = 2
Einst = ε E02 sin 2 kz cos 2 ωt wm = 2
H inst = ε E02 cos 2 kz sin 2 ωt
2 2
E02
Sinst = Einst × H inst = − zˆ sin 2kz sin 2ωt
2η
jE02
S = E × H = − zˆ
*
sin 2kz
2η
 Superposition of Waves
• Consider a superposition of waves traveling in
opposite direction and unequal amplitudes
H = ( Ae − Ce )
− jkz 1 − jkz
E = Ae + Ce jkz jkz
x
η y

– If A = 0 or C = 0, the wave is a pure traveling wave

– If |A| = |C|, the wave is a pure standing wave
– For A ≠ C where A and C are real and the field expressed in
terms of amplitude and phase…
− j tan −1 ( AA−+CC tan kz )
Ex = A + C + 2 AC cos 2kze
2 2

– Standing-wave pattern
A2 + C 2 + 2 AC cos 2kz
A+C
• Standing-wave ratio (SWR): SWR =
A−C
 Traveling Wave
• Consider a traveling wave where both x and y
components exist
E = ( xA
? + yB ) e− jkz
1 − jkz
H = ( − xB + yA) e
?
η
– If B = 0, the wave is linearly polarized in x direction
– If A = 0, the wave is linearly polarized in y direction
– If A and B are both real, the wave is linearly polarized with
axis of polarized inclined at angle tan-1 (B/A)
– If A and B are complex with different phase angles, E will
not point in a single direction
 Polarizations
– For A = |A|eja and B = |B|ejb, instantaneous electric intensity
Ex ,inst = 2 A cos (ωt − kz + a )
E y ,inst = 2 B cos (ωt − kz + b )
• Vector picture of changes in amplitude and direction
E
• Elliptically polarized: vector picture traces out an ellipse
• Circularly polarized: vector picture traces out a circle
• Right-handed: rotates according to R.H.S.
• Left-handed E
– For A = jB = E0

E0
E = ( z? − jy?) E0 e− jkz H = ( z − jy ) j e − jkz
• Right-handed circular polarization η
 Circularly Polarized Standing Wave
• Energy and power quantities
ε ε
we = 2
Einst = ε E02 wm = 2
H inst = ε E02
2 2
2 2
Sinst = Einst × H inst = u z E02 S = E × H * = u z E02
η η
• No change in energy and power densities with time or space
• Circular polarization gives a steady power flow
• Consider circularly polarized standing-wave field
E0
E = ( x? + jy ) E0 sin kz H = ( x? + jy ) j cos kz
η
Einst = ( x? cos ωt − y sin ωt ) 2 E0 sin kz
E
H inst = ( x? cos ωt − y sin ωt ) 2 0 cos kz
η
• Einst and H inst are always parallel to each other
• Amplitudes are independent of time
Standing Wave: Energy and Power
– Energy and power densities
ε
we = 2
Einst = ε E02 sin 2 kz
2
ε
wm = 2
H inst = ε E02 cos 2 kz
2
Sinst = Einst × H inst = 0
j
S = E × H * = − zˆ E02 sin 2kz
η
• Instantaneous energy and power densities are independent of time
• This field can represent resonance between two perfectly
conducting planes situated where E is zero
 Intrinsic Wave Constants
• The wave number k and intrinsic impedance η
specifies the characteristics of a medium
k = − ( jωµ )( jωε ) η= ( jωµ ) ( jωε )
• General complex form of wave number
k = k' − jk"
Im
(ωµ ''+ jωµ ')
(σ + ωε ''+ jε ')(ωµ ''+ jωµ ') (σ + ωε ''+ jε ')
– Intrinsic phase constant k'
– Intrinsic attenuation constant k" k'
Re
k ''
σ + ωε ''+ jε ' k
− (σ + ωε ''+ jε ' )(ωµ ''+ jωµ ')
ωµ ''+ jωµ '
 Intrinsic Wave Impedance
• Intrinsic wave impedance η Im (ωµ ''+ jωµ ')

η = R + jX (σ + ωε ''+ jε ')
(σ + ωε ''+ jε ') / (ωµ ''+ jωµ ')
– Intrinsic wave resistance R X
k

R Re
– Intrinsic wave reactance X
1/ (ωµ ''+ jωµ ' )

• Consider the case of no magnetic loss

η=
( ωµ ''+ jωµ ') (ωµ ''+ jωµ ') k *
= =−
jk * (ωµ ''+ jωµ ')
jk jkk *
(ωµ ''+ jωµ ') (σ + ωε ''+ jε ')
k*
for (ωµ ''+ jωµ ') = jωµ = j (ωµ ''+ jωµ ') ⇒ η=
(σ + ωε ''+ jε ')
 Complex Wave Equation
• Consider the complex scalar wave equation
∇ 2ψ + k 2ψ = 0
– In lossy media k is complex
– In loss-free media k is real
– Field solution for lossy media
Ex = E0 e − jkz = E0 e− k '' z e − k ' z
– H associated with E
E0 E0
Hy = e − jkz = e − iζ e− k '' z e − jk ' z where η = η eiζ
η η
 Dielectric Materials
• Three special cases of materials with no magnetic
losses
– Perfect dielectric
k = ω µε η= µ ε
– Good dielectric
ε ' ? ε ''

⎛ ε '' ⎞ ⎛ ε '' ⎞
k = ω µε ' ⎜1 − j ⎟ ≈ ω µε ' ⎜1 − j ⎟
⎝ ε ' ⎠ ⎝ 2ε ' ⎠
k* µ⎛ ε '' ⎞
η= ≈ ⎜1 + j ⎟
(ωε ''+ jε ') ε ' ⎝ 2ε ' ⎠
 Conductor Material
– Good conductor
σ ? ωε

k = − jωµ (σ + jωε ) ≈ − jωµσ

k* jωµ
η= ≈
(σ + ωε ) σ
 Complex Wave Equation
• Corresponding instantaneous fields
Ex ,inst = 2 E0 e − k '' z cos (ωt − k ' z )
E0
H y ,inst = 2 e − k '' z cos (ωt − k ' z − ζ )
η
– Instantaneous H and E are no longer in phase
– E and H are still uniform, planar, and linearly polarized
– Phase velocity and wavelength remains unchanged
ω 2π v p
vp = λ= =
k' k' f
• Velocity of a plane in constant phase: vp
• Distance in which the phase increases by 2π : λ
 Good Dielectrics
• Consider the case of good dielectrics (low-loss)
k ' = ω µε ' ⎫
⎪
ωε '' µ ⎪
k '' =
2 ε'⎪
⎪
µ ⎬ in a good dielectric ( ε '' = ε ')
η = ⎪
ε' ⎪
−1 ε ''
⎪
ζ = tan ⎪
2ε ' ⎭
– Attenuation is very small, E and H are nearly in phase
– Intrinsic impedance, phase velocity, and wavelength in a
dielectric is usually less than that of free space
 Good Conductor
• Consider the case of good conductor (high-loss)
ωµσ ⎫
k'= ⎪
2 ⎪
ωµσ ⎪
k '' = ⎪
⎪
⎬ in a good conductor (σ ? ωε )
2
ωµ ⎪
η = ⎪
σ ⎪
π ⎪
ζ = ⎪⎭
4
– Attenuation is very large, H lags E by 45°
– Intrinsic impedance is extremely small at RF and wavelength
is very small compared to free-space wavelength
 Skin Effect
• Skin effect: localization of a field in a thin surface
layer
– Skin depth: distance at which a wave is attenuated to 1/e of
its initial value 2 1 λm
δ= = =
ωµσ k '' 2π
• Wavelength in metal λm
– Small for good conductors at radio frequencies
• Density of power flow into the conductor
S = E × H * = zˆ H 0 ηm
2

– Time-average power dissipation: Pd = H 0 R

2

– Intrinsic resistance of metal R = Re (ηm)

 Normal Wave Reflection
• “…wave impedances normal to Region (1) Region (2)

a material boundary must be Incident

Transmitted
continuous” Reflected

– Field in (1) is the sum of an incident and reflected wave

(
Ex(1) = E0 e − jk1z + Γe jk1z )
(1)
Hy =
E0
η1
( e − jk1z − Γe jk1z )
– Field in (2) is the transmitted wave
Ex( 2) = E0Te − jk2 z
( 2) E0
Hy = Te − jk2 z
η1
 Normal Wave Reflection
• In order to satisfy the continuity of wave impedance
at the interface…
Ex (1) 1+ Γ
Zz = = η1 = η2
z =0
H y (1) 1− Γ
z =0
– Reflection coefficient
η2 − η1
Γ=
η2 + η1
– For continuity of Ex at z = 0, the transmission coefficient
can be derived as…
2η2
T = 1+ Γ =
η2 + η1 (1)
Emax 1+ Γ
– If (1) is a perfect dielectric: SWR = (1)
=
Emin 1− Γ
 Power Density of Waves
• Density of power transmitted across the interface
Strans = Re E × H * ⋅ zˆ
z =0
(
= Sinc 1 − Γ
2
) where Sinc = E02 η1
– Incident power density
Sinc = E02 η1
– Reflected power (difference between transmitted and
incident)
S refl = Sinc Γ
2
 Oblique Wave Reflection
• Consider a plane wave incident at Region (1) Region (2)
d
Re itte
an angle upon a plane dielectric flec
ted Transm
θr θt
boundary θi
en
t
z
id
Inc
– For continuity of tangential E and H
over the entire interface…
k1 sin θi = k1 sin θ r = k2 sin θt
– Angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence
k1 sin θi = k1 sin θ r ⇒ θi = θ r
– Snell’s law of refraction
sin θt k1 v2 ε1µ1
k1 sin θ r = k2 sin θt ⇒ = = =
sin θi k2 v1 ε 2 µ2
 Oblique Wave Reflection
• For E parallel to the interface, then for (1)
(
Ex(1) = A e − jk1z cosθi + Γe jk1z cosθr )
H y(1) =
A
η1
(
cos θi e − jk1z cosθ − Γe jk1z cosθr )
– Wave impedance
(1) Ex(1) η1 1 + Γ
Z = =
H y(1) cos θi 1 − Γ
z

– Reflection coefficient for H parallel to the interface

η2 cos θt − η1 cos θi
Γ=
η2 cos θt + η1 cos θi
(1) 1+ Γ
Emax
– Standing-wave-ratio: SWR = (1)
=
Emin 1− Γ
 Total Transmission
• Total transmission occurs for Γ = 0
– For E parallel to the interface
η2 η1
Γ=0 ⇒ =
cos θt cos θi
– Applying Snell’s law results in the angle at which no
reflection occurs
ε 2 ε1 − µ2 µ1
sin θi =
µ1 µ2 − µ2 µ1
• Does not always have a real solution
• For nonmagnetic dielectrics (µ1 = µ2 = µ0) there is no angle of total
transmission when E is parallel to the boundary
 Total Transmission
– For H parallel to the boundary
ε 2 ε1 − µ2 µ1
sin θ i =
ε 2 ε1 − ε1 ε 2
– Nonmagnetic case: Brewster angle
ε2 ε2
θi = sin −1
= tan −1

ε1 + ε 2 ε1
 Total Reflection
• Total reflection occurs for |Γ| = 1
– Point of transition between real and imaginary values of the
transmitted angle and wave impedance is the critical angle
ε 2 µ2
sin θi =
ε1µ1
• A wave incident upon the boundary at an angle equal to or greater
than the critical angel will be completely reflected
• Real critical angle only exist for intrinsic impedance of (1) greater
than (2)
R − jX
– Reflection coefficient Γ =
R + jX
– For (1) nonmagnetic dielectric, (2) nonmagnetic conductor
sin θt k1 jωε
= ≈
sin θi k2 σ
 Transmission Line Equations
• Consider the following I I + dI

two-conductor
V V + dV
transmission line
dz

• AC transmission-line equations
dV dI
= − IZ = −VY
dz dz
• Impedance per unit length Z
• Shunt admittance per unit length Y
– If Z and Y are independent of z, transmission line is
uniform
 Transmission Line Parameters
• One-dimensional Helmholtz equation
d 2V d 2I
2
− ZYV = 0 2
− ZYI = 0
dz dz
• Propagation constant
γ = ZY
• Characteristic impedance of the transmission line
Z
Z0 =
Y
Z = R + jω L Y = G + jωC
 TEM Mode
• Assume perfect conductors immersed in a
homogenous medium
γ E y = − jωµ H x γ H y = jωε Ex
γ Ex = jωµ H y γ H x = − jωε E y
∂E y ∂Ex ∂H y ∂H x
− =0 − =0
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
• Propagation constant: γ = jk
– “The propagation constant of any TEM wave is the
intrinsic propagation constant of the medium.”
– “…the Z-directed wave impedance of any TEM wave is the
intrinsic wave impedance of the medium.”
 TEM Mode
– “…each component of E and H satisfies the two-
dimensional Laplace equation, summarized by the
transverse Laplacian operator”
– Capacitances and inductances under static cases can be
used for transmission lines even thought the field is time-
harmonic
 Transmission Line: L and C
• Electrostatic capacitance
q ε C2
C= =
V V ∫
C2
En dl

• Magnetostatic inductance C1
ψ µ
I ∫
L= = H n dl
I C1

• Relationship between characteristic impedance of the

line and electrostatic capacitance
V ε
Z0 = = η
I C
• Relationship between characteristic impedance of the
line and magnetostatic inductance
V L
Z0 = = η
I µ
 Attenuation Constant
• For a lossy dielectric with perfect conductors, the wave
attenuates in the direction of travel where the attenuation
constant is the intrinsic attenuation constant of the
dielectric
• For imperfect conductors, waves are no longer TEM and
the waves are characterized by the propagation constant…
γ = α + jβ
• Attenuation constant
Pd
α=
2 Pf
Pf = Re ( P0 ) e −2α z Pd = 2α Pf
 Waveguide
X Z

• Waveguides are systems that

guide waves a
Y
n of
Y’ y ti o n b Y
i rec gatio
D pa
pro
Z’ Consider two uniform
ξ
y’ Plane wave propagating
plane waves traveling
at an angle ξ with respect
to x-z plane
at angles ξ and −ξ
ξ
z Z
Ex = E0 sin ( kc y ) e −γ z
– For the field to exist within a rectangular waveguide, the
condition Ex = 0 at y = b needs to be satisfied

• Permissible π b of kc knownn as
kc = nvalues = 1,eigenvalues
2,3,... or characteristic
values
 Waveguide Modes
• Choice of n in determines a possible field or mode
– Transverse electric (TE) mode has no Ez component
• TE0n where subscript denotes no variation in x
– Transverse magnetic (TM) mode has no Hz component
– All the modes in the rectangular waveguide fall into one of
these two classes
• For a real k, propagation constant defined as
⎧ j β = j k 2 − nπ b 2
⎪ ( ) k > nπ b
γ =⎨
⎪ a = ( nπ b )2 − k 2 k < nπ b
⎩
– Propagating mode
– Nonpropagating mode
 Waveguide Parameters
• Cutoff frequency: transition frequency between
propagating and nonpropagating mode
n
fc =
2b εµ
• Cutoff wavelength
2b
λc =
n
• Guide wavelength: distance in which the phase of E
increase by 2π
λ
λg =
1 − ( fc f )
2

– Guide wavelength is always greater than intrinsic

 Waveguide Parameters
• Guided phase velocity: velocity at which a point of
constant phase of E travels
ω vp
vg = =
β 1 − ( fc f )
2

– Intrinsic phase velocity vp

• Characteristic wave impedance
⎧ η
⎪ f > fc
( )
2
Ex ⎪ 1 − f c f
Zz = =⎨
Hy ⎪ jη
f < fc
⎪ f f 2 −1
⎩ ( c )
 Resonator
• Resonator frequencies refers to the specific
frequencies at which electromagnetic fields can exist
within a source-free region enclose by a perfect
conductor in a loss-free case
• With losses, a source must exist to sustain oscillations
– The input impedance seen at the source behaves similarly
to the impedance of an LC circuit
 Rectangular Cavity
• Consider a rectangular X Z
cavity consisting of a perfect
conductor enclosing a perfect
a
dielectric c
Ex = E0 sin (π y b ) sin β z b Y
– To satisfy boundary conditions, the resonant frequency is
determined to be 1 b2 + c2
fr =
2bc εµ
– When a is the smallest cavity dimension, the resonant
frequency of the dominant mode is called TE011 mode,
where the extra subscript indicates the first order zero for
sin βz
 Resonator Quality Factor
– Definition of Q-factor
ω × total energy stored ωW
Q= =
average power dissipated Pd

• If losses are taken into consideration, a quality factor

can be defined
ωε ' ∫∫∫ E dτ
2
ε'
– Dielectric loss Qd = =
ωε '' ∫∫∫ E dτ
2
ε ''

( )
32
πη a b +c 2 2

– Conductor loss Qc =
(
2 R bc b 2 + c 2 ) + 2a ( b 3
+ c3 )
1 1 1
– Overall loss = +
Q Qd Qc
 Summary of Wave Parameters
• Wave function: complex function of coordinates
representing an instantaneous function
ψ = A ( x, y , z ) e j Φ ( x , y , z )
– Corresponding instantaneous function
2 A ( x, y, z ) cos ⎡⎣ωt + Φ ( x, y, z ) ⎤⎦
– Magnitude A of the complex function is the rms amplitude
of the instantaneous function
– Phase Φ of the complex function is the initial phase of the
instantaneous function
– Surfaces over which the phase is constant are called
equiphase surfaces
 Summary of Wave Parameters
• Waves are called plane, cylindrical, or spherical
depending on their equiphase surface
• Uniform waves: amplitude A is constant over
equiphase surfaces
– Perpendiculars to the equiphase surfaces are called wave
normals
• Phase constant: rate at which the phase decreases in
some direction
• Phase velocity: velocity of surfaces of constant phase
in a particular direction
 Summary of Wave Parameters
• For the wave function expressed as…
ψ = eθ ( x , y , z )
– Vector propagation constant: rate of change of θ
γ = −∇θ = α + j β
• Vector attenuation constant α
• Wave impedance: ratios of components of E and H
• Poynting vector in terms of wave impedances
( )
2
Sz = E × H = Z xy H y + Z yz + H z
+
* 2