1 Fourier Analysis on Z(N )

1.1 Introduction
Definition 1.1. Z(N ) = 1, e2πi/N , · · · , e2πi(N −1)/N denotes the multiplicative group of N th roots of unity.


Consider the N functions e0 , · · · , eN −1 defined by

el (k) = ζ lk = e2πilk/N for l = 0, · · · , N − 1 and k = 0, · · · , N − 1

where ζ = e2πi/N . If V denotes the set of complex-valued functions on Z(N ), then V has a natural structure
as a C-vector space, and we can define a Hermitian inner product on V by

N
X −1
hF, Gi = F (k)G(k)
k=0

with associated norm

N −1
! 21
X 2
kF k = |F (k)|
k=0

Lemma 1.2. {e0 , · · · , eN −1 } is orthogonal with respect to h, i.

Proof. In fact, I claim that 

N n=m
hen , em i =
0 n 6= m
N −1 N −1 N −1 
N
X
2πink/N −2πimk/N
X
2πik(n−m)/N
X
2πi(n−m)/N
k 1 − e2πi(n−m)/N
hen , em i = e e = e = e = =0
k=0 k=0 k=0
1 − e2πi(n−m)/N

ek
Proposition 1.3. ∀k = 0, · · · , N − 1 set e∗k = Then e∗0 , · · · , e∗N −1 is an orthonormal basis for V .

√
N
.

Proof. Since {e0 , · · · , eN −1 } is orthogonal, it is a linearly independent set. It is evident that dim(V ) = N ⇒
√
{e0 , · · · , eN −1 } is a basis. Scaling by 1/ N ⇒ e∗0 , · · · , e∗N −1 is orthonormal.


Consequently, ∀F ∈ V we may write

N
X −1 N
X −1
2 2
∀k ∈ Z(N ), F = hF, e∗n ie∗n ; kF k = |hF, e∗n i| (1.1)
n=0 n=0

Definition 1.4. We define the nth Fourier coefficient of F by

N −1
1 1 X
an = √ hF, e∗n i = F (k)e−2πink/N
N N
k=0

Theorem 1.5. If F : Z(N ) → C, then

N
X −1
F (k) = an e2πink/N
n=0

1
and
N −1 N −1
X 2 1 X 2
|an | = |F (k)|
n=0
N
k=0

Proof. The first assertion is proved above. For the second, observe that

N −1 N −1  2 NX−1
1 X 2 1 2
X  1 ∗ 
 2
|F (k)| = kF k =  √ hF, e n i = |an |
N N n=0
 N 
n=0
k=0

1.2 Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)

Fix N ∈ N and suppose that we are given F (0), · · · , F (N − 1) and ωN = e−2πi/N .

Theorem 1.6. Given ωN = e−2πi/N with N = 2n for n ∈ N, it is possible to calculate the Fourier coefficients
of a function on Z(N ) with at most

4 · 2n n = 4N log2 (N ) = O(N log N )

operations

Let #(M ) denote the minimum number of operators needed to calculate all Fourier coefficients of any
function on Z(M ).

Lemma 1.7. If we are given ω2M = e−2πi/(2M ) , then

#(2M ) ≤ 2#(M ) + 8M

Proof.

2
2 Fourier Analysis on Finite Abelian Groups
2.1 Characters
Definition 2.1. Let G be a finite abelian group (we will use multiplicative notation). A character on G is a
(multiplicative) homomorphism χ : G → S 1 . The trivial or unit character is defined by χ(a) = 1 ∀a ∈ G.
If we only assume that G is a topological group (i.e. not necessarily finite), then we add the condition that
a character is a continuous homomorphism. Indeed, any character on a finite group G is continuous with
respect to the discrete topology on G.

If G is a finite abelian group, we denote by Ĝ the set of all characters of G.

Lemma 2.2. Ĝ has a natural abelian group structure under multiplication defined by

(χ1 · χ2 )(a) = χ1 (a) · χ2 (a) ∀a ∈ G

We call Ĝ the dual group of G.

Lemma 2.3. Let G be a finite abelian group, and χ : G → C∗ a multiplicative function. Then χ is a
character.

Proof. It is obvious that χ(e) = 1. Let g ∈ G and let n denote the order of g. Then

1 = χ(e) = χ(g n ) = χ(g)n ⇒ χ(g) ∈ Z(n) ⊂ S 1

2.2 Orthogonality Relations

Let V denote the |G|-dimensional C-vector space of complex-valued functions on the finite abelian group G.
We define a Hermitian inner product on V by

1 X
hf, gi = f (a)g(a) (f, g ∈ V )
|G|
a∈G

P
Lemma 2.4. If χ 6= 1 ∈ Ĝ, then a∈G χ(a) = 0.

Proof. Since χ 6= 1, ∃b ∈ G such that χ(b) 6= 1 ∈ C. Observe that b induces an automorphism of G by left
multiplication. Hence,
X X X X
χ(b) χ(a) = χ(b · a) = χ(a) ⇒ χ(a) = 0
a∈G a∈G a∈G a∈G

Proposition 2.5. The characters of G form an orthonormal set with respect to h, i. χ = χ0 .

Proof. Let χ, χ0 ∈ Ĝ. Then χ00 = χ · χ0 ∈ Ĝ. Hence,

1 X 1 X 00
hχ, χ0 i = χ(a)χ0 (a) = χ (a)
|G| |G|
a∈G a∈G

If χ 6= χ0 , then χ00 6= 1. By the lemma, χ(a)χ0 (a) = 0. Clearly, hχ, χ0 i = 1 if

P
a∈G

3
Lemma 2.6. Let N ∈ N. The characters of the cyclic group Z(N ) are e0 , · · · , eN −1 .

Proof. It is evident that ∀k = 0, · · · , N −1 ek ∈ Ĝ. By the previous proposition, {e0 , · · · , eN −1 } is an orthogo-

nal and hence linearly
  independent set of length N for V . Furthermore, since Ĝ is a linearly independent sub-
set of V , we have Ĝ ≤ dim(V ) = |G| = N . Hence, {e0 , · · · , eN −1 } is basis for Ĝ ⇒ Ĝ = {e0 , · · · , eN −1 }.
 

\) ' Z(N ).
Corollary 2.7. Z(N

Proof. Obvious.

Theorem 2.8. The characters of a finite abelian group G form a basis for the C-vector space Ĝ. In other
words, Ĝ is a basis for V .

Proof. By the structure theorem for finitely generated abelian groups,

G ' Zq1 ⊕ Zq2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Zqn

where q1 , · · · , qn are prime powers. The assertion follows from the lemma.

2.3 Fourier Inversion and Plancherel Formula

Definition 2.9. Let G be a finite abelian group, f : G → C and χ ∈ Ĝ. We define the Fourier coefficient
of f with respect to χ by
1 X
fˆ(χ) = hf, χi = f (a)χ(a)
|G|
a∈G

and the Fourier series of f as

X
f∼ fˆ(χ)χ
χ∈Ĝ

Since Ĝ is a basis for V , we know that

X X
f= cχ χ ⇒ cχ = hf, χi ⇒ f = fˆ(χ)χ
χ∈Ĝ χ∈Ĝ

 ˆ 2
 
2 P
Theorem 2.10. If f : G → C, then kf k = χ∈Ĝ  f (χ)  .

4
3 Exercises
1. (SS p. 237 #5)

Lemma 3.1. If F : R → C is continuous and satisfies F (x + y) = F (x)F (y), then either F (x) =
0 ∀x ∈ R or F (x) = eAx for some A.

Proof. If F (0) = 0, then F (x) = 0 ∀x ∈ R. Assume F 6= 0. Fix x ∈ R. ∃δ > 0 such that c =

Rδ
0
F (y)dy 6= 0. Hence,
Z x+δ Z δ Z δ
F (t)dt = F (y + x)dy = F (x) F (y)dy = cF (x)
x 0 0

Define G : R → R by
Z x+δ
1
G(x) = F (t)dt
c x

1
By the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, G is differentiable and G0 (x) = F (x) ⇒ F is differentiable
c
and F satisfies the differential equation
dF
= cF (x)
dx
⇒ F (x) = eAx for some A ∈ C by the uniqueness of first-order initial value problems (Picard-Lindelöf
Theorem).

All the characters on S 1 are given by en (x) = e2πinx for n ∈ Z and S

c1 → Z, en 7→ n defines an
isomorphism.

Proof. Let f : S 1 → S 1 be a continuous homomorphism. Since f 6= 0, by the lemma f (x) = eAx for
some A ∈ C. Since f (1) = 1, we must have A = 2πn for some n ∈ N. Hence, S c1 ⊂ {en : n ∈ N}. It is
evident that en (x) = e2πinx is a character on S 1 ⇒ S
c1 = {en : n ∈ N}.
That en 7→ n defines an isomorphism onto the additive group of integers is obvious.

2. (SS p. 237 # 6) All the characters on R take the form eξ (x) = e2πiξx for ξ ∈ R and R̂ → R, eξ 7→ ξ
defines an isomorphism.

Proof. The argument is the same as in SS p. 237 #5. By the lemma, f ∈ R̂ ⇒ f (x) = eAx for some
A ∈ C. Since |f (x)| = 1 ∀x ∈ R, A = 2πiξ for ξ ∈ R.
PN
3. (SS p.238 # 8) Suppose that P (x) = n=1 an e2πinx .

(a)
Z 1 N   2
2 1 X  j 
|P (x)| dx = P
0 N j=1  N 

k


Proof. By uniqueness, the Fourier coefficients of P are an . Define F : Z(N ) → C by F (k) = P N .
PN
Then by Theorem 1.5, F (k) = n=1 an e2πink/N . Applying Parseval’s identity,

Z 1 N N N N
2 2
X 2
X 2 1 X 2 1 X   n 2
|P (x)| dx = kP k = |an | = |hF, e∗n i| = |F (k)| =
N n=1 N n=1 N
P 
0 n=1 n=1

5
 (b) (Reconstruction Formula)

N     N
X j j 1 X 2πinx
P (x) = P K x− where K(x) = e
j=1
N N N n=1

Proof. Let F be as in (a). Then

N N  
1 X 1 X j
an = F (j)e−2πinj/N = P e−2πinj/N
|N | j=1 N j=1 N

  !
N N N   N   N
1 j j 1 X 2πin(x−k/N )
X X X X
⇒ P (x) = an e 2πinx
= P e−2πinj/N  e2πinx = P e
n=1 n=1
N j=1
N j=1
N N n=1

N    
X j j
= P K x−
j=1
N N

4. (SS p. 238 # 12) Suppose that G is a finite abelian group and χ : G → C satisfies χ(x · y) =
χ(x)χ(y) ∀x, y ∈ G. Then either χ = 0 or χ(x) 6= 0 ∀x ∈ G. In the second case, for each x ∈ G, χ(x) =
p
e2πir for some r = q ∈ Q, where q = |G|.

Proof. Suppose χ 6= 0. Since ∀x ∈ G, χ(x) = χ(x · e) = χ(x)χ(e), we have that χ(e) 6= 0. Let x ∈ G.
By Lagrange’s theorem, x|G| = e. Hence,
 
0 6= χ(e) = χ x|G| = χ(x)|G| ⇒ χ(x) 6= 0

By Lemma 2.3, χ ∈ Ĝ. By polar representation, for each x ∈ Gχ(x) = e2πir where r ∈ R. Since Ĝ is a
finite group by Lemma 2.2 and Theorem 2.8, χ|G| = 1Ĝ ⇒ e2πir|G| = 1 ⇒ r |G| = p ∈ Z. Hence, r = pq ,
where q = |G|.

5. (SS p. 239 # 13) Suppose G is a finite abelian group, 1G its unit, and V the C-vector space of
f : G → C.

Definition 3.2. The convolution of f, g ∈ V is defined ∀a ∈ G by

1 X
(f ∗ g)(a) = f (b)g(a · b−1 )
|G|
b∈G

\
(a) ∀χ ∈ Ĝ, (f ∗ g)(χ) = fˆ(χ)ĝ(χ).

Proof. ∀χ ∈ Ĝ,
!
\ 1 X 1 X 1 X −1
(f ∗ g)(χ) = (f ∗ g)(a)χ(a) = f (b)g(a · b ) χ(a)
|G| |G| |G|
a∈G a∈G b∈G

!
1 X 1 X 1 X
= f (b) −1
g(a · b )χ(a · b−1 ) χ(b) = ĝ(χ) f (b)χ(b) = ĝ(χ)fˆ(χ) = fˆ(χ)ĝ(χ)
|G| |G| |G|
b∈G a∈G b∈G

6
(b) Whenever c 6= 1G ∈ G
X
χ(c) = 0
χ∈Ĝ

fˆ(χ)χ ⇒ fˆ(χ) = 1 ∀χ ∈ Ĝ. Let g ∈ V

P P
Proof. Set f = χ∈Ĝ χ. Then by Theorem 2.8, f = χ∈Ĝ
such that g(1G ) = |G| and and g(a) = 0 ∀a 6= 1G ∈ G.

1 X 1 1
∀χ ∈ Ĝ, hg, χi = g(a)χ(a) = g(1G )χ(1G ) = |G| = 1
|G| |G| |G|
a∈G

P
By uniqueness, f = χ∈Ĝ χ = g, from which the claim follows immediately.

fˆ(χ)χ(a) of f ∈ V has the form

P
(c) The Fourier series Sf (a) = χ∈Ĝ

Sf = f ∗ D

where 
|G| if c = 1
X G
D(c) = χ(c) =
0 otherwise
χ∈Ĝ

Proof. Let f ∈ V . We showed in (b) that D̂ is the trivial map Ĝ → C∗ . Hence,

X X X
Sf = fˆ(χ)χ = fˆ(χ)D̂(χ)χ = (f\
∗ D)χ = f ∗ D
χ∈Ĝ χ∈Ĝ χ∈Ĝ

where we apply (a) in fˆD̂ = (f\

∗ D).

7
4 Basic Number Theory and Other Preliminaries
4.1 Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic
Theorem 4.1. (Euclid’s Algorithm) ∀a, b ∈ Z with b > 0 there exist unique q, r ∈ Z with 0 ≤ r < b such
that
a = qb + r

Proof. First, existence. Let S = {a − qb ≥ 0 : q ∈ Z}. Evidently, S 6= ∅. Let r ∈ S be the minimal element
so that r = a − qb for some q. Then r ≥ 0. Suppose r ≥ b. Then we may write r = b + s with 0 ≤ s < r.
Hence,
a − qb = r = b + s ⇒ a − (q + 1)b = s ⇒ s ∈ S

which contradicts that r is the minimal element of S.

For uniqueness, suppose a = q1 b + r1 = q2 b + r2 , where the qi and ri satisfy the aforementioned conditions.
Then
0 = (q1 − q2 )b + (r1 − r2 ) ⇒ (q1 − q2 )b = (r2 − r1 )

|(q1 − q2 )b| ∈ {0, kb} for k 6= 0 ∈ N, whereas |r2 − r1 | < b. Hence, q1 = q2 ; r1 = r2 .

Theorem 4.2. (Bezout’s Identity) If gcd(a, b) = d, then ∃x, y ∈ Z such that ax + by = d.

Proof. Let S = {ax + by > 0 : x, y ∈ Z}. Clearly, S 6= ∅. Let s ∈ S be the minimal element. Then ∃x, y ∈ Z
such that ax + by = s. I claim that s = d. If d0 is any divisor of both a and b, then clearly d0 |s ⇒ d0 ≤ s. By
Euclid’s algorithm, we may write a = qs + r, where 0 ≤ r < s.

qax + qby = qs = a − r ⇒ r = a(1 − qx) + b(−qy) ⇒ r = 0

otherwise r contradicts that s is the minimal element of S. The same argument shows that s|b ⇒ s ≤ d by
definition. Hence, equality.

Corollary 4.3. If d0 is any divisor of both a and b, then d0 |d.

Corollary 4.4. a, b ∈ Z are relatively prime ⇐⇒ ∃x, y ∈ Z such that ax + by = 1.

Proof. The ⇒ direction is obvious. For ⇐, observe that the proof of Theorem showed that the minimal
element of S = {ax + by > 0 : x, y ∈ Z} was the gcd(a, b).

Corollary 4.5. If a and c are coprime and c|ab, then c|b. In particular, if p is a prime prime which does
not divide a and p|ab, then p|b.

Proof. Let x, y ∈ Z such that ax + cy = 1. Then b = abx + bcy. Since c|ab, we have that c|b.
Qn
Corollary 4.6. If p is prime and p| i=1 ai , then p|ai for some i.

Proof. Follows from Corollary and induction on n.

Lemma 4.7. Every a ∈ Z, a > 1, is divisible by a prime p.

Proof. By induction. If a = 2, then the assertion is trivial. Suppose the claim is true ∀a0 < a. If a is not
divisible by any q 6= 1. Then a is prime, and we’re done. Otherwise, a = qa0 , where a0 < a and we may apply
the induction hypothesis to a0 .

8
Theorem 4.8. (Fundamental Theorem) Every a ∈ Z, a > 1, can be factored uniquely (up to order of factors)
into a product of primes.

Proof. We proceed by induction. If a = 2, then the assertion is obvious. Suppose the claim is true ∀a0 < a ∈
N. By the lemma, there exists a prime p such that a = pq. Therefore, we may apply the induction hypothesis
to q to obtain the claim.
Here is an another existence argument. Let S ⊂ Z be the set of positive integers a > 1 which do not have a
prime factorization. I claim that S = ∅. Suppose not. Let a ∈ S be the minimal element. Since a cannot be
prime, there exist x > 1, y > 1 such that xy = a. By Corollary 4.1, both x, y are not divisible by any prime
p. Hence, x, y ∈ S. But x, y < a, which contradicts that a is the minimal element.
For uniqueness, suppose a = p1 p2 · · · pm = q1 q2 · · · qn . By Corollary 4.1, p1 = qi for some i. Without loss of
generality, we may assume i = 1. Proceeding in this fashion shows that m = n and qi = pi ∀i = 1, · · · , m.

Proposition 4.9. Z∗ (q) is the multiplicative group of integers in Z(q) which are relatively prime to q.

Proof. (Here, we will denote equivalence classes by representative elements).

a ∈ Z∗ (q) ⇐⇒ ∃b ∈ Z, ab ≡ 1 mod 3 ⇐⇒ ab = 1 + nq ⇐⇒ gcd(a, q) = 1

4.2 Infinitude of Primes

Theorem 4.10. There are infinitely many (in fact, countably many) primes.
Qn
Proof. Suppose there are finitely many primes p1 , · · · , pn . Set q = i=1 pi + 1. Since q > pi ∀i = 1, · · · , n,
Qn
q is not prime. Hence q is divisible by some prime pi ⇒ q − i=1 pi = 1 is divisible by pi , which is a
contradiction.

4.3 Zeta Function and its Euler Product

Definition 4.11. If (An )n∈N ⊂ R, we define

∞
Y N
Y
An = lim An
N →∞
n=1 n=1

if this limit exists.

Lemma 4.12. The exponential and logarithm functions satisfy the following properties on R:

1. elog(x) = x
1
2. log(1 + x) = x + E(x), where |E(x)| ≤ x2 , |x| < 2

3. If log(1 + x) = y and |x| < 12 , then |y| ≤ 2 |x|.

Proof. We prove (2) and (3). Recall that for |x| < 1,

∞ ∞
X (−1)n+1 n X (−1)n+1 n
log(1 + x) = x ⇒ E(x) = x
n=1
n n=2
n

9
By the triangle inequality for |x| ≤ 12 ,

∞ ∞
!
2
|x| X n 2 1X 1 2
|E(x)| ≤ |x| ≤ |x| = |x|
2 n=0
2 n=0 2n

1
If y = log(1 + x), then for |x| < 2

2
|y| ≤ |x| + |E(x)| ≤ |x| + |x| ≤ 2 |x|

P Q Q
Proposition 4.13. If An = 1 + an and |an | converges, then n An converges. Furthermore, n An =
n
1
Q
0 ⇐⇒ An = 0 for some n. Also, if an =
6 1 ∀n ∈ N, then n 1−a n
converges.
QN
Proof. Consider the partial products PN = n=1 An . Since R is an integral domain, PN = 0 ⇐⇒ An = 0
for some n. If An = 0 for some n, then all the assertions (the third one is not applicable) are true, so assume
otherwise. Then
N
Y N
Y PN
PN = An = elog(1+an ) = e n=1 log(1+an )
= eBN
n=1 n=1

|an | converges, there exists n0 ∈ N ∀n ≥ n0 , |an | < 21 . Without loss of generality we may assume
P
Since n
1
that |an | < 2 ∀n ∈ N. Then

N
X N
X ∞
X
|log(1 + an )| ≤ 2 |an | → 2 |an | < ∞, N → ∞
n=1 n=1 n=1

By continuity, limN →∞ eBN ⇒

Q
n An converges.
The ⇐ direction is obvious. For ⇒, if An 6= 0 ∀n ∈ N, then log(1 + an ) is defined ∀n ∈ N. From above,
limN →∞ BN
Q
n An = e 6= 0.
Suppose an 6= 1 ∀n ∈ N. Then !
N N
Y 1 X
log =− log(1 − an )
n=1
1 − an n=1
P∞
By an analogous argument, n=1 log(1 − an ) converges. The continuity of the exponential function yields
the desired claim.

We define the (real) zeta function by

∞
X 1
ζ(s) = s
∀s > 1
n=1
n

Theorem 4.14. (Euler’s Product Formula)

Y 1
∀s > 1, ζ(s) =
p
1 − p1s

where the product is taken over all primes p.

Proof. Suppose M, N ∈ N with M > N . Let n ≤ N . Then for each prime p ≤ n, p can be repeated at most

10
M times since pM ≥ 2M > M . Hence,

N M
! M
! 1
!
X 1 Y X 1 Y X 1 Y ps
Y 1
≤ = 1+ ≤ 1+ 1 =
n=1
ns
p≤N
pks
k=0 p≤N
pks
k=1 p≤N
1− ps p≤N
1 − p1s

P 1 Q 1
Since p s < ∞, by Proposition 4.13 p 1−(1/ps ) converges. Hence, letting N → ∞, we obtain
p
∞
X 1 Y 1
≤
n=1
ns p
1 − p1s

The argument for the reverse inequality is as follows. By the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic ∀N, M ∈ N,

∞
M
!
Y X 1 X 1
≤
pks n=1
n s
p≤N k=0

Letting M → ∞,
∞ ∞
Y 1 X 1 Y 1 X 1
1 ≤ s
⇒ 1 ≤
1 − ps n=1
n p
1 − ps n=1
ns
p≤N

Lemma 4.15. lims→1+ ζ(s) = ∞

Proof. Observe that ∀M ∈ N,

∞ M M
X 1 X 1 X 1
ζ(s) = s
≥ s
⇒ lim inf ζ(s) ≥ → ∞, M → ∞
n=1
n n=1
n s→1 +
n=1
n

Proposition 4.16. The series

X1

p
p

diverges, where the sum is taken over all primes p.

Proof. By continuity,
! !  
Y 1 X 1 X 1
log (ζ(s)) = log = log =− log 1 − s
p
1 − p1s p
1 − p1s p
p

2
By Lemma 4.12 for |x| ≤ 12 , log(1 + x) = x + O(|x| ). Hence,

X 1 
1
 X 1
− − s +O = log(ζ(s)) ⇒ + O(1) = log(ζ(s))
p
p p2s p
ps

1
P∞ 1 1
< ∞. By the lemma, log(ζ(s)) → ∞, s → 1+ . Hence, → ∞, s → 1+ . Since
P P
since p p2s ≤ n=1 n2 p ps
1 1
p > ps ∀s > 1, we obtain
X1
=∞
p
p

11
5 Dirichlet’s Theorem
5.1 Outline
Theorem 5.1. If q, l ∈ Z with gcd(q, l) = 1, then there are infinitely many primes of the form p = l + kq
with k ∈ Z.

Dirichlet proved the theorem by showing that the series

X 1
p
p≡l mod q

diverges, where the sum is taken over all primes congruent to l modulo q.

5.2 Fourier Analysis Reduction

In what follows G will denote the group Z∗ (q).

Definition 5.2. The Euler phi-function ϕ : Z → N is defined by ϕ(q) = |G|. In other words, for any
integer q ∈ Z, ϕ(q) is the number of integers 0 ≤ n < q which are relatively prime to q.

Consider δl : G → C, 
1 if n ≡ l mod q
δl (n) =
0 otherwise

The Fourier expansion of δl is

X
δl (n) = δ̂l (e)e(n)
e∈Ĝ

where
1 X 1 1 X
δ̂l (e) = δl (m)e(m) = e(l) ⇒ δl (n) = e(l)e(n)
|G| |G| |G|
m∈G e∈Ĝ

It is evident that δl extends to a map Z → C. We extend the characters e ∈ Ĝ to all of Z by


e(m) if gcd(m, q) = 1
χ(m) =
0 otherwise

Definition 5.3. The functions χ are called the Dirichlet characters modulo q. We denote the extension
of the trivial character on G to all of Z by χ0 .

Lemma 5.4. The Dirichlet characters are multiplicative. Furthermore,

1 X
δl (n) = χ(l)χ(n)
ϕ(q) χ

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