U. K. Naval Gunnery Pocket Book WW

The Gunnery Pocket Book
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B.R. 224/45

THE
GUNNERY
POCKET BOOK
1945
ADMIRALTY, S.W.1.
GUNNERY BRANCH.
ii
iii

ADMIRALTY, S.W.1.
19th June, 1945.
G. 6450/43.
B.R. 224/45-The Gunnery Pocket Book, 1945, having been approved by My Lords Commissioners of the
Admiralty is hereby promulgated for information and guidance.
B.R. 224-The Gunnery Pocket Book, dated 1932 and reprint of 1938, and B.R. 154-The Ammunition
Pocket Book, 1935, are hereby superseded and all copies should be disposed of in accordance with the
instructions in B.R.1-B.R. Catalogue.
By Command of Their Lordships,
To Flag Officers and Commanding

Officers of H.M.
Ships and Vessels concerned.
iv
CONTENTS
Page
List of Abbreviations Used in Gunnery x
Introduction Paras.
Objects of the book-Possibilities of the gunnery career-steps in the gunnery career-advancement-
recommendations-training 1
CHAPTER I
Gunnery in Ships
General-A 6-inch cruiser, "Mauritius" class 20
A "Dido" class cruiser-A typical destroyer 32
CHAPTER II
The Ship's Company
Part played in fighting the ship 41
CHAPTER III

Naval Guns
How a gun is fired-Construction of the gun barrel-Rifling-Problem of recoil 45
Breech mechanisms-Summary of safety arrangements-The B.L. mechanism 51
The Q.F. mechanism-Care and cleaning 59
CHAPTER IV
Hand Worked Mountings
Principles of mountings-Pedestal mountings-Central pivot mountings-Cradles-Trunnions-H.A.
mountings-Recoil arrangements-Run-out arrangements-Intensifiers-Elevating gear-Training gear-
Loading tray 85
The 4.7-inch Q.F. Mark IX** gun on the C.P. Mark XVIII mounting 111
The 4-inch Q.F. Mark XVI* gun on the H.A. Twin Mark XIX mounting 117
Maintenance of mountings 122
CHAPTER V
Power Worked Mountings
General-Liquid used in hydraulic systems-Pipes and joints-Types of valves-Leathers-Pressure
supply-Hydraulic machines 130
6-inch B.L. Mark XXIII gun on Triple Mark XXIII mounting 149
5.25-inch Q.F. Mark I gun on H.A./L.A. Twin Mark II mounting 159
Upkeep of machinery 171
CHAPTER VI
Ammunition Paras.
General-Guns-Explosives 175
Cartridges-Tubes and primers-Ammunition packages-Colouring of ammunition packages-
Projectiles-Supply and care of projectiles-Tracers and Igniters-Colouring and marking on
projectiles-Fuzes-Fuzing of shell-Gaines 179
Aircraft bombs-safety arrangements-supply and fuzing-markings 212
Small arms ammunition-Rifle grenades-Fireworks supplied for Naval service-Fireworks supplied
for use in aircraft-Firework boxes-Line-throwing guns-Line-carrying rockets 216
Magazines and shell rooms-Ammunitioning ship 240
CHAPTER VII
Low Angle Firing
SECTION 1-THE DIRECTOR SYSTEM

Reasons for a director system-Allowances to be made in director firing for elevation and for
training 256
For Elevation.-Dip-Differences in muzzle velocity and temperature of charge at each gun-Tilt-
Displacement 260
For Training.-Convergence -Drift 267
Summary of corrections 270
The director sight-the "P" sight-The gun receivers, elevation and training-Firing arrangements 271
Electrical transmission and lining up-step by step-synchronous-magslip, indicator and power 284
Director laying and training-practical working of a director sight 292
Errors in director firing due to roll and pitch of ship-due to roll, firing on the beam-due to roll,
firing on the bow 295
SECTION 2- THE FIRE CONTROL PROBLEM AND ITS SOLUTION
Target indication-Obtaining the correct range-Obtaining the correct line of fire-Summary of the
fire control problem 297
Admiralty Fire Control Clock 304
Typical modern Fire Control Table 312
The fire control team-Composition of the team-Organization for night action-Standard methods
of passing orders-Method of using telephones-Positions of controlling and methods of firing the
guns-Gun-layer's control 318
vi
SECTION 3-THE PRINCIPLES OF RADAR, OPTICAL RANGEFINDERS AND

INCLINOMETERS Paras.
Radar-nature of Radar-uses of Radar-limitations of Radar-Radar operators 349
Optical rangefinders-use of rangefinders 354
Principles of the coincidence rangefinder 356
Focus-magnification or power-taking a range-types of field-astigmatizers-light filters 357
L.A. ranging-halving error-mean adjustment error or coincidence error 363
Inclinometers 371
Maintenance of rangefinders and inclinometers 372
SECTION 4-THE GUN
Gunsights-trainer's free sight-Parts of a sight-Types of sights-Corrections required at a sight-
Maintenance of gun sights-Telescopes 373

Gunlaying and training-when following director-when using gunsights-point of aim-recognition

of targets 395
Firing arrangements-local firing-gunlayer's firing-quarters' firing 400
General principles underlying drill at the gun 401
The gun's crew at a destroyer's gun-composition of crew 403
Action drill-action drill common to all forms of fire-action drill for low angle fire 405
Defence and cruising stations at the gun 408
CHAPTER VIII
High Angle Firing
Outline of the control system-the problem-principles of deflection 415
H.A.C.S., fuze prediction 427
Fuze keeping clock, fuze prediction 432
The high angle fire control team 436
Air defence of the ship-barrage firing-A.B.U. firing. T.I.U. 446
Drill at the high angle guns 449
CHAPTER IX
Close Range A.A. Gunnery
Necessity for simple control-Close range guns' crews-Close range guns sights - Eyeshooting and
Aircraft recognition -type of attack 455
The Pom-Pom director Mark IV-The 2-pounder Mark VIII gun on Mark VII mounting-The
Oerlikon 471
vii
CHAPTER X
Look-outs and Optical Instruments Paras.
Look-outs-Care of binoculars-How to adjust binoculars-How to use binoculars-Typical look-out
organisation-Duties of lookouts-Reporting-Recognition 495
CHAPTER XI
Organisation of a Ship's Company
Degrees of readiness in war-time-Alarm signals-Food and sanitation -Spare gear-Casualties 510
CHAPTER XII
Damage Control
Closing doors-Abandoning compartments-Fire-Prevention of fire in a ship

Magazines-Flooding and spraying-Correcting heel and trim-Counter flooding-Damage control

communications-General 525
CHAPTER XIII
General Maintenance of the Armament in War
Cold weather-Muzzle covers 545
CHAPTER XIV
Notes on Boarding Parties 555
CHAPTER XV
Gunnery Practices
Types of practice firings-Training close range guns' crews-precautions during practice firings-
Records and recorders-stop watches-notes for recorders 560
CHAPTER XVI
Saluting Guns
Nature and number of guns used-Single ship procedure-Fleet procedure 580
APPENDIX I. Page
Particulars of Armament and Fittings supplied for Service Boats 196
APPENDIX II.
List of Bugle Calls. 202
viii
DIAGRAMS
Paras.
1. 4.7 inch Q.F. Mark IX** Gun on C.P. Mark XVIII Mounting 111-6
2. 4 inch Q.F. Mark XVI* Guns on Twin H.A. Mark XIX Mounting 117-21
3. " U," "Hat" and " L " Leathers 139-40
4. Illustrating Angle of Dip 260-1
5. M.V. and Temperature Corrector at Elevation Receiver 262-3
6. Tilt Corrector 264-5
7. Illustrating Displacement 266
8. Illustrating Convergence 267-8
9. Typical Arrangement of D.C.T. Crew 255, 271
9a. Gyro Director Sight, Type H Mark I 255, 271

10. Fig. I Elevation Receiver Type " E.M." Mark I 276-8

Fig. II Training Receiver Type "D" Mark IV 279-80
11. Director Layer's and Gunlayer's Firing Circuits 281-3
12. Range and Deflection Step by Step Receiver, Counterdrum Type 285
13. Fig. I Step by Step Transmission 285-6
Fig. II Synchronous Transmission 287-8
14. Principle of Hunter Mechanism 289
15. Fig. I Indicator Magslip Transmission 290
Fig. II Power Magslip Transmission-Three Element System 291
16. Captain's Sight and Open Face Indicator 24,297
17. Admiralty Fire Control Clock Mark I-Plan of Top 304-11
18. The Measurement of Inclination 305-6
19. Typical Modern Fire Control Table 312-7
20. The Low Angle Fire Control Team 318-28
21. The Principle of Optical Rangefinding 356, 360
22. Figs. I and II Heightfinder Cut 360
23. Halving Error in Rangefinders "Erect Image Field" 368
23A. Halving Error in Rangefinders-Inverted Image Field 368
24. Inclinometer Type S.F.13 371
25. Typical Geared Sight-4.7 inch Mark XVIII Mounting 375
26. Parts of a Gun Sight 380
27. Principles of Deflection 421-4
28. Deflection Screen-H.A.C.S. Mark IV 425-6
29. Typical Range Plot-H.A.C.S. 427-31
30. Fuze Keeping Clock Mark II 432-5
31. The High Angle Fire Control Team 436-45
32. Eyeshooting Sights 460-4
33. Pom-Pom Director Mark IV 471-2
34. 2-pdr. Pom-Pom Mark VII Mounting 473-5
35. 20 mm. Oerlikon Gun 476-91
36. Binoculars Pattern 1900A 496-7
37. Air Lookout (A.L.O.) Position 500

ix
PLATES
Paras.
1. Typical Gunnery Layout of a "Mauritius" Class Cruiser 23-31
2. Typical Gunnery Layout of a "Dido" Class Cruiser 32-4
3. Typical Gunnery Layout of a Modern Destroyer 35-9
4. Sections of 6-inch and 4-inch guns 45-9
5. Breech Mechanism 6-inch Mark XXIII gun, open and closed 55-8
6. Typical Q.F. Breech Mechanism with S.A. gear, Diagrammatic Arrangement 59-73
7. Typical Pedestal Mounting 6-inch Mark IX 88
8. Typical Central Pivot Mounting-4.7-inch Mark XVIII 89
9. Typical H.A. Mounting-4-inch Mark IV 93
10. Recoil Cylinder and Run out Springs-6 inch Mark IX Mounting 94-7,101
11. Recoil Cylinder, Recuperator and Intensifier-4.7-inch Mark XVIII Mounting 98-100, 102-3
12. Typical Elevating Gear-4.7-inch Mark XVIII Mounting 104-5
13. Typical Training Gear-4.7-inch Mark XVIII Mounting 108
14. Loading Tray-4.7-inch Mark XVIII Mounting 110
15. Typical Reciprocating Hydraulic Mechanisms 147
16. Methods of carrying pressure into Revolving Structure 142-4
17. General Arrangement of 6-inch Mark XXIII Mounting 149-158
18. General Arrangement of 5.25-inch Mark II Mounting 159-170
19. Colour Markings on Shells 202-3
20. Colour Markings on Bombs 215
21. Markings on Watertight openings 527

ABBREVIATIONS USED IN GUNNERY.
This list is not exhaustive. Certain abbreviations have been omitted, e.g., those for the greater part found
on packages to which reference should be made in the appropriate handbook, particularly the Handbook
on Ammunition.
A. Letter usually denoting foremost Bg. Bearing.

centre-line turret or mounting. B.H. Ballistic Height.
(A) Annealed. [ed. Letter A with a full B.H.C. Ballistic Height Correction
circle around it.]
B.L. Breech Loading.
A.A. Anti-aircraft.
B.M. Breech Mechanism.
A.A.1 Anti-aircraft rating 1st class.
B.P.T. Battle Practice Target.
A.A.2 Anti-aircraft rating 2nd class.
B.R. Book of Reference.
A.A.3 Anti-aircraft rating 3rd class.
B.T.U. Bearing Transmission Unit.
A.A.D. Apparatus Air Defence.
C.A.F.O. Confidential Admiralty Fleet Order.
A.B.U. Auto Barrage Unit.
Cal. Calibre.
A/C Aircraft.
C.B. Confidential Book.
Admy. Admiralty.
C.B.R. Confidential Book allowed to Ratings.
A.D.O. Air Defence Officer.
C.E. Composition Exploding.
A .D.P. Air Defence Position.
C.G. Captain of Gun.
A.F.C.C. Admiralty Fire Control Clock.
e.g. Centre of Gravity.
A.F.C.T. Admiralty Fire Control Table.
Chg. Charge.
A. F.O. Admiralty Fleet Order.
C.N.F. Common Nose Fuzed.
A/G. Anti Gas.
C.O. Control Officer.
A.G.O. Air Gunnery Officer.
C.O.A. Chief Ordnance Artificer.
A.I.C. Action Information Centre.
Comd. Gnr. Commissioned Gunner.
A .I.N.O. Assistant Inspector of Naval Ordnance.
Convtd. Converted.
A.L.O. Air Lookout.
C.O.O. Commissioned Ordnance Officer.
A.M.C. Armed Merchant Cruiser.
C.O.S. Change Over Switch.
Ammn. Ammunition.
C.P. Central Pivot. Calculating Position.
A.P. Armour Piercing, Air Ministry Common Pointed.
Publication.
C.P.B.C. Common Pointed Ballistic Capped.
a.p.v. Average Projectile Velocity.
C.P.C. Common Pointed Capped.
A.S. Angle of Sight. Admiral
C.R. Calibre Radius. Commencement of
Superintendent.
Rifling. Close Range.
A/S. Anti-Submarine.
c.r.h. Calibre Radius Head.
A. S.A. Ammunition, Small Arms.

A. S .0. Armament Supply Officer. C.R.1 Control Rating First Class.

Aux. Auxiliary. C.R.2 Control Rating Second Class.
A.V.G.I. Auxiliary Vessel Gunnery Instructor. C.R.3 Control Rating Third Class.
A.V.G.O. Auxiliary Vessel Gunnery Officer. Ctg. Cartridge.
B. Letter usually denoting second C.W.P. Wooden Packing Case.
foremost centre-line turret or mounting. D.A. Direct Action (Delay Action
B.C. Ballistic Cap. occasionally).
B.D. Between Deck (Gun mountings). D.a. Deflection in Azimuth.
D.A.I. Direct Action Impact.
D.B. Dive Bombing.
xi
D.C. Damage Control. Depth Charge. G.M. Gunner's Mate.

D.C.T. Director Control Tower. Gne. GaMe.
D.E. Director Elevation. Gnr. Gunner.
Def. Deflection. Gnr. † Dagger Gunner (Gunner
D.E.M.S. Defensively Equipped Merchant Ship. Instructional).
Det. Detonator. G.O. Gunnery Officer.
Dir. Director. G.P. Gunpowder, General Purpose.
D.1 Lateral Deflection. G.Q's. General Quarters.
D.N.P. Di-Nitro-Phenol. G.R. Gun Range.
D.O. Director Officer. G.R.U. Gyro Rate Unit.
D.T. Director Training. G.S. Gunnery Surface (Radar Set).
D.v. Vertical Deflection. G.S. General Service.
E.A.O. Explosives Accounting Officer. H.A. High Angle.
E.B.I. Enemy Bearing Indicator. H.A.C.P. High Angle Calculating Position.
E.M.F. Electro-Mechanical Firing. H.A.C.S. High Angle Control System.
Exd. Examined. H.A.D.E.S. High Angle Director Eyeshooting
Sight.
Expl. Exploder.
H.A.D.T. High Angle Director Tower.
F.A. Fixed Ammunition.
H.E. High Explosive.
F.C. Fire Control. Full Charge.
H.E.S. High Explosive Substitute.
F.C.B. Fire Control Box.
H.G.R. Hitting Gun Range. Higher
F.C.T. Fire Control Table.
Gunnery Rating.
F.D.O. Fighter Direction Officer.

F.K.C. Fuze Keeping Clock. H.O. Hostilities Only.

F.O.G.M.O. Fitting Out Gun Mounting Officer. How. Howitzer.
F.O.G.O. Fitting Out Gunnery Officer. H.S.C.T. Hot Solventless Carbamite Tubular
F.O.B. Forward Observer (Bombardment). (cordite).
F.O.S. Fall of Shot. H.V. High Velocity.
f.s. Feet per Second. Hyd. Hydraulic.
F.T. Field Training. Hyg. Hygrometer.
F.T.P. Follow the Pointer. Ig. Igniter.
Fzd. Fuzed. Incl. Inclination.
G. Followed by a number indicates I.N.O. Inspector of Naval Ordnance.
Gunpowder Grain size. L.A. Low Angle.
G.A. Gunnery Aircraft (Radar Set). L.D.S. Local Director Sight.
G.B. Gunnery Barrage (Radar Set). L.E. Lee Enfield.
G.B.I. Gyro Bearing Indicator. L.G. Lewis Gun. Large Grain
G.C. Gunnery Close Range (Radar Set). (gunpowder).
G.C.O. Gunnery Control Officer. L.P. Low Power.
G.C.T. Gun Control Tower. L.R.1 Layer Rating First Class.
G.E. Gun Elevation. L.R.2 Layer Rating Second Class.
G.I. Gunnery Instructor (R.M.) L.R.3 Layer Rating Third Class.
G.L. Gunlayer. L.S.T. Line of Sight Training.
G.L.O. Gunnery Liaison Officer. M.A.C. Main Armament Control.
G.L.W. Gunnery Lieutenant's Writer. Mag. Magazine.
M.C. Modified Cracked (Cordite).
M.D. Modified (Cordite).
M.D.T. Modified Tubular (Cordite).
xii

M.G. Machine Gun. all Armament Depots. A complete list

Mk. Mark. may be found in Regulations for
Naval Armament Services, Part 2,
M.L. Metal Lined. Muzzle Loading.
Appendix 1.
M.P.I. Mean Point of Impact.
Phos. Phosphorus.
M.T. Temporary local colloquial mark for
P.P. Picric Powder.
an emptied package.
P.P.I. Plan Position Indicator.
Mtg. Mounting.
Prac. Practice.
M.V. Muzzle Velocity.
Proj. Projectile.
N. Letter on Armament Stores for Naval
Service. P.S. Powder Substitute (practice
projectiles).
N.A.D. Naval Armament Depot.
P.S.G.I. Patrol Service Gunnery Instructor.
N.C. Nitro-Cellulose.
P.S.G.L. Patrol Service Gunlayer.
N.C. R. Naval Cordite Regulations.
P.S.S.G. Patrol Service Seaman Gunner.
N.M. & E. Naval Magazine and Explosive
R. Regulations. Q Letter usually denoting third centre-
line turret where more than four such
N.O.I.O. Naval Ordnance Inspecting Officer.
turrets are fitted.
N.R.V. Non-Return Valve.
Q.E. Quadrant Elevation.
N.T. Night Tracer.
Q.F. Quick Firing.
O. Marking of certain watertight doors
Q.O. Rating Qualified in Ordnance.
(see Chapter 12).
Q.R.1. Quarters Rating First Class.
O.A. Ordnance Artificer.
Q.R.2. Quarters Rating Second Class
O.A.(O) Ordnance Artificer qualified in
Optical Instruments. Q.R.3. Quarters Rating Third Class.
O.B.L. Ordnance, Breech Loading. R. Repairable.
Oer. Oerlikon. R.C.1. Radar Control Rating First Class.
O.F.I. Open Face Indicator. R.C.2. Radar Control Rating Second Class.
O.M. Ordnance Mechanic. R.C.3. Radar Control Rating Third Class.
O.O.Q. Officer of Quarters. Rcpr. Recuperator.
O.P. Observation Post (bombardment). Rcvr. Receiver.
Opr. Operator. R.D. Research Department usually
followed by a letter or figure to
O.Q.F. Ordnance, Quick Firing.
indicate formulae.
Ord. Lt. Ordnance Lieutenant.
R.D.F. Term superseded by RADAR.
O.U. Official Use (books).
Red. Ch. Reduced Charge.
R/E & D.U. Range to Elevation and Deflection
Unit.
REFLD. Refilled.

P. Letter signifying Pedestal type REPD. Repaired.

mounting. R/E.U. Range to Elevation Unit.
Followed by a number may indicate
R.F. Rangefinder. Rim Fire.
a gun, or mounting on the Port side.
On a package may indicate the size RF/D. Rangefinder Director.
of gunpowder (pebble). R.G.F. Royal Gun Factory.
P.A. Picric Acid.
P.A.C. Parachute and Cable.
P.C.O. Principal Control Officer.
Pdr. Pounder, as in 2 pdr., 3 pdr.
Perc. Percussion.
P.HD. Priddy's Hard. Note.-Suitable initials
or monograms are used for
xiii
R.L. Royal Laboratory. T.I.U. Target Indication Unit.

R.N.C. Letters preceding Naval S.C. Cordite lot T.N.T. Tri-Nitro-Toluene.
numbers. T.O.F. Time of Flight.
R.O. Rate Officer. T.P.I. Target Position Indicator.
R.P.C. Remote Power Control. T.S. Transmitting Station.
R/T. Radio Telephony. T.S.S. Target Smoke Shell.
R.T.U. Range Transmission Unit. U.P. Unrotated Projectile.
R.Y.P.A. Roll, Yaw, Pitch, Alteration of course U.D. Upper Deck (mountings).
(Instructional Apparatus).
V.A. Vickers Armstrong.
S. Denoting Tube for Strikerless lock.
V.S. Vent Sealing.
When followed by a number may indicate a
gun or mounting on the starboard side. V.S.G. Variable Speed Gear.
S.A. Semi-Automatic. Small Arms. V.S.M. Vickers, Sons and Maxim.
S.A.P. Semi Armour Piercing. W.A. Warning of Aircraft (Radar Set).
S.A.S.O. Superintending Armament Supply Officer. W.B. William Beardmore.
S.C. Solventless Carbamite (Cordite). W.C. Warning Combined surface and
aircraft (Radar set).
S.D.V. Screw Down Valve.
W.O.O. Warrant Ordnance Officer.
S.G. Seaman Gunner. (Obsolescent term.)
W.S. Warning of Surface craft (Radar
Shrap. Shrapnel.
set).
S.S. Sight Setter. Star Shell.
W.T. Water Tight.

Sub. Cal. Sub. Calibre. W/T. Wireless Telegraphy.

S.V. Stop Valve. Wt. Weight
S.V.G.L. Small Vessel Gunlayer. X. Letter usually denoting the turret or
T. Tracer. mounting on the centre line next
before the after one.
T & P. Time and Percussion.
Used as a watertight door marking.
T.B.I. Target Bearing Indicator. (See Chapter XII.)
T.E. Tangent Elevation. Y. Letter usually denoting the after
Temp. Temperature. turret or mounting on the centre
T.I.C. Time Interval Compensation. line.
T.I.O. Target Indication Officer.
(See Chapter XII.)
T.I.R. Time Interval Receiver. Target Indicating
Z Mark indicating Lead Azide
Room.
Detonator.
(See Chapter XII.)
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The Gunnery Pocket Book - Part 1
INTRODUCTION.
OBJECTS OF THE BOOK.
1. Naval gunnery is a complex subject. Many intricate calculating devices and types of weapons are
included under the general heading of "Gunnery", each type of instrument and gun being best suited to the
part it has to play in the efficient fighting of a particular ship. But fundamentally the principles of all these
instruments and weapons are the same, and may be expressed in very simple form.
2. The object of this pocket book is to outline these simple principles, so that the reader may easily
understand them and may, with a little careful thought, be able to apply them to such instruments as he
may meet.
3. The book, supported by practical instruction, contains all the Gunnery that the beginner requires, up to
and including a 3rd Class Gunnery Rating. The book will also prove useful to high gunnery ratings and
junior officers.
4. The best results will be obtained by study of the book both before and after receiving instruction from
an instructor, but it should also assist all ratings in revising what they have previously been taught,
especially if it is read alongside a particular part of the equipment of the ship.
5. No attempt has been made to cover all types of equipment or to embody changes in policy, design, or
drill, which may appear in the handbook of any particular instrument. It must also be realised that this
book is not a drill book; and that where descriptions of instruments and instructions for working them are
given, they are only of a general nature designed to assist in understanding the instrument.
Handbooks on all instruments and weapons in the ship may be obtained through the ship's Gunnery
Office, by those who require a more advanced knowledge.
POSSIBILITIES OF THE GUNNERY CAREER.
http://www.hnsa.org/doc/br224/part1.htm (1 of 66)5/2/2006 16:27:49

6. The Gunnery Branch is responsible for the high standard of drill required to work the gunnery
armament which is reflected in the general smartness and spontaneous reaction to words of command, so
that it plays an important part in a man's career from the time that he joins the Royal Navy.
7. Although the regulations permit advancement to Leading Seaman and Petty Officer without first
qualifying for a "non substantive" rating, such qualification is of great assistance and should in any case
be undertaken as soon as possible after "substantive" advancement.
Steps in the Gunnery Career
8. The first step in a gunnery career is to become a 3rd class rating in one of the five sections, which are
specially trained, as follows:-
RATINGS. DUTIES.
(i) Quarters Section. The working of guns and mountings and in particular the operation of
Quarters Rating. levers in power-worked mountings. 2nd class ratings in this section
3rd class (Q.R.3) become captains of guns, and 1st class ratings are in charge of turrets or
2nd class (Q.R.2) groups of guns and, in certain cases, may take the place of an officer.
1st class (Q.R.1)
(ii) Layer Section. The elevating, training, and firing of guns.
Layer Rating. The 1st and 2nd class ratings become layers and trainers of directors and
3rd class (L.R. 3) are responsible for the firing of the whole armament of the ship with
2nd class (L.R.2) consistent accuracy.
1st class (L.R.1)
(iii) Control Section. Rangetakers.
Control Rating. The 3rd class ratings become rangetakers at small rangefinders or
3rd class (C.R.3) inclinometers.
2nd class (C.R.2) The 2nd class ratings become rangetakers at large rangefinders and
1st class (C.R.1) height-finders.
1st class ratings fulfil a very important place in the control team, as
spotters and ratekeepers in the place of an officer.
(iv) Anti-Aircraft Section. The operation and control of closerange anti-aircraft weapons.
Anti-Aircraft Rating. 1st class ratings may control directors for close range weapons or
3rd class (A.A.3) become control officers of the long range antiaircraft armament or
2nd class (A.A.2) become the Air Defence Officer's assistant.
1st class (A.A.1)

(v) Radar Control Section. Operators of Radar sets and of certain fire control instruments in
Radar Control Rating. Transmitting Stations, Calculating Positions, and Target-indicating
3rd class (R.C.3) Rooms.
2nd class (R.C.2)
1st class (R.C.1)
Advancement.
9. Normal advancement is from any non-substantive rating to the next higher one in the same section, but,
in some cases, exceptional advancement may be from a non-substantive rating in one section to the next
higher non-substantive rating in another section. This exceptional advancement may be due to drafting
reasons or rapid substantive advancement, or it may be allowed in special circumstances.
10.
1st class ratings, owing to the duties they have to perform are reserved for C.P.O.'s, P.O.'s and leading
seamen passed for P.O., holding a 2nd class rating.
2nd class ratings are reserved for leading seamen, and able seamen passed for leading seaman, holding a
3rd class rating.
3rd class ratings are reserved for able seamen and ordinary seamen.
The above ruling may, however, be varied as follows:-
Leading Seaman (C.R.2) not passed for P.O. may qualify for C.R.1.
Leading Seaman (A.A.2) not passed for P.O. may qualify for A.A.1.
Able Seaman (A.A.3) not passed for leading seaman may qualify for A.A.2; and in exceptional
circumstances, a leading seaman, without non-substantive rating, may be allowed to qualify for a 2nd
class rating.
11. Advancement to Gunnery Instructor is open to Petty Officers and exceptional leading seamen,
passed for P.O., who possess a 2nd class rating.
12. Promotion to the rank of Gunner requires qualification in gunnery, seamanship, certain subjects in
Higher Education, and a high degree of recommendation. It is not necessary to hold a gunnery rating.
13. In addition to the five main sections already outlined, the following openings are available-
Gunnery Lieutenant's Writer Performs office duties to a qualified Gunnery Officer. Open to ratings
(G.L.W.) possessing a 3rd class rating.
Qualified in Ordnance (Q.O.) Mate to an Ordnance Artificer; open only to a Q.R.3, and must be
relinquished on advancement to Leading Seaman.

Diver Open to seamen (holding any non-substantive rating), stokers, artificer,

and artizan branches.
Recommendations.
14. Periodically the officers of the ship send in to the Depots recommendations for certain ratings to take
particular gunnery courses. These recommendations are not given purely on the results of training classes
at sea but also for the whole work done and behaviour of the man. It is essential that men who wish to be
recommended for higher gunnery rating should forward a request to the Gunnery Officer. When the
recommendation is received in the Depot the man's name is put on a roster and he then takes his turn for
the course as opportunity offers. Highly recommended men are given seniority on the roster. Thus it pays
to be recommended both early and highly.
Training.
15. Normal training for higher rating is carried out in the Gunnery School of the Depot; the selection of
men to go on a course rests with the Captain of the Gunnery School.
Training at Sea.
16. Gunnery training classes are held whenever possible at sea, and any man wishing to improve his
position or knowledge should put his name into the Gunnery Office, as a volunteer for the next course.
3rd class ratings of all categories, Q.O.'s, Q.R.2's and C.R.2's may be trained and confirmed at sea, if they
are recommended after examination by a qualified Gunnery Officer.
Ratings, who have been trained as spare numbers to fill vacancies at any position, may be paid as acting
ratings, as long as they are filling a vacancy in the complement and actually carrying out the duties.
C.R.1's, A.A.1's, and A.A.2's may also be rated at sea by a qualified Gunnery Officer but they must take a
normal qualifying course when they are next discharged to Depot.
17. Full information about training and additional pay for gunnery ratings may be obtained from the ship's
gunnery office. But it must be realised that success in the gunnery branch, as in any other department,
must largely depend on a man's own efforts; and that in war-time, when the time allowed for instruction is
reduced to a minimum, the most careful attention to the instruction that he is given is absolutely essential.
18-19.

. . . . a complex subject ... (para 1)
CHAPTER I.
GUNNERY IN SHIPS.
GENERAL.
20. In this chapter will be found a general description of three types of ships. It is important, when later on
in the book various types of instruments are discussed, that the reader should have in mind the general
layout of the ship in which they are found and understand what general purpose each one fulfils, before
going into the details of the instruments themselves. This chapter should therefore be referred to before
any new instrument is studied.
21. It is not possible to include every type of ship that is found in the Service and the following classes are
taken as examples:-
(i) A six-inch cruiser of the "Mauritius" class.

(ii) A "Dido" class cruiser.
(iii) A typical destroyer.
22. These are dealt with in that order, the last two being discussed in less detail than the first, except
where major differences occur. The descriptions should give the reader a basis on which to build up a
knowledge of his own particular ship.
A SIX-INCH CRUISER "Mauritius" CLASS. Plate 1.
23. This may be considered as the main type of larger cruiser in the Service. In Plate 1 is a picture
showing the guns and the places in the ship from where these guns are loaded, controlled, and fired.

Let us first consider the Main Armament. There are four Six-Inch Triple Turrets; each turret is supplied
with Shells and Cordite Charges from Shell Rooms and Magazines situated below the turret and well
protected by armour. The shells and cordite charges are carried up to the Gunhouse, which contains the
guns, by endless chain hoists. Once inside the gunhouse, the shells are placed inside the guns and rammed
well into the gun by hand. Cordite charges are then placed behind the shells and the breeches closed by
hand.
When the guns have been loaded, they must be moved so as to point towards the enemy ship or other
target and also elevated so that the shells, which are affected by gravity, will reach the enemy ship which
may be a great distance away.
Note.-Later ships of this class have only three triple turrets, an extra twin A.A. mounting being fitted in
lieu of X turret.
" 24. The Captain on the bridge decides which enemy ship is to be engaged and, in Visual Fire (i.e. when
the enemy can be seen) he moves a sight known as the Captain's Sight, which indicates the hearing of
the enemy to the Director Control Tower. The Director Control Tower, as its name implies, is the
position in the ship from which the guns are directed, controlled, and fired. When the crew of the Director
Control Tower receive an indication of the enemy from the Captain's Sight, the tower is trained round
until the target can be seen. The bearing of the target thus ascertained is sent down to the guns electrically,
and they are then trained round until they are on the same bearing as the Director Control Tower. This
bearing is also sent by the Director Control Tower to the Transmitting Station, the gunnery nerve centre
of the ship, which is under armour protection.
In blind fire (i.e. when the enemy cannot be seen but is detected by Radar (see paragraph 351)) the
movements of the enemy are plotted. A bearing of the selected target is passed to the Transmitting
Station, and it is then transmitted to the director and guns (see paragraph 297)."
25. By means of an instrument known as the Admiralty Fire Control Table in the Transmitting Station the
"Aim-off," or additional training movement required to hit the enemy, is calculated and sent to the guns,
so that they are now pointed in a slightly different direction from the Director Control Tower. The
Admiralty Fire Control Table also sends to the guns the movement in elevation required by the range, and
when the guns follow this movement they are elevated the correct amount to make the shell reach the
enemy. The range of the enemy is measured by the Radar set in the Radar office and also by Optical
Rangefinders in the Director Control Tower. Now that the guns are pointed and elevated correctly, they
are ready to be fired by the Director Layer, who is in the front position of the Director Control Tower,
looking through a telescope at the enemy. The telescope is mounted on a Director Sight. Beside the
Director Layer is the Director Trainer, who trains the Director Control Tower on to the target and keeps it
trained on the target as the latter moves, thereby enabling the guns "to be correctly trained. When the guns
are ready to be fired, the fact is indicated to the Transmitting Station by lamps, which are called Gun

Ready Lamps. As soon as all these are showing READY in the Transmitting Station a push is pressed on
the Admiralty Fire Control Table, which rings a gong in the Director Control Tower. When this is heard
by the Director Layer he presses his trigger as soon as he is on the target, and all the guns are fired
together by an electric current.
26. The Control Officer and his assistants, the Spotting Officer and the Rate Officer, sit in the rear end of
the Director Control Tower, watching the enemy intently through binoculars. The Rate Officer passes
down the enemy's course and speed and any alterations of these. The Spotting Officer waits until the
splashes of the shells appear around the target, when he decides whether they are "over" the target, "short"
of it or "straddling." All this information is passed to the Transmitting Station, where it is set on the
Admiralty Fire Control Table and the next group of broadsides fired. Normally all the guns are fired
together as rapidly as is consistent with accuracy. It is essential to remember in this respect that accuracy
must come before speed. It is no good firing dozens of broadsides very quickly if they do not hit; and they
will not hit if they are not aimed properly.
27. Before leaving the question of firing the main armament, it will be noticed that there is another
directing position in the after end of the ship, called the After H.A./L.A. Director. This can be used for
firing and controlling the main armament, should the Director Control Tower get damaged, and it is also
possible to control and fire the foremost two turrets from the Director Control Tower and the after two
turrets from the After H.A./L.A. Director. This is done when it is required to engage two enemy ships and
in that case, a second instrument in the Transmitting Station is used to pass training and elevation to the
after guns. This is called the Admiralty Fire Control Clock and it fulfils the same functions as the
Admiralty Fire Control Table but is a smaller and not quite such an elaborate instrument.
The guns can also be fired from inside the turrets by local electrical circuits. These are used only when the
other positions have been damaged. The Turrets are always controlled from some position in the ship
remote from the guns, except as a last resort, when the Turret Officer can control his own turret or a group
of turrets.
28. Now let us consider the Long Range Anti-Aircraft Armament. The guns are Twin 4-inch guns and
there are two pairs either side of the ship. They are supplied with ammunition by hoists from magazines
below the guns, under armour protection.
Once again the guns are controlled and fired from Directors, known as H.A. Directors, of which there are
three. The two foremost directors are one each side of the bridge and the after one is the combined H.A./L.
A. Director.

The Directors are put on to the enemy aircraft by the Air Defence Officer, after the target has been picked
up by Radar or one of the Lookouts in the Air Defence Position.
The Director is trained round and elevated, until the aircraft is picked up by the Director Layer and
Trainer in their telescopes. This movement goes electrically to the H.A. Calculating Position, where the
necessary "Aim off" is added, and thence to the guns. The guns follow these movements and are,
therefore, pointing in the correct direction. 'The range of the aircraft is being taken by Radar and by an
optical Heightfinder in the H.A. Director and this information is transmitted to the H.A. Calculating
Position, where an instrument called the High Angle Control System Table, sends out to the guns,
electrically, continual adjustments to elevation and training and the fuze to set on the nose fuzes of the
high explosive anti-aircraft shells. The High Angle Control System Table also rings a fire buzzer at
regular intervals, and while this is ringing in the H.A. Director, the Director Layer presses his trigger and
thus the guns are fired. The guns are fired as fast as possible; but again it must be remembered that
accuracy of pointer-following by the Gunlayer and Trainer and the accurate setting of fuzes is of more
importance than speed.
29. It will be noted from the Plate, that there are two H.A. Calculating Positions and, normally, each H.A.
Director controls the guns on its own side through its own Calculating Position, but the After H.A.
Director can control either side through either H.A. Calculating Position.
The decision as to which H.A. Director is to control the H.A. guns rests with the Air Defence Officer. He
is responsible for directing all the anti-aircraft armament in the ship.
30. At night the H.A. guns can be used to illuminate the enemy by firing Star Shell to burst over the
enemy ship, and so silhouette her against the glare of the falling stars. The guns, in this case, are
controlled and directed from the Bridge and are fired by the gunlayers at the guns themselves.
31. The remaining part of the gunnery equipment of the ship is the Close-Range Anti-Aircraft Armament,
consisting of Multiple Pom Poms which fire a 2-pounder High Explosive shell from four barrels and are
controlled from Pom Pom Directors near he guns, and also twin Oerlikon mountings which are
controlled at the mounting itself. Both these guns are power-operated and carry the ammunition on the
guns, being replenished throughout the action from nearby magazines or lockers. Single hand-operated
mountings are also carried.
A "Dido" CLASS CRUISER. Plate 2.
Plate 2 shows a "Dido" class Cruiser with five 5.25 in. turrets; all these ships have now had Q turret
removed and replaced by a Multiple Pom Pom.
32. This is a smaller cruiser than the previous one, the main difference being that it carries only one type
of long-range gun-the 5.25-in. Combined High Angle and Low Angle Twin Turret. These ships mount
four Turrets, two being forward and two aft. They are fed with both High Angle High Explosive Shell and

Low Angle Semi-Armour-Piercing Shell and Cordite Charges in brass cylinders, from Combined
Magazines and Shell Rooms, one below each turret and under armour protection. The shells and cordite
are sent up to the turret gunhouses by hydraulic hoists of the pusher type, that is to say, they are pushed up
by steel arms, which take under the base of the shells until they arrive at the top of the hoists. On arrival
the shell and cordite charge are placed in a tray in the rear of the breech of the gun and they are then
rammed into the gun together by hydraulic power.
33. Let us consider Low Angle firing first of all. The guns are loaded with Semi-Armour-Piercing Shell
and Cordite and, as before, the Captain puts the Director Control Tower, which is at the rear end of the
bridge, on to the enemy ship to be engaged, by means of the Captain's Sight. As the Director Control
Tower trains round, so the guns follow up. "Aim off" and elevation are calculated in the Transmitting
Station and sent to the guns, until they are pointed towards the enemy and elevated so that the shells will
travel the distance between our ship and the enemy. The Transmitting Station contains an Admiralty Fire
Control Table, for Low Angle Fire, the same information being set 'on it as before by the same control
personnel in the Director Control Tower.
The guns can also be controlled and fired in Low Angle from the After H.A./L.A. Director through the
Admiralty Fire Control Table and each group of guns can be controlled and fired from its own Director, i.
e. the forward two turrets from the Director Control Tower through the Admiralty Fire Control Table, the
after two turrets from the After H.A./L.A. Director through special Low Angle Arrangements in the After
High Angle Calculating Position. The guns can also be fired locally from the turrets and controlled in
groups from "B" or "X" turret or from each turret separately.
34. In High Angle firing the H.A. Directors are put on to the enemy aircraft, as before, by the Air Defence
Officer in the Air Defence Position at the after end of the bridge. It will be noticed, however, that in this
class of ship the H.A. Directors are mounted differently from those in a Six-inch "Mauritius" Class
Cruiser, in that there are only two of them, the forward H.A. Director being just in the rear of the Director
Control Tower. The H.A. Calculating Positions are also arranged differently, the Main Transmitting
Station holding the foremost High Angle Control System Table, and the after High Angle Calculating
Position being amidships. The principle, however, of engaging the aircraft is the same, and once again all
the guns can be controlled and fired from either the forward or after H.A. Director or each group of turrets
can be controlled and fired from its own Director.
For night action both "B" and "X" turrets are fitted for Star Shell Firing, being controlled from the Star
Shell Control Position in the after end of the bridge and fired locally in the turret.
The Close Range Armament consists of 4-Barrel Multiple Pom Poms, which are controlled from their
own Directors, and also Single and Twin Oerlikon Mountings.
A TYPICAL DESTROYER. Plate 3.

35. The Destroyer (see Plate 3), being considerably smaller than the Cruiser and, therefore, with a very
much smaller complement, has not such complicated guns nor control arrangements, but the underlying
principles are the same.
The guns are 4.7-in., capable of Low Angle and High Angle Fire, and there are four of them, two being
forward and two aft. These guns are entirely hand worked, i.e., the Elevating, Training and Ramming are
done by hand, without hydraulic machinery. Underneath each pair of guns is a magazine containing
cordite charges in brass cases, with a Shell Room alongside each magazine. These are transported to deck
level by tackles, which are worked from electric bollards, and from there they are carried to the guns and
placed on loading trays at the rear of the breeches. They are then rammed by hand into the guns, the
breech closing automatically behind the case of the charge.
Note. Later types of 4.7-in. guns have a spring-operated rammer.
36. In Low Angle firing the guns are loaded with semi-armour-piercing shell and cordite charges and the
enemy ship is indicated to the Director
Control Tower. In this case the Captain speaks down a voicepipe or telephone to the Control Officer in
the Director Control Tower, passing him the bearing and description of the enemy. In Destroyers there are
only two men in the Control Group, seated in the rear of the Director Control Tower, namely the Control
Officer and Rate Officer. The Director Control Tower is trained round on to the target by the Director
Trainer, this movement being sent away to the guns electrically; the guns follow by hand. The movement
of training of the Director Control Tower also goes to the Transmitting Station, which contains an
Admiralty Fire Control Clock. As before, the information regarding the enemy, which is passed down by
the Control and Rate Officers in the Director Control Tower, is set on the Admiralty Fire Control Clock,
which works out the "Aim off" to be applied and the necessary elevation. This is also sent to the guns
electrically, where the movements are followed, so that the guns are now pointed in a slightly different
direction from the Director Control Tower and elevated according to the range of the enemy. The range is
sent down to the Transmitting Station from a Rangefinder, mounted in a Rangefinder Director at the rear
of the Director Control Tower. The range is also obtained by Radar, the Radar Office being in the
vicinity of the bridge and the Radar Aerials mounted on the Rangefinder Director.
37. In High Angle Firing the same means are employed in indicating the enemy aircraft from the bridge
and the same movements of the Rangefinder Director, both in elevation and training, go away electrically
to the guns, which follow up by hand. At the same time, the movement of the Rangefinder Director goes
to the Transmitting Station to an instrument called the Fuze Keeping Clock, which calculates the "Aim
off" and elevation to be applied to the guns, and the fuze to be set on the High Explosive Shells which
have been sent up from the magazines; it also rings the Fire Buzzer at regular intervals which tells the
Director Layer in the Rangefinder Director the moment at which to fire the guns.

38. At night, "B" gun is used for firing Star Shell, orders being passed by voice pipe from the bridge and
the gun being fired locally. The necessary "Aim off" in this case is estimated by the Star Shell Control
Officer and applied to the gun, which has initially been trained on to the target by the Director Control
Tower.
39. The remaining part of the gunnery equipment is the Close Range Anti-Aircraft Armament, consisting
of a 4-barrelled Pom Pom and a number of Oerlikons. These are controlled and fired from the
mounting.
40.
10
CHAPTER II.
THE SHIP'S COMPANY.
THE PART THE SHIP'S COMPANY PLAYS IN FIGHTING THE SHIP.
41. As will be seen from the previous chapter, the fighting efficiency of the modern ship is built up from
many instruments in various positions throughout the ship, all doing their own special job, so that the
combined ultimate effect will be to sink the enemy. These instruments are as precise and as simple as is
possible, but they alone will not bring success in action.
Success, and in battle this means the life or death of the ship, depends on the ship's company and upon
you, as a member of the ship's company.
The ship's company is a team and they must practise as a team, in exactly the same way as a good football
team practises during the evening, although they may be playing two matches a week. Having practised
during the working-up period of the ship at the beginning of the commission, they must go on practising,
in the same way as the Yorkshire Cricket Club go to the nets every evening, even though they also may be
playing two matches a week.
42. You must practise again, again and again. In the same way as a professional boxer goes through an
intensive course of training before fighting his adversary, so it is necessary for you, the gunnery men of
the ship, to get yourselves into training for fighting the enemy. The only difference between you and the
professional footballer, cricketer, or boxer, is that whereas they are going to enter a contest for which they
will get prize money, you are going to fight an enemy who, if you are not fully efficient, well trained, and
in practice, will kill you. This makes efficiency much more vital to you, and you can see how important
are those drills, which you do day after day and which go on when you think that you know everything
there is to know about your particular job.

Remember this; when you are detailed in the day's gunnery orders to close up at your gun, your director,
or your telephone, be there punctually. You may meet the enemy at any time and in any weather. You
may not have had long to practise; see that you do not curtail that time by being adrift. Your own life and
the lives of your shipmates may depend on you.
43-44.
The Ship's company is a team .. . (para 41)
11
CHAPTER III.
NAVAL GUNS.
Plate 4.
45. The guns used in the Navy may be divided into three classes, heavy, medium and light. In the first
class come those above 8-in. calibre which constitute the main power of attack of battleships and battle-
cruisers. Into the second fall guns from 8-in. to 4-in. intended essentially for use against other ships, and
in certain cases against aircraft as well. Those of the third class are mounted in warships of every kind and
include automatic guns for use against aircraft and small fast surface craft.
All naval guns are loaded at the breech end. After the projectile and firing charge have been inserted, the
breech is closed by a breech block.
The charge used is cordite, a mixture of nitro-glycerine and gun-cotton dissolved in acetone and stabilised
by the addition of a small proportion of vaseline. Cordite is prepared in the form of thick, cord-like
threads, and is contained in a pure silk bag. Silk is used because, when consumed in the explosion, it
leaves no residue.
HOW A GUN IS FIRED.

46. Behind the cordite charge a little tube containing a small quantity of gunpowder is placed in the
breech block to ignite the cordite which does not take fire readily by itself. The gunpowder is electrically
ignited by means of a fine wire inserted in the tube. When the trigger of the firing pistol is pressed, this
wire glows white hot, thus igniting the powder, which in turn fires the cordite.
CONSTRUCTION OF THE GUN BARREL.
47. A question often asked is why the barrels of long-range guns are always so long themselves. To
answer this question let us consider what happens when a gun is fired. As the charge of cordite burns, a
great amount of gas is produced at a very high temperature. This gas, being confined in a small space by
the barrel of the gun, the breech-block, and the base of the shell, exerts an enormous pressure on these-a
pressure which is made much greater by its very high temperature. The barrel, which is being pushed
outwards in all directions, cannot move outwards without bursting; but it is made strong enough to stand
the initial pressure and does not burst. The shell, which is being pushed forward by the gas at its base,
moves forward up the barrel with ever-increasing speed, thereby making more room for the gas and, to
some extent, relieving the pressure. The breech-block, which is being pushed backwards, is so strongly
attached to the barrel that though it moves back it takes the whole barrel with it. (This movement is the
recoil.)
If the charge used were high-explosive it would all burn, that is it would turn into very hot gas, almost
instantaneously, and the terrific pressure so produced would shatter both gun and shell. Cordite is used
because a cordite charge takes a very small but appreciable fraction of a second to burn (the larger the gun
the longer it takes) and it does not burst the gun because the shell begins to move up the barrel as soon as
the pressure on its base reaches a certain amount (and this happens when only a small portion of the
charge has turned into gas); as
12
it moves it makes more room for the rest of the gas; and by the time all the cordite has burned the shell is
perhaps three-quarters of the way along the barrel, so that the total amount of gas produced is never all
compressed in the original small space. The pressure, in fact, is greatest just when the shell begins to
move, and this is why the gun barrel is made thickest at the breech, and tapered gradually toward the
muzzle.
To get full advantage of the driving power of the hot compressed gases, as is clearly desirable for long-
range firing, the barrel must be long enough to have the moving shell still in it for as much time as the
gases have enough pressure to continue driving the shell faster and faster. The gases have this pressure for
as long as the cordite takes to burn and a little longer, and it is the distance the shell travels in this very
short interval of time that determines the best length for the barrel.
48. Heavy naval guns are built up of tapered tubes shrunk on to each other. Spiral grooves are cut on the

inside of the inner tube. This rifling, as it is called, causes the shell to spin during its passage up the gun
(for reasons which will appear later) and is naturally subjected to heavy wear. The design of the gun,
however, may allow the inner tube to be renewed when it becomes badly worn, and it is not necessary to
scrap the whole gun.
Many existing heavy guns are wound with wire in place of one of the shrunk tubes. This wire assists the
gun to resist the bursting effect of the gases inside it, but is heavy and adds nothing to the strength of the
gun as a beam. In consequence the gun tends to droop. Modern methods of heat treatment of tubes have
enabled wire to be dispensed with and it is not used for modern guns.
Modern types of medium calibre guns are made with single-tube barrels. This has been made possible by
improvements in the quality of gun steel and the introduction of a special process in preparing the tube to
withstand the internal pressures to which it will be subsequently subjected. Besides the important fact that
this method is less costly, it has the advantage that there is no tendency for the barrel to "whip" as the
shell is discharged. Another great advantage is that it makes it easier to change a worn barrel.
RIFLING.
49. The purpose of the rifling is to make the shell spin round on its axis in the same way as a top spins on
its axis; and as the spinning of a top keeps it upright, so the spinning of the shell keeps it travelling nose
first. Without this spinning motion the shell would turn over and over as it travelled through the air, and
would go neither so far nor so accurately as it does when travelling nose first. The rear end of the shell is
surrounded by a copper driving band which is a very tight fit in the bore. As the shell is propelled along
the barrel the driving band is squeezed into the grooves of the rifling causing the shell to acquire the
spinning motion referred to in the previous paragraph.
PROBLEM OF RECOIL.
50. The speed at which a shell leaves a big gun is something like 2,750 feet per second (nearly 2,000
miles per hour). The great force required to start off a heavy shell from rest and give it such a speed in so
short a distance, exerts a sudden and powerful backward thrust, the shock of which would cause damage
if the gun was rigidly fixed to its mounting. It is therefore necessary to interpose a buffer between the gun
and its mounting to allow the gun to move to the rear and bring it gradually to rest. This movement in
recoil, as it is called, lessens the shock of discharge and is provided for by the use of a hydraulic recoil
absorber.
13

Attached to the gun is a piston with certain small openings, which works in a cylinder of liquid attached to
the cradle, and when the gun is fired it attempts to move backwards quickly, but the piston in the cylinder
prevents its doing so. The pressure set up in the cylinder by the restriction of the flow of liquid from one
side of the piston to the other, acts as a buffer to absorb the force of the recoil. By storing some of the
energy of recoil in springs or compressed air, power is provided to run out the gun, i.e., to return it to its
normal firing position.
BREECH MECHANISMS.
51. We have already seen that owing to the pressure set up in the chamber of a gun when the charge is
ignited, some means of sealing the rear end of the gun must be provided; also some provision must be
made for firing the charge. These two functions are fulfilled by the breech mechanism, of which there are
two very distinct types, known as "Breech Loading" (B.L.) and "Quick Firing" (Q.F.). (Q.F. guns are also
loaded at the breech end.)
(i) B.L. Guns.
52. All guns of 6-in. calibre and above and certain smaller ones are B.L. guns, the advantage being that
the whole charge, which is made up in a silk bag, burns away when fired, and there is nothing left in the
chamber.
The B.L. mechanism consists principally of a screwed steel block, carried on a bronze casting known as a
"carrier," which is pivoted between hinge lugs on the gun. The breech block screws into a similarly
screwed bush inserted at the rear of the gun. The threaded portions of the block and bush are stepped, so
that the threads may be fully engaged or disengaged by only a partial revolution of the block.
When the gun has been loaded with a shell and cartridge, the carrier is swung in towards the gun and the
block, or breech screw as it is called, is revolved so that its threads are in full engagement with those of
the bush. To open the breech, the screw is revolved to unlock the threads, and then the carrier is swung
clear of the gun, so that the latter may be re-loaded.
A small tube containing explosive material is placed in a chamber, called a tube vent, formed in the
breech mechanism in line with the axis of the gun. By passing an electric current through the tube the
explosive material is ignited, and the flash thus produced causes the charge of cordite in the chamber of
the gun to ignite and fire the gun.
(ii) Q.F. Guns.
53. At Q.F. Guns, the charges are made up in brass cylinders. These charges are protected more from wet
and damp and to a great extent from flash, and are therefore used at smaller guns in exposed positions; but
they have the disadvantage that the heavy brass cylinder has to be withdrawn from the gun after the round
has been fired.

Q.F. guns can be sub-divided again into three classes, Q.F., Semi-Automatic (S.A.) and Automatic.
At Q.F. guns, the breech mechanisms have to be worked entirely by hand.
At S.A. guns, arrangements are made so that the breech will open, and the empty brass cylinder will be
ejected automatically after firing. Further, the mere action of pushing in the next round causes the breech
to close automatically. At S.A. guns, then, the only action that is not automatic is the pushing in of the
next round.
14
At Automatic guns even the new round is loaded into the gun automatically, and as long as the trigger is
pressed the gun will go on firing and reloading itself.
The modern Q.F./S.A. breech mechanism consists principally of a rectangular steel block, which is moved
by a crank across a recess cut in the rear end of the breech ring, which, in a Q.F. gun, is square in section.
With the breech closed, the face of the block bears against the base of the cartridge case, so that when the
gun fires, the pressure in the chamber, being unable to force the case to the rear, expands the case so that
it becomes a tight fit in the chamber and prevents escape of gas to the rear.
The gun is fired by means of an electric needle, or a percussion striker, fitted inside the block. With the
breech closed, the needle passes through a small hole in the face of the block and bears against the base of
the cartridge case. An electric current passed through the needle ignites the charge to fire the gun.
Where a percussion striker is fitted, the striker is held to the rear compressing a spring. On pulling a
trigger on the mounting, the striker is released, and the spring forces it forward to strike a percussion cap
in the base of the cartridge and so fire the charge.
SUMMARY OF SAFETY ARRANGEMENTS.
54. The following is a list of all the safety requirements for which arrangements will be found at any gun.
(i) Breech must not open when gun is fired.

(ii) The electric contact must be broken before the breech commences to open and vice versa.
(iii) It must be impossible to fire the gun until the breech is fully closed.
(iv) It must be impossible to fire the gun until the gun is fully run out. In a B.L. Mechanism-
(v) The electric contact must be broken before the commencement of unmasking the vent.
(vi) It must be impossible to revolve the breech screw when the breech is open.
THE B.L. MECHANISM. Plate 5.

55. The 6-in. Mark XXIII breech has been chosen as an example of a modern B.L. mechanism. (See Plate
5.)
The breech block of a B.L. gun can be considered for the moment to be a steel plug screwed into the
breech bush, which is screwed and shrunk into the "A" tube of the gun with its front face butting against
the rear of the inner "A" tube, where a conical seating is formed. To make the breech gas-tight, a pad is
fitted in front of this plug and is shaped to bear against the conical seating. The pad is called an obturator
pad, and is made of shredded asbestos, impregnated with rape-seed oil, enclosed in brass-wire gauze and
subjected to a pressure of about 15 tons/sq. in.
In front of this pad is placed a round piece of steel, the shape of a mushroom carried on a stalk. The rear
face of the head rests against the pad and the stalk passes through a hole in both the pad and the breech
block. This mushroom-shaped piece of steel is called the vent axial, though it is often referred to as the
"mushroom head."
When the charge is fired, the pressure set up in the chamber forces back the vent axial, which in turn
squeezes the pad against the front face of the breech block, causing the pad to increase slightly in
diameter and become a gas-tight fit against the conical seating on the end of the inner "A" tube. When the
shell leaves the muzzle of the gun, the pressure on the "mushroom head" is released
15
and the pad, being elastic in nature, resumes its former shape, thereby pushing the vent axial forward to its
original position. Thus, although the rear end of inner "A" tube is made gas-tight during the explosion of
the charge, the pad is normally just clear of its seating, so that no difficulty would be experienced in
opening the breech if the pad and "mushroom head" were to remain unaffected by heat.
The high temperature set up in the chamber caused by the burning of the charge, causes the "mushroom
head," and hence the pad, to become hot. The amount of heat is kept within reasonable limits by playing
water on the "mushroom head" every time the breech is opened after the firing of a round. The heating of
the pad causes it to swell, with the result that it becomes rather a tight fit on its seating. Some means must
therefore be provided for unseating the pad during the opening of the breech.
"56. Around the vent axial stalk are fitted a sleeve and a spring. These are held in place by a nut which
screws on to the rear end of the vent axial stalk.
When the nut is screwed up, the spring is compressed, forcing the sleeve hard against the front of the
recess in the face of the breech block. With the spring under compression, the sleeve and nut are forced
away from each other, thus drawing the mushroom head on to the obturator pad. In this way the pad and
its rings are held tightly in place at all times.
When the gun fires, the obturator pad, after being violently set back, re-acts, and the spring absorbs this

reaction.
The breech screw, in opening, moves slightly to the rear, forcing the sleeve back with it but rotating
around the vent axial stalk. Now if the pad sticks to the inside of the chamber, the increased pressure on
the spring will unseat it."
Firing Arrangements.
57. In order to allow the charge to be fired, a hole is bored down the centre of the vent axial stalk, a
slightly tapered chamber being formed at the rear. In this chamber is placed a tube, containing explosive
material, which, when ignited, will send a flash down the hole, on the rear of the charge in the chamber of
the gun. In order to fire the tube, a mechanism known as a lock is placed behind it. The lock is fitted in a
box slide, which is attached to the rear of the vent axial stalk by means of interrupted collars. The vent
axial nut is fitted with two lugs on its rear face, and there are corresponding lugs on the front face of the
box slide. These lugs prevent the nut unscrewing and touching the front face of the box slide. If the nut
were allowed to do this, the action of unshipping the box slide would tend to unscrew the nut farther to
the rear against the box slide and a complete jam would result.
The lock is fitted with an electrical contact which bears against the rear of the firing tube, so that when the
director firing pistol is pressed, current flows through the lock to the tube, which is thus fired.
58. The requirements of a B.L. mechanism are:-
(i) That the breech screw shall only be free to rotate on the carrier when its threads are in
correct position in the gun to engage or disengage with the threads in the breech bush.
(ii) That at all other times it shall be locked to the carrier in such a position that it can be
swung by the carrier freely into or out of the breech
16

opening of the gun, and that the act of locking the breech screw to the carrier shall divert the
power from revolving the breech screw to swinging the carrier.
(iii) That when the breech screw is in the correct position in the gun to engage the breech
threads, the locking device, referred to at (ii) above, shall be released in order to allow the
breech screw to revolve.
THE Q.F. MECHANISM. Plate 6.
59. This and the following paragraphs, together with Plate 6, describe the working of a Q.F./S.A. breech
mechanism, but for a more complete representation of any particular breech, reference should be made to
the appropriate handbook.
The breech mechanism consists primarily of a breech block, rectangular in shape, cut away at one end to
facilitate loading, which slides across the rear end of the gun in a slot called the breech mortice. The
mortice is inclined to the face of the breech so that the cartridge is forced home when the breech is shut.
60. The breech is operated by the actuating shaft which is vertical and pivots in bushes built into the
breech ring. The actuating shaft carries two cranks, the lower one working the breech across the breech
face, and the upper one turning the actuating shaft when the breech is in semi-automatic.
The crank, which works the breech block, in its fully closed position is over its dead centre so that the
breech is locked. The further movement of the crank beyond its dead centre permits the following safety
arrangements to be provided:-
(i) The striker is withdrawn before the block is moved to open the breech.
(ii) The breech is fully closed before the striker can go forward.
61. The breech mechanism is operated by a breech mechanism lever, carried on but free to move relative
to the actuating shaft. Keyed to the actuating shaft are a crank and rack pinion. Through the rack pinion
and a bar carried in the B.M. lever, the lever can be made rigid with the actuating shaft. This is done in Q.
F. to enable the crank to be rotated by movement of the B.M. lever.
Also carried in the B.M. lever are a rack and actuating spring. The rack is geared to the rack pinion. Thus
with the B.M. lever locked in the "housed" position, movement of the actuating shaft will, through the
rack pinion and rack compress the actuating spring. This action takes place in S.A., a bell crank arm
attached to the actuating shaft being revolved as the gun runs out.
62. The Extractor is housed in the breech ring. It has toes on the outer end which engage behind the rim
of the cartridge case. The heels of the extractor bear against inclined faces formed on the breech block.
Initially, because of this inclined face the extractors produce a powerful wedging action to commence the
extraction of the cartridge case, and then as they revolve about their axis, a violent ejection of the
cartridge case from the gun.

63. The breech is held open by the catches retaining breech block open. On loading, the flange of the
cartridge trips these catches; and in S.A., as soon as the cartridge is home the breech is closed by the
action of the spring in the B.M. lever.
A small lever pivoted in the breech block called the catch retaining cartridge is provided to retain the
cartridge, because when the rammer is withdrawn quickly, e.g., at high elevation, the action of the breech
block is not sufficiently rapid to hold the cartridge when the rammer is withdrawn.
17
64. The Breech Block Buffer consists of a block and a return spring, and is housed in a pocket at the
inner side of the breech ring. It has a threefold purpose:-
(i) It limits the opening travel of the breech block.

(ii) It returns the breech block to the loading position in Q.F. action, thus freeing the extractor,
and then carries it on to the cartridge retaining position on loading. In S.A. action the
actuating spring closes the breech and the buffer plays no part except to assist at the
commencement of closing.
(iii) It acts as a shock absorber when the breech is opened violently.
65. The Firing Mechanism is contained in the firing case which fits into the breech block, where it is
locked in the correct position by a spring hinged catch lever. Although the electric firing gear is normally
used, percussion firing gear is fitted in most Q.F. breeches and is contained in the same unit.
The firing mechanism is operated by a series of retracting levers and crank situated in the hollowed inner
side of the breech block.
The firing circuit cable passes by way of the interceptor through a hole in the breech block to the firing
needle.
66. The Semi-Automatic Gear consists of a cam plate, secured to the beam carrying the balance weight,
which works against the operating cam on the gun.
A change-over lever with two positions-S.A. and Q.F.-is provided. When the lever is to Q.F. the
actuating shaft roller of the breech passes clear of the operating cam and no movement of the breech
itself will take place. With the lever to S.A. the actuating shaft roller runs along the inner edge of the
operating cam and thus rotates the actuating shaft and opens the breech as the gun runs out.
Opening in S.A.

67. As the gun runs out the upper crank of the actuating shaft is rotated by the operating cam and the
breech is opened. During this movement the rack pinion is also rotated, and operating the rack in the
casing of the B.M. lever compresses the actuating spring. The B.M. lever is secured to the gun by its
plunger catch whilst the breech is in S.A.
At the commencement of the crank rotation and until the crank pin passes over the dead centre by an
amount equal to the overlocking movement, no actual displacement of the breech block occurs.
During this idle movement of the crank the firing needle is withdrawn within the face of the breech block,
and it is retained in the retracted position until the crank reaches the same position when the breech is
being shut.
As the breech block approaches the fully open position the curved inclined face in the block comes into
engagement with the heels of the extractor, and rocking the extractor arm on the gun forcibly levers the
cartridge case from the chamber. At the end of this levering action the extractor rotates on its axis and the
final movement of the breech block rapidly ejects the case from the gun.
The final stopping of the breech block is brought about by the breech block buffer, the spring of which
allows a small over-travel of the breech block during which the momentum of the block is absorbed
before it can come up metal-to-metal. As the breech block is returned by the B.M. lever actuating spring
the block is arrested at the loading position by catches retaining breech block open.
18
On loading, the rim of the cartridge engages with the lips of the extractor and with the catches, forcing
them forward until they are disengaged from the breech block thereby allowing the latter to close until the
cartridge is retained and the block is again arrested by the loading tray interlock bolt. When the tray is
moved back to the firing position the locking bolt is withdrawn and the breech closes completely.
Opening in Q.F.
68. The S.A. cam is housed so that as the gun runs out, it is clear of the actuating shaft roller and the
mechanism is operated by the B.M. lever. When the handle of the B.M. lever is grasped the lever is
locked to the actuating shaft as described above.
At the same time the lever retaining catch plunger in its socket in the breech end is released thus freeing
the B.M. lever. Movement of the B.M. lever will then rotate the actuating shaft and open the breech.
CARE AND CLEANING.
Care of Bores of Guns.

69. The bore and chamber of a gun must be kept clean, and except when ready for immediate use, oiled.
To enable this to be done a special brush, called a piasaba brush, is supplied for each type of gun in the
ship. The act of cleaning or oiling the gun with a piasaba brush is called sponging out.
Guns are sponged out and oiled:-
(i) Immediately after firing.

(ii) After bad weather or being at sea.
(iii) At least once a week in harbour.
(iv) Before and immediately after firing sub-calibre guns or aiming rifles.
Sponging Out.
70. After firing, the gun is sponged out by passing a piasaba brush up and down the entire length of the
bore. To make certain that all the dirt is removed from the grooves of the rifling, oakum is packed tightly
round the bristles of the brush.
When the bore is thoroughly clean it must be oiled. This is done by putting clean oakum round the piasaba
brush and soaking the oakum in light mineral oil, and then passing the brush up and down the bore until
there is a thin film of oil over every surface in the bore.
Cleaning the Chamber.
71. The chamber is cleaned in a very similar manner to the bore, except that the piasaba brush cannot be
used, as it is not large enough. The combined sponge and rammer supplied for the gun is very suitable for
removing the dirt. The oil can then be applied with a long handled paint brush or a cloth mop on a long
handle.
Cleaning Guns before Firing.
72. Before firing takes place the bore and chamber of the gun must be sponged out until they are quite
clean and free from oil. They are then left dry.
19

Care of Breech Mechanisms.
73.
(i) All working-that is, moving-parts must be cleaned and oiled first. If any spare time remains it may be
spent in polishing and burnishing brightwork.
(ii) No brick dust, emery, or other gritty substance is to be used on any working parts or inside the gun.
These parts are to be cleaned with oil only.
(iii) There are only two places for cleaning gear: one is when in use, and the other is in the rag tank.
(iv) Never use any oil unless it has been especially provided by one of the gunnery staff.
(v) When filling an oil hole it is advisable to clean the hole first with a piece of wire. This will allow the
oil to reach those parts for which it is intended.
(vi) Always replace the lids or covers to lubricators. If a part of the mechanism has been stripped down,
make sure that all the keep screws, nuts, split pins and keep plates are replaced when the gear is re-
assembled.
(vii) If any gear seems stiff to work or assemble never hammer it with metal. Look round to see if the
cause of the stiffness can be found, and if not report the matter to the senior rating of the gun's crew. (viii)
Always see that the breech threads are clear of dirt, and never force the breech to close if it feels stiff. A
burr may have occurred somewhere and if it is on the seat of obturation the pad may be ruined by using
extra force.
(ix) Take great care of locks and box slides, and never let them be dropped.
(x) Never let a percussion lock be fired or allowed to snap unless a tube or cartridge is in front of it, as
otherwise the striker point may break off. If a striker is found to be broken, do not rest until the broken
piece has been found, as otherwise it may cause a jam in some part of the mechanism.
(xi) Never oil a lock. If it is dry or stiff report the fact to the senior member of the gun's crew who will
inform the gunnery office. An Ordnance Artificer will be detailed to find out what is wrong.
(xii) Never disconnect an electric circuit without a direct order from a higher gunnery rating.
74-84.

20
CHAPTER IV.
HAND WORKED MOUNTINGS.
Plates 7 to 13.
PRINCIPLES OF MOUNTINGS.
85. Every gun mounting, whatever its size, is in essence a strongly-built turntable, upon which is fitted a
pair of brackets adapted to receive the trunnions of the cradle and so carry the gun. The turntable enables
the gun to be trained round to any desired direction, and the trunnion pins and brackets form a pivot about
which it can be elevated or depressed as required.
The trunnions cannot be fixed to the gun itself. If they were, the mounting and the ship's structure would
have to be strong enough to stand the sudden shock of recoil when the gun is fired; and as the gun is
forced back with as much energy as the shell is forced forward this would require very strong mountings
and very heavy ships even for small guns, and large-calibre guns would be out of the question. The
trunnions are therefore fixed to the cradle, and between the gun and the cradle a buffer is interposed. By
allowing the gun to move backward and offering a strong resistance to this movement the buffer changes
the sudden shock of recoil into a comparatively long and much less violent push before it reaches the
fixed structure of the ship.
In lightly-built ships, such as destroyers, the shock has to be spread over a longer interval than in larger
ships, as the structure is less substantial. This is done by allowing the gun to recoil further; in other words,
by reducing the resistance offered by the buffer or recoil cylinder.
This backward movement or recoil of the gun is provided for by mounting the gun in a cradle (as
mentioned above) in which it can slide to and fro when necessary; and it is to this cradle that the trunnion
pins are fitted and the elevating gear attached.

86. In all smaller mountings the cradle consists of a tube in which the gun slides and which carries the
trunnion pins. The fixed portion of the recoil gear is attached to the cradle and the moving parts are
secured to the gun by attaching them either to lugs formed on the breech ring or to the balance weight
fitted round the rear of the gun.
The latter method is employed in the 4-in. Twin Mounting where, owing to the weight of the fixed
ammunition used, there is no need for a loading tray. The former method is generally employed on
mountings fitted with loading trays, where the tray and fittings provide a considerable part of the balance
weight necessary to balance the gun and cradle about the trunnions.
87. There are two types of mounting in use in the Service, the Pedestal Mounting and the Central Pivot
Mounting.
PEDESTAL MOUNTINGS. Plate 7.
21
CENTRAL PIVOT MOUNTINGS. Plate 8.
89. This type is used for all modern guns. Owing to its design which allows for a deep opening between
the carriage sides, it is possible with these mountings to obtain a much greater elevation than with the
pedestal type.
In the central pivot type of mounting the trunnions are carried at the top of two steel plates which are
cross-connected by a third plate in front; these three plates are secured at the bottom to a flat, circular
plate, on the underside of which is a smooth ring which forms the upper roller path. The lower part is a
flat, circular base plate, secured to the deck by holding-down bolts, and with another smooth ring on it
which forms the lower roller path. Between the roller paths are a number of cone-shaped rollers whose
axis pins are secured to a light ring inside the roller paths, so that the rollers are at all times kept in their
correct relative positions. As the gun and carriage train round, the upper roller path pushes the rollers
round over the lower path, and the roller ring to which the axis pins are attached moves round at half the
speed of the carriage.
In order to ensure that the two roller paths remain in the correct position over each other, and that the
carriage does not move sideways, a small pivot is secured to the bottom of the carriage in its centre and
works in a bearing in the centre of the base plate. This pivot is called the central pivot.
Clips are fitted to prevent the mounting from jumping at the front and rear when the gun is fired.
The Central Pivot.

90. The central pivot is secured to the revolving platform. It is hollow and extends downward through the
boss of the base plate. Electric cables, voicepipes, drain pipes, and, where required, pressure and exhaust
pipes to the mounting, pass through the central pivot. On the outside of the pivot is the inner roller race,
and between this and the outer roller race are the vertical rollers, carried in a cage.
CRADLES.
91. In the older mountings, the gun is prevented from turning during the passage of the shell up the bore
by the engagement of its external keys with the corresponding recesses in the cradle. In modern
mountings either the lug on the underside of the breech ring slides in guides attached to the rear of the
cradle, and thus prevents the gun from turning or (in mountings where the balance weight recoils with the
gun) flats formed on the recuperator cylinder body engage with metal guide strips on the balance
weight.
Cradles are fitted internally with brass bearing rings, upon which the gun rests, and slides, when recoiling
and running out, to reduce the friction between gun and cradle.
On the underside of each cradle is fitted a recoil cylinder.
22
TRUNNIONS.
92. The gun trunnion pin is a steel pin, screwed and shrunk into the cradle, and further secured by a
locking screw.
H.A. MOUNTINGS. Plate 9.
93. These are generally central pivot mountings. To permit easy loading at high angles of elevation the
trunnions are fitted as near to the breech of the gun as possible, a balance weight being fitted to the cradle
or rear end of the gun to balance the gun.
The most modern mountings carry guns which are used both as H.A. and L.A. Armaments, and are
actually C.P. mountings, which allow high angles of elevation.
The modern tendency is to mount guns in pairs, the cradles being either in one piece or bolted together.
The number of guns may thus be doubled without requiring very much extra space.
RECOIL ARRANGEMENTS
Old Type. Plate 10. Cancelled.

23
New Type. Plate 11.
98. The new type of recoil arrangements are fitted to all modern mountings, large and small, and though
details differ the general principles are identical.
The recoil cylinder is carried in a hollow projection on the underside of the cradle. It is prevented from
turning by a flat formed on the front end, which engages with a facing in the cradle, and is secured by a
nut at the rear end.
It is fitted with a drain plug at the front, and an air escape plug at the rear end.
Within the cylinder is a partly hollow piston rod, the piston head of which is fitted with a phosphor
bronze piston ring and has a number of ports cut in its rear face and a control or throttling bush screwed
into its front end. Grooves which are tapered towards the rear are cut in the inside surface of the piston
rod.
24
The solid rear end of the piston rod is secured to the breech ring of the gun, a clearance between the
securing nuts and the lug on the breech ring being provided so that the rod is free in the lug. In the hollow
of the piston rod fits a tapered control plunger which is secured at its front end by the cylinder closing
plug. This plug is fitted with an air escape hole to prevent an air lock when screwing in the plug. This
hole is closed by a bolt.
Fitted over the rear end of the control plunger is a sliding sleeve non-return valve, whose seating is a
shoulder formed on the control plunger.
Briefly stated the throttling bush in conjunction with the tapered control plunger controls the speed of
recoil, and the grooves cut in the interior of the hollow piston rod control the speed of run-out.
99. As the gun recoils the piston is pulled to the rear. The liquid in rear of the piston passes through piston
head ports, and thence, between the throttling bush and the tapered control plunger, into the front part of
the cylinder. The control plunger is tapered to obtain an approximately uniform force of recoil. Some of
the liquid also passes to the rear between the control plunger and the interior of the piston rod and,
pushing the sleeve-valve off its seating, passes through the ports in the valve and fills up the increasing
space inside the hollow piston rod.
The taper of the control plunger gradually reduces the space between it and the throttling bush bringing

the gun gently to rest. If the gun reaches its maximum working recoil, the stepped parallel portion of the
control plunger just enters the throttling bush and almost completely cuts off the flow of the liquid.
100. As soon as the gun has been brought to rest, it is forced forward by the action of compressed air in
the recuperator in a manner to be described later. In the recoil cylinder, the piston moves forward over the
control plunger, and at the first movement to the front, the liquid in the rear of the space in the hollow
piston rod forces the sleeve valve on to its seating.
The liquid trapped in the hollow piston rod can now only escape past the sleeve valve through the grooves
cut along the inside of the piston rod. A pressure is thus built up in the hollow piston rod and the tapered
grooves by varying the flow of this pressure, control the speed of run-out. As the front face of the breech
ring meets the bearing face on the cradle the tapered grooves then surrounding the sleeve valve are of
minimum depth, and so the gun is brought gently to rest.
A comparison between the old and new types of recoil arrangements will show that the original principles
are still applied, though in a different form; the valve key of varying height and the part in the piston head
have been replaced by the tapered control plunger and throttling bush; the ball-valve has been superseded
by the sleeve-valve, and the adjustable spigot by the tapered grooves on the inside of the hollow part of
the piston rod. But the adjustable spigot is so useful in providing a means of adjusting the speed of run out
that, though dropped for a time, it is being incorporated in the most modern mountings.
RUN-OUT ARRANGEMENTS.
(i) Run-out Springs. Plate 10.
101. Run-out springs are fitted to older mountings and to later mountings for which compressed air is not
available, to keep the gun out in the firing position and to return the gun to the firing position after the
force of recoil has been absorbed. It is obvious that the springs also absorb a certain amount of the force
of recoil.
A hollow cylindrical spring case is fitted to the top of the cradle. Inside the case are three spiral springs
with a rod passing through them. At the front
25

end of this rod is attached the fixed plate, which bears against the front end of the foremost spring; and at
the rear end of the third spring, inside the spring case, is the compression plate. The spring rod is hollow
and the rear end is screwed on its inner surface to receive a screwed bush. The breech rod is passed
through the breech lug and the rear end of the spring case, through the compression plate and screwed
into this bush. A flanged nut on the breech rod engages with the compression plate, and is turned to
screw the rod into the bush.
By screwing the breech rod into the bush on the spring rod, the fixed plate on the front end of the latter is
drawn to the rear, and the springs are thereby compressed between the fixed plate and the compression
plate. When sufficient initial compression has thus been applied and the springs are entirely inside the
spring case, the nut on the screwed rear end of the breech rod is screwed up until the flanged nut on the
breech rod is drawn back clear of the compression plate. This action transfers the forward pressure of the
springs from the rear side of the compression plate to the breech lug and so enables the springs to hold the
gun in the run-out position and to return it to that position after recoil.
(ii) Recuperators. Plate 11.
102. All modern mountings are fitted with a recuperator to run the gun out into the firing position and
hold it there. The arrangement of fittings differs according to the mounting to which they are fitted.
The recuperator cylinder is secured to the top part of the balance weight by a nut on a screwed
projection on its rear end. It is prevented from turning by a flat formed on the front end which engages
with a face on the top beam.
The recuperator ram is secured by a nut to a lug attached to the breech ring of the gun and enters the
cylinder through a gland.
The recuperator is filled with air at a pressure of about 600 lbs. per sq. in., through a spigot valve situated
at the rear end of the intensifier, and is kept airtight by packing and a double set of "U" leathers supported
by brass spring rings. An inlet for liquid from an intensifier is led into the space between the pair of
leathers. An air release plug is also fitted to this space to enable any air present to be released from the
liquid system.
An air connection for the intensifier is taken from the rear end of the recuperator; this connection also
serves the purpose of charging the recuperator; a drain valve is fitted at the rear end.
As the gun recoils, the recuperator ram is forced into the cylinder, causing the air pressure to rise, until at
the end of recoil a pressure some 70 per cent higher than normal is reached. This further compression of
the air absorbs about 25 per cent of the energy of recoil of the gun.
As soon as the gun has been brought to rest, the pressure in the recuperator, acting against the forward end
of the hollow ram, forces the gun out into the firing position.

INTENSIFIERS. Plate 11.
103. The intensifier is bolted to the outer side of the balance weight and consists of a cylinder in which
travel a piston and rod. A pointer attached to the tail of the piston rod indicates whether the intensifier is
full or empty.
A pipe transmits the recuperator pressure to the rear end of the intensifier. The front end of the intensifier
cylinder is full of low temperature grease No. 0, and is connected by a pipe to the inside of the "U"
leathers of the recuperator gland.
The effective area on the rear face of the piston is greater than that of the other side by the cross-section
area of the rod, and the grease is consequently
26
forced into the recuperator gland at a higher pressure than that of the air in the recuperator thus keeping
the "U" leathers tight. As the air pressure in the recuperator rises during recoil of the gun, so does the
intensifier correspondingly increase the pressure of the grease in the ratio of the effective areas of the two
sides of the piston head, so that whatever the air pressure may be in the recuperator at a given moment the
grease pressure must always be considerably higher.
ELEVATING GEAR. Plate 12.
104. A wheel or a pair of handles, worked by the gunlayer, is fitted at the left side of the mounting for
elevating and depressing the gun. Shafts and gear wheels transmit the movement of the elevating wheel to
a pinion which engages the teeth of an elevating arc bolted to the underside of the cradle.
The shock of the gun on firing due to the movement of the centre of gravity towards the rear end of the
cradle, is transmitted by the pinion to the elevating gear, which must therefore contain a worm and worm-
wheel to prevent the gear moving when the gun recoils.
The shock thus transmitted to the elevating gear is prevented from causing damage by making the gear
frictional. The same safety measure prevents damage when the gun is elevated or depressed on to its stops
in a violent manner.
105. The elevating handles drive through shafting and bevel wheels to a worm. The worm meshes with a
worm wheel which is on but not keyed to the elevating pinion shaft. The worm wheel is hollow and
contains alternate steel and gun metal friction discs which are keyed, the one kind to the wormwheel and
the other kind to the shaft. These discs are compressed by Belleville spring washers and a nut, and thus a
frictional drive from the wormwheel to the shaft is obtained. The elevating pinion is keyed to the
elevating pinion shaft, which is hollow to allow the drive to the elevation receiver to pass through it. This

drive is from split pinions working off the elevating arc.
Elevating and Depression Limit Stops.
106. Limit stops are fitted on top of the elevating pinion shaft bearings on either side of the elevating
pinion and take against steel plates bolted to the ends of the elevating arc when the gun reaches the limits
of elevation and depression.
Limit stops usually take the form of oil buffers, and have a two-fold purpose. Firstly, they prevent the gun
being elevated or depressed beyond the limits imposed and secondly they apply these checks in a
relatively gentle manner.
The mechanical details of buffer stops may differ in various types of mountings, but the essential
principles are always the same.
The buffer stop, which is placed in the path of some protruding portion of the mounting consists of a
cylinder containing a piston with its rod protruding. One or more springs are fitted inside the cylinder, to
keep the piston in its normal position, i.e., make the rod protrude when it is not in contact with the other
part of the mounting. The cylinder is filled with General Service mineral oil. The action upon the
protruding portion coming into contact with the piston rod is to drive it into the cylinder. The piston head,
the diameter of which is only very slightly less than that of the cylinder, tends to compress the liquid.
Liquid, however, cannot be compressed and it escapes past the side of the piston head until the limit of
travel is reached and the gun is brought to rest without undue shock.
Depression Control.
107. It is possible to depress the gun about five to ten degrees below the horizontal. This would entail a
risk of the gun shooting into the deck or fittings mounted
27

on the deck when it is trained on certain bearings. To avoid this, a cam rail is fitted to the deck close
round the bottom of the mounting. On the plate runs a roller which works a system of rods attached to the
mounting, with a bell crank lever at the top whose upper leg is under the gun. As the gun depresses, it is
stopped by its underside resting on the upper leg of the bell crank lever. On dangerous bearings the cam
plate is higher and when the mounting is trained on such a bearing the roller lifts and raises the end of the
bell crank lever thus preventing the gun being depressed too far. On the other hand, if the gun is at
maximum depression on a safe bearing and is trained towards a dangerous bearing the roller will lift until
it touches the gun, when the mounting will be prevented from being trained further.
TRAINING GEAR. Plate 13.
108. A wheel, or a pair of handles, operated by the trainer, is fitted to the right side of the mounting. The
drive passes through a two-speed gear box and is connected by bevel gearing to a worm shaft. A muff
coupling connects the two parts of the vertical shaft.
The worm is keyed to its shaft and meshes with the worm-wheel. The end thrust of the worm is taken on
ball bearings, and a screwed bush at one end can be adjusted to take up end play. The arrangement of
friction discs is the same as in the elevating gear described in para. 105, the vertical training shaft
passing through the worm-wheel. At the lower end of the shaft are two training pinions, the two together
usually being referred to as a split pinion, engaging the teeth of the training rack, which is secured to the
inside of the lower roller path. The upper pinion is keyed with vertical keys, and is held in place by a
screwed collar.
The lower pinion is mounted on inclined keys and is held up against the upper pinion by a flange on an
internal shaft which passes through the hollow vertical training shaft. The upper end of the internal shaft
is screwed into the training shaft, and adjustment to take up backlash may be made by screwing up the
internal shaft, which will raise the lower pinion, thus giving it a slight rotation, which has the effect of
widening the teeth engaging the training rack. The adjustment is provided in this manner because a bevel
attached to the top of the training shaft transmits the drive to the director training receiver.
A collar on the training shaft forms a bearing for the worm-wheel, and the weight of the shaft and worm-
wheel is taken by a set of ball bearings. Two vertical sets of roller bearings form the main bearing of the
shaft in the casing.
In later mountings, the training pinion is one solid pinion keyed to the training shaft, while the drive to the
director training receiver is transmitted by a separate pair of training pinions engaging the training rack.
The details of the split pinion adjustment are not shown in Plate 13.
Training Stops.
(i) Housing Stop.

109. A hinged housing stop pawl is fitted at a convenient position on the carriage and can be raised and
lowered by a handle, which is then pinned in the required position. The pawl engages with a fixed bracket
on the base plate.
In some mountings the stop consists of a vertical-spring-loaded bolt fitted to the turntable, which engages
a recess in the base plate. The bolt may be pinned in or out of engagement.
(ii) Training Stops.
Stops are fitted to mountings to prevent them being trained in a direction that would endanger the
structure of the ship if the gun were fired. There are two kinds of stops, called permanent and semi-
permanent stops. Permanent
28
stops are rigid and prevent any further movement of the mounting past a certain point. Semi-permanent
stops prevent the gun being trained on a dangerous bearing, but the stop, when reached, can be lifted and
the mounting trained further, either for stowage, or to safe bearings beyond the dangerous arc.
The toe of the housing stop in each case comes into contact with a stop fixed to the baseplate. Where the
stop is a semi-permanent one, the elongated hole in the housing stop, into which the locking bolt fits, is
large enough to allow this stop to be lifted sufficiently to clear the fixed stop on the base plate. Buffer
stops similar to those described in para. 106 are fitted to come into play just before the fixed stop is
reached, in order to prevent sudden shock.
THE LOADING TRAY. Plate 14.
110. Two long hollow tubes, which fit into lugs on the underside of the cradle and project to the rear,
carry the balance weight across their rear ends. The loading tray is supported on this structure.
By means of a palm lever and handgrips the tray can be swung into line with the gun for loading, or
back clear of the path of the gun when it recoils. A spring locking bolt, operated by the palm lever, locks
the tray in either position. Rounds are rammed into the gun by a hand-operated rammer or in the latest
type of mountings by
a spring-operated rammer. An interlock is fitted to prevent the tray from being in rear of the gun when the
latter is in a position to fire, i.e., when the breech is closed. As the tray is pushed over in line with the gun
for loading, it forces a bar into contact with a cam at the lower end of the breech actuating shaft. When a
round is loaded into the gun, the actuating spring closes the breech sufficiently for the block to retain the
round, when a projection on the actuating shaft cam comes into contact with the interlock bar and
prevents the breech from closing further. The last movement of the tray on being swung clear withdraws
the interlock bar, and the breech is closed by the actuating spring.

. . . . depends upon you . . . (para 41)
29
THE 4.7-in. Q.E. MARK IX** GUN ON THE C.P. MARK XVIII MOUNTING.
111. Chapter III and the preceding paragraphs in this chapter, deal with the various parts of typical hand
worked guns. These points should be carefully studied before considering the gun and mounting as a
whole.
Diagram 1 shows a destroyer's gun. This type of gun, with certain differences is fitted in all modern
destroyers up to the "W" class (see Chapter I, para. 35).
The gun is a 4.7-in. Q.F. Mark IX** and is mounted on a C.P. Mark XVIII mounting. The shell weighs 50
lbs. and the cartridge 30 lbs. 5 1/2 ozs. The gun can be elevated to 40° and depressed to 10°.
The gun itself (see Chapter III, para. 47) is built up of three forgings, namely, the gun tube called the "A"
tube, the jacket, and the breech ring.
112. The breech mechanism is of the Q.F. type (see Chapter III, paras. 53, 59 et seq.) and is provided
with combined electric and percussion firing mechanism. To open the breech, the breech mechanism lever
is moved to the right and is then housed when the breech is open.
The breech can be put to either SEMI-AUTOMATIC or QUICK FIRING by means of a lever held in a
bracket bolted and secured to the top beam carrying the balance weight. Acting in conjunction with the
cam is a roller on the top of the actuating shaft. The change-over lever for the cam has two positions, i.e.,
S.A. and Q.F., and is held in either position by a spring plunger.
When the lever is at SEMI-AUTOMATIC, the roller on the actuating shaft strikes the operating surface of
the cam as the gun runs out after recoil, and the roller is forced outwards, thus rotating the actuating shaft
and opening the breech. The B.M. lever is left in the "housed" position.

113. The recoil cylinder (see paras. 98 and 99) is carried on the underside of the cradle. Inside the recoil
cylinder is the hollow piston rod and piston, the rear end of the piston rod being secured to the breech ring
of the gun.
114. The recuperator (see para. 102) is fitted on the top part of the balance weight. The recuperator is
filled with air at a pressure of 550 lb. per sq. in.
As the gun recoils after firing, the recoil piston inside the recoil cylinder is pulled to the rear, and the
liquid passes to the front part of the cylinder. At the same time a ram is forced into the recuperator
cylinder causing the pressure to rise, until, at the end of recoil, a pressure of 1,000 lb. per sq. in. is
reached.
As soon as the gun has been brought to rest, the pressure in the recuperator acting on the ram begins to
force the gun out.
The intensifier (see para. 103) is bolted to the top right hand side of the balance weight. A pointer
attached to the tail of the piston rod indicates whether the intensifier is full or empty.
The instructions for filling the intensifier are engraved on a plate beside it.
115. The elevating gear (see para. 104) consists of elevating handles which drive, through bevel wheels
and friction worm-gearing, the elevating pinion which gears to the elevating arc, and elevates the gun.
A safety stop is fitted to prevent the sight being depressed into a position where the deflection dial would
foul the elevating handles.
Elevation and Depression Stops and Depression Control Gear are also fitted.
30

31
116. The training gear consists of training handles driving through a two-speed gear box, bevel wheels, a
frictional worm-gear, and a pinion which engages the training rack.
The two-speed gear box has a clutch which can be put to FAST or SLOW. One turn of the training handles
equals approximately 4 degrees when the clutch is put to FAST, and 2 degrees when put to SLOW.
The drives to the black pointers on the elevation and training receivers (see Diagram 10 and paras. 276
and 279) come from the elevating arc and training rack respectively. The tilt corrector (see para. 265) is
also driven off the training rack.
The loading tray (see para. 110) is fitted to the left hand tube of the two tubes which carry the balance
weight. It has a semi-circular trough along the inside of which runs the rammer guided by rollers. The
rammer is operated by a steel wire rope which runs over appropriate sheaves and to which a rammer
handle is attached.
The interceptor (see para. 281) is fitted on the right hand side, the upper portion being fixed to the gun,
and the lower to the cradle, thus making it impossible to bring the gun to the "Ready" until it is fully "Run
out." On the gun firing the interceptor automatically opens.

THE 4-in. Q.F. MARK XVI* GUNS ON THE H.A. TWIN MARK XIX MOUNTING.
117. Diagram 2 illustrates the 4-in. Twin H.A. Mounting, the main armament of "Hunt" class destroyers
and sloops, and the standard H.A. armament for cruisers not equipped with H.A./L.A. guns (see Chapter
I, para. 28).
The guns are 4-in. Q.F. Mark XVI* and are mounted on an H.A. Twin Mark XIX Mounting. The total
weight of the shell and cartridge, which are fixed together, is 63 lbs. 8ozs. The guns can be elevated to
80° and depressed to 10°.
The gun itself is of all steel construction. It consists of a "loose" barrel, jacket, removable breech ring and
sealing collar (see Chapter III, para. 48).
118. The breech mechanism is so arranged that the breech blocks move "downward" to open. This
arrangement allows the guns to be placed closer together in the cradle.
The breech mechanism lever is fitted on the left hand side of the left gun, and on the opposite side of the
right gun. As the breech block has to be lifted vertically, a very strong spring is required to close the
breech when in S.A. firing. This spring is fully compressed when the block is open and the B.M. lever
housed. If the B.M. lever is then unlocked from its housed position, it will fly to the open position with
great violence, and it will severely injure anyone in its path. The B.M. lever should therefore not be
released until the breech worker has grasped it firmly and pressed forward to take the thrust of the spring.
119. The breech can be put to S.A. or Q.F. by means of a change-over lever mounted at the rear side of the
cradle. By moving this lever to S.A. a roller attached to the cradle is put into such a position that as the
gun runs out it comes into contact with a cam which is attached to the gun, and this operates the breech
mechanism.
The guns are normally fired electrically from the H.A. director, but they can be fired locally by means of
the gunlayer's trigger, and, if the electric circuit fails, they can be fired by percussion, by means of palm-
operated firing levers, by the breech worker.
The guns are mounted in a common cradle and therefore, elevate together, but each gun is provided with
its own recoil and run-out arrangements.
32

33
The recoil cylinder is secured to the underside of the gun and recoils with the gun. The recoil piston rod is
secured to the cradle and does not move, but the control plunger inside the piston rod also moves with the
gun.
As the recoil cylinder travels to the rear when the gun is fired, liquid is forced through ports in the piston
head. The energy of the recoil of the gun is absorbed mainly in the forcing of the liquid through these
ports, but also partly by the compression of the air in the recuperator cylinder.
120. The recuperator cylinder is secured to the cradle on top of the gun, and the recuperator ram, which
moves inside the recuperator cylinder, is secured by the rods to the balance weight of the gun.
The recuperator is charged with air through the intensifier. An instruction plate for charging the
recuperator being fitted to the mounting.
The intensifier (see para. 103) is mounted on the cradle and is arranged with an air-charging connection,
and a liquid-charging adaptor. An indicator at the rear of the intensifier shows whether the intensifier is
full or empty.

The elevating gear is operated from the left hand side of the mounting by means of two cranked handles.
One complete turn of the handles elevates the guns 3 degrees. The drive from the handles goes to a pair of
bevel pinions, and thence through a worm, worm-wheel and friction discs to the elevating pinion, which
engages in the elevating arc. The latter is on the centre line between the two guns.
Safety firing gear is fitted and is designed so that the interceptors are opened and cannot be closed
between the limits of 20' elevation and 10° depression when the mounting is trained into a danger zone.
The gear is operated by a vertical cam rail secured to the deck.
121. The training gear is operated from the right hand side of the mounting by means of two cranked
handles. The forward movement of the handles trains the mounting to the right. One complete turn trains
the mounting 4 degrees. The drive from the handles passes through bevel wheels in two gear boxes to a
worm shaft, through a worm, worm-wheel and friction gear to the training pinion at the front of the
mounting, and so to the training rack.
Mechanical fuze-setting machines, for setting the time fuze on the nose of the H.A. shells, are carried on
brackets at the rear edge of the gunlayer's and trainer's platforms.
MAINTENANCE OF MOUNTINGS.
Maintenance.
122. Maintenance is the keeping of apparatus in efficient working order by means of careful treatment and
by examinations, tests, repairs, preservation (lubrication, scraping, painting), cleanliness and general
tidiness.
Careful Treatment.
Much maintenance work can be saved by care-i.e., by knowledge, forethought and common sense.
(i) Most breakdowns, involving heavy work and much delay, are due to ignorance of gear,
rough handling, bad drill or failure to detect and remedy trifling defects or omissions.
(ii) Damage by salt water or by rain can be prevented by care in covering guns, closing water
excluders, sighting ports, ventilators, etc., and by drying up water before rust forms.
34

(iii) The damage to paintwork and the general dirtiness caused by firing, drills and ordnance
work, can be largely avoided by care and cleanliness.
Ordnance Staff.
123. The Engineer Officer for Ordnance Duties, the Warrant Ordnance Officer or Chief O.A. is
responsible to the Gunnery Officer for all ordnance work and maintenance of all gun mountings. He
arranges the work of the ordnance staff in accordance with the orders of the Gunnery Officer.
Defects.
124. All defects must be promptly reported to the O.O.Q. A defect book is kept in the Gunnery Office in
which all defects should be entered, whatever department they concern.
Periodical Examinations.
125. All gun mounting machinery has to be stripped and examined at intervals ordered by the regulations,
whether or not it appears to be in good order, so that wear and corrosion may be found and remedied
before their effects become serious.
Sweepers.
126. Sweepers are responsible for the cleanliness and tidiness of the quarters, and particularly for the
cleanliness and efficiency of the working parts of the guns and machinery. They should prevent any
irregularity in the quarters, such as smoking or the hanging up and stowage of clothing.
They should help the O.A. of the quarters when he requires them, and in ships where the gunnery orders
state that they should assist with the lubrication, that work must have the first call on their time.
Lubrication.
127. The ship's gunnery orders usually are that all gear is to be lubricated weekly in accordance with a
regular daily routine.
Working parts must be kept clean and well lubricated; they are more important than ornamental
brightwork. No brick or emery powder is to be used at a gun. Emery cloth should not as a rule be used on
breech screws, obturator seatings, tube chambers, lock guide bolts, etc.
Working of Gear.
128. All sights, electrical instruments and breeches; also elevating and training gear of handworked

mountings, should be worked through their full extent daily, in order to keep a film of lubricant between
working surfaces, and to detect stiffness and backlash.
Cleanliness and General Tidiness.
129. Clean quarters are a sign that officers and men are efficient and take an interest in their ship and in
their work, whereas dirty and untidy quarters are nearly always a sign of inefficiency and bad
organisation. Tools and gear left lying about are soon lost or broken. Get rid of gear that is unnecessary
for ready use, and can be stored. Seek out the dark inaccessible corners and pockets, where rubbish
collects and working parts may be neglected. Such places should be painted white, so that dirt can be
easily seen. Cleaning gear should be in use,
35
or in the rag tank. Oily cotton waste may cause fires. The following points need constant attention. See
that lubricators are clear and free from paint-working surfaces and electric contacts clean and unpainted-
electric leads properly clipped up-small screws of open sight and telescope holders in good order-
telephone properly unplugged and stowed-pins, caps, covers and cotters in place, with their securing
chains correct.
.. . never disconnect an electric circuit .. . (para 73 (xii))
36

CHAPTER V.
POWER WORKED MOUNTINGS.
GENERAL.
130. The principles of hydraulics, although properly concerned with water, apply to all fluids.
If pressure be exerted upon any liquid in a closed pipe, it will attempt to escape, as it cannot be
compressed. If this pipe is tapped by the opening of a control valve leading to a branch pipe, the liquid
under pressure will immediately rush along the branch pipe, and can thus be led into a machine and made
to do work. The fluid which has done its work then flows back through the control valve, and eventually
returns to the source of supply by gravity.
A machine may be required at a moment's notice to run at full speed from being at rest or to run at full
load from running light; when running at full speed or full load it may be required to stop dead at once or
to run in the reverse direction; or it may have to run extremely slowly or to be stopped at some exact
position-operations which require perfect control.
Hydraulic power most completely satisfies all these requirements, and its most valuable characteristic is
its dependability. Provided efficient lubrication is religiously carried out, maintenance of hydraulic
machinery is a very simple matter, the main difficulty being to keep joints pressure tight; and this can be
done by regular attention.
The only objection to the use of hydraulic power is the great weight of the machines, pipes, etc., which
constitute the system.
LIQUID USED IN HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS.
131. The two liquids used as pressure media in power-worked mountings are water and oil. In large
mountings up to the 15-in. distilled water was used and found satisfactory.
By using oil instead of water, steel pipes, instead of much heavier high-strength brass ones, can be used
with consequent saving of expense and weight.
" Ordinary water alone is not suitable for a hydraulic system because of the chemical impurities dissolved
in it. Distilled water is therefore used. Oil is added in order to lubricate the walls of pipes and cylinders,
valve faces, etc., because water is not itself a lubricant. It is also important that the water be kept free from
acidity to prevent the pitting of surfaces with which it comes into contact; and for this purpose oil,
soluble, hydraulic, Pattern z x 3, is used."
A sample of liquid from at least one machine in every turret should be tested for acidity and alkalinity

once a fortnight. Liquid should be taken from a different machine on each occasion.
Special Mineral Oil is the liquid used as the pressure medium in oil-worked mountings. Particular
attention must be paid to its cleanliness. When tanks are opened up for cleaning, an inch or so of "sludge"
is usually found at the bottom, and the oil must be purified periodically to remove impurities which would
cause damage to internal parts of machines. Water, also, is frequently present in the oil, and must be
removed by passing the liquid through a centrifugal purifier supplied for the purpose.
37
Air Cocks.
132. Air is soluble in oil and in water. Air bubbles released from the liquid by eddies in valves, castings,
etc., collect in the highest parts of the system, and are liable to cause difficulty in the control of machines.
This difficulty is much more pronounced in oil-worked turrets. When air enters the system, it becomes
churned up in the oil and turns the liquid into a frothy emulsion. Noisy and jerky working of machines
will be the result. All machines are fitted with cocks, to rid the system of air.
PIPES AND JOINTS.
High-Strength Brass Pressure Pipes.
133. High-strength brass pressure pipes from I in. internal diameter upwards are used for water systems.
Forged steel square or hexagonal flanges are screwed to the pipes in such a manner that one pipe and
flange has a projecting spigot, and the other a socket, in which an asbestos fibre or copper ring is placed to
keep the joint water-tight.
Some of the smaller types have a union nut coupling. The plain and threaded collars are screwed and
sweated on to the pipes, and a leather ring is used as a joint.
Copper Pressure Pipes.
134. These are used in water systems for small pressure pipes, with steel square or triangular flanges, or
union nut couplings. Flanges are secured in the same manner as for large pressure pipes, but collars for
the union couplings are brazed. High pressure pipes for pressure gauges have similar union couplings.
Steel Pipes.
135. Steel pipes with square flanges are used for all sizes of pressure pipes in oil-worked mountings.
Turned on the faces of spigots and sockets of flanges are two "V" section annular grooves, and joints are
made with whitemetal or copper rings.

Compared with asbestos fibre joints, metallic joints are more satisfactory when first made, but tightening
up metallic joints to overcome subsequent leakage may in certain cases lead to trouble, as the metallic
jointing material cannot spread outwards beyond the recess in the female flange; hammering it up to stop
leakage forces the soft material inwards and forms a constriction in the pipe. Such a constriction tends to
cause sluggish operation of a machine. For this reason it is usually advisable to remake a leaky joint,
rather than to attempt to cure the trouble by hammering up the flange bolts. When making a joint, the
bolts should be tightened only until the pipe spigot is felt to bite into the joint ring. If this is done the joint
may be subsequently tightened further to stop a leak without producing the undesirable effects mentioned
above.
Quills of special whitemetal alloy are supplied to each ship and joint rings are machined by ships staff to
replace any they may use from the stock supplied by the Dockyard or gun mounting contractors.
Exhaust Pipes.
136. Large exhaust pipes in water systems are made of high strength brass of less thickness than the
pressure pipes because little or no pressure is set up in the
38
exhaust system. Circular flanges are brazed on to the pipes, and joints are made with rings of rubber
insertion. Union couplings are also used, with joint rings of asbestos fibre.
In oil systems, exhaust pipes are identical in construction to the pressure pipes, because in the majority of
cases the flow of the exhaust liquid is restricted in order to bring machines to rest, with the result that
relatively high pressures are set up.
Fittings used with Pressure and Exhaust Pipes.
136A.
Castings. When two or more pipes are required to join another pipe, a gunmetal casting is supplied, those
for exhaust being lighter than the pressure ones. All castings of the same pattern are interchangeable.
Distance Pieces are fitted to facilitate the removal of a straight length of piping.
Stuffing Boxes are fitted on bulkheads where pipes pass through them to preserve the water-tightness of
compartments. The box is packed with cotton packing, compressed by a gland ring in halves which fit
around the pipe.
Causes of Failure of Pipe Joints.

137.
(i) Changes of temperature causing expansion and distortion of piping.

(ii) Deterioration of jointing material.
(iii) Defective fitting or tightening up. (They must be tightened up square.)
(iv) Vibration shaking bolts loose; very common in cruisers and destroyers.
(v) End of pipe and spigot or socket of flange not being flush, particularly where flanges are
screwed and not sweated.
TYPES OF VALVES. 138.

(i) Large Stop Valves (15-in. Mountings).
Large stop valves (15-in. mountings) are fitted in the system of large pressure pipes. Body and cover are
of gunmetal with hexagonal flanges, the cover being secured with studs. Valve and spindle are of high
strength brass. A collar on the end of the spindle fits into a horse-shoe recess formed on the top of the
valve, and is retained in place by a brass split pin. The valve is self-centering, clearance being allowed
between the end of the spindle and the horse-shoe.
The bottom of the valve forms a spigot which works in a guide in the valve body. The upper part of the
cover forms the gland, which is packed with cotton packing, compressed by a gland nut.
The collar formed on the upper part of the valve spindle is bevelled, so that when the valve is fully opened
this bevel surface bears against a seating formed at the bottom of the cover, preventing any leakage of
liquid through the gland. It is thus possible to repack the gland while pressure is on.
Owing to the pressure exerted on the top of the valve, large stop valves are difficult to open. To overcome
this, a small by-pass valve is fitted on the casing of the stop valve. When the by-pass valve is opened, it
allows pressure to pass slowly through to equalise the pressure on either side of the big valve, thereby
reducing the effort required to open the latter.
39

(ii) Small Stop Valves.
Small stop valves are similar to (i) except that the body has square flanges or threaded ends, and no by-
pass valve is fitted. In the smaller valves, the valve and spindle are solid. In valves where the spindle is
screwed through the gland nut a keep-plate is fitted to prevent the gland nut from revolving as the valve is
opened and closed.
(iii) Non-Return Valves.
Non-return valves allow liquid to pass in one direction through a pipe, but prevent it from flowing in the
opposite direction.
The valve is similar in construction to an ordinary stop valve, but is held on its seating by a spring, instead
of being attached to a spindle. The weight of the spring is determined by the pressure, or weight, of the
liquid which has to force the valve open.
A spindle formed on top of the valve works in a guide in the valve box cover. Small channels from the
guide allow any liquid which leaks past the spindle to escape; otherwise it would remain in the space
above the valve spindle, and prevent the valve opening.
(iv) Straight-through Type Stop Valve.
Straight-through type stop valves are employed throughout all mountings except 15-in. The nickel steel
valve is separate from the spindle, and is connected to it by a collar which fits over the spindle, and is
screwed into the valve and secured by a set screw. The metal of the collar should bear into the slot in the
head of the screw for cases have occurred where set screws have worked out and valves have become
detached from their spindles, the collar being unscrewed by constant opening and closing of the valve. A
certain amount of clearance is allowed between the spindle and the collar, so that on the first movement of
the opening of the valve, the spindle, by being raised uncovers a port in the bottom of the valve, allowing
liquid to flow via radial holes to equalise the pressure on either side of the valve, thereby reducing the
effort required to open it.
When the valve is fully open, it is withdrawn into the pocket in the valve box, where it is completely clear
of the flow of the liquid. The gland is kept pressure-tight by cotton packing.
This type of valve, though heavier and larger than the old type, is fitted because it offers only 1/12 the
resistance to flow of liquid that the old type presents, and is thus much more efficient.
(v) Automatic Stop Valve.
Automatic stop valves consist of a body similar to the straight-through stop valve, in which works a
piston, the lower end of which is machined to form a valve face. This piston is made pressure tight in both

directions by means of "U" leathers. If pressure be applied to the top end of the piston, which is of a larger
area than at the bottom, the valve will automatically close. If the upper end is put to exhaust the piston
will rise, irrespective of the direction of flow, due to the pressure of liquid forcing up against its lower
end, the area of which is greater than that of the back of the actual valve portion.
A tapped hole is provided at the top of the piston to facilitate its removal. A small hole is drilled in the
valve body between the two leathers. This is to prevent an air lock forming, and also provides a means of
detecting a defective "U" leather, for if there is a defective "U" leather oil will issue from the hole.
When fitting a new leather, care must be taken to ensure that the piston is free in the cylinder, and that the
edge of the leather is not turned back as the piston is inserted.
40

41
(vi) Stop Valves in Pressure Systems.
When a machine is not in use, its master-valve should be closed. Large stop valves in pressure supply
lines from pumps should normally be kept open, as they are only intended for isolation in case of damage
or repairs.
Note. Whenever opening up pressure to any machine it should be the invariable routine that
the last valve to be opened should be the nearest master valve to that machine.
It is then possible to watch the particular machine and, if anything is wrong, shut the valve
before damage is done, which may not be possible if a larger valve (e.g., an isolating and main
stop valve) is used.
If the master valves to the various machines are opened before or with the main stop valve
supplying pressure to the turret, the main stop valve becomes the controlling valve. Owing to
its size it may not be possible to close this valve sufficiently quickly to prevent damage,
should anything be wrong.
All valves, particularly those normally left open, should be worked weekly to ensure that they
are in good condition, as the gland packing may become hard and dry and, if left for too long
a period, would render opening and closing of the valve difficult.
(vii) Stop Valves in Exhaust Systems.
These are fitted so that in the event of damage, or the need of repair, any section of a system may be
isolated until repairs can be effected, and so avoid loss of liquid from other parts of the system.
Exhaust stop valves must always be kept open, and their handles removed and lashed to the valve body,
unless a means of locking them is provided, when they must be locked open. Should it be necessary to
close a valve, in the event of a burst joint or damaged pipe, care must be exercised to ensure that exhaust
liquid from machines can get away by some alternative route; otherwise machines must not be run until
repairs have been effected.

LEATHERS.
139. Diagram 3 illustrates the types of leathers employed in hydraulic systems. The upper part of
Diagram 3 shows a "U" leather in section and also an example of a piece of mechanism in which a "U"
leather is fitted. Its function is to prevent the passage of liquid under pressure past the main valve.
The leather is mounted on a supporting ring in such a way that the open end of the "U" is facing towards
the pressure. When pressure is on, liquid is forced through the small holes in the supporting ring to the
inside of the "U" where it forces the leather against the cylinder, thus preventing the passage of liquid past
the leather.
In the upper part of Diagram 3 may also be seen a "Hat" leather and in the example, the place where it is
fitted. Such a leather is fitted in the spindles of some small control valves. The flat part makes the joint in
much the same way as an ordinary leather washer, whilst the bevelled portion bears against the spindle
preventing leakage past it. Further examples of the use of "U" and "Hat" leathers are shown in Intensifier
(Plate 11) and Spigot valve (Plate 15) respectively.
The lower part of Diagram 3 shows an "L" leather with an example showing where it is used. In the case
illustrated the leather, mounted in one half of the swivel joint, is supplied with pressure to its inner surface
causing its outer surface to make a liquid tight joint against the other half of the swivel. (See also Walking
Pipes, Plate 16.)
42
140. There are two kinds of leather employed in the Service:-
(i) Oak Bark, tanned by vegetable substances.

(ii) Chrome, tanned by chemical process.
Oak tanned leather is used universally, except in places where high temperatures are expected, when
chrome leather is used because of its superior strength and durability.
The outside, or hair side, of a hide is impervious to liquid and is therefore kept on the inside of a "U"
leather, i.e., away from the working surfaces. Should the hair side be on the outside of such a leather, it
will no longer be waterproof when the leather wears. The inside of a hide is termed the flesh side.
When a ship is built the contractors supply the ship with complete sets of spare leathers for all those fitted
in the system. The spares are maintained complete by the ships staff, who manufacture leathers to replace
those used from the original sets. Steel presses are supplied for forming the leathers, and whitemetal or
wooden chucks for turning them to their finished dimensions.

PRESSURE SUPPLY.
141. There are two distinct methods of supplying pressure to machines in the revolving structure of turret
mountings:-
(i) By a pump in the ship's fixed structure-16 in., 15 in, 14 in. and 4-5 in Mark IV
(ii) By a power unit inside the revolving turret-8 in., 6 in., 5'25 in.
(i) Systems with a Pump in the Ship's Fixed Structure.
142. Steam operated pumps (one per turret) deliver liquid under pressure into a ring main, which passes
around the ship in such a way that pressure may be led from it to turrets and shell rooms, in duplicate. The
responsibility for repair and upkeep of pumps and ring mains rests entirely with the Engine Room
Department. All feed tanks and turrets are connected to a common exhaust ring. Should pipes in turrets
and shell rooms become damaged or burst during an action, the Engine Room Department must be
informed, so that they know the conditions under which the turrets are working, and thus be able to ensure
that their pumps and ring mains are used to the best advantage.
Transfer of Pressure from Fixed to Revolving Structure. Plate 16.
(a) CENTRAL PIVOT.
143. Pressure and exhaust to and from the 16 in. and 14 in. mountings pass through a central pivot at the
bottom of the trunk. Plate 16 shows a section through a typical central pivot. It consists of a vertical
standard mounted on the ships inner bottom in line with the vertical axis of the turret. Pressure pipes
from the fixed structure enter the base of the standard through main and duplicate stop valves, and join
into a common vertical chamber inside the pivot standard. Ports in the chamber open into the upper
casting from which main and duplicate pressure supplies in the revolving structure are led.
Exhausts are led through a lower casting, which is in communication with the pivot standard, to a
common chamber, and so out to the connections on the base of the pivot standard to main and duplicate
exhausts in the ship. The castings are kept oil- or water-tight by glands at their upper and lower ends, soft
cotton packing in the exhaust one, and leathers in addition in the pressure casting.
Castings are capable of rotation about the standard as the turret trains and are bolted together so that they
form one member as far as rotation and vertical movement are concerned. Sufficient space is left between
the two castings to allow glands and leathers to be examined and repaired.
43

Castings are connected to the revolving structure by lugs which fit in guides on the trunk structure. These
permit of vertical movement between casting and trunk so that no strain will be brought on the pipe
connections and flanges of the castings by any shrinkage or vertical movement of the trunk.
The base of the pivot standard is mounted on a coupling of the "Oldham" type; each member of the
coupling is dovetailed into the other, so that any tendency of the standard to lift or cant is prevented; but a
limited lateral movement is provided so that no excessive strain is put on the pivot by vibration of the
trunk when the gun fires, through lack of concentricity between bottom of trunk and axis of turret, or by
working of the trunk when inclined during a heavy roll of the ship.
Air service from ship to turret is led up the cavity in the pivot standard, passing at the top through a
flexible pipe. This provides the necessary flexibility for meeting the full training angle of the turret.
Pressure from the centre is led to a pressure ring in the working chamber, from which stop valves admit
pressure to individual machines.
(b) WALKING PIPES. Plate 16.
144. Plate 16 shows a section of a walking pipe, which is employed to transfer pressure to the revolving
structure of 15 in. mountings. The upper part is fixed to the revolving structure, and the lower part to a
stool on the deck of the fixed structure. The two parts are joined together to form an elbow. Each part
consists of an outer and inner high-strength brass tube, which are fixed between swivel ends. The swivel
ends are gunmetal castings, which screw on to both tubes. An "L" leather makes the joint for the inner
(pressure) pipe and cotton packing for the outer (exhaust). A steel gland nut in two halves compresses
the packing and, being screwed down by studs to the lower end and clipping the upper swivel end, secures
them together, so as to allow a circular motion relative to each other.
The elbow is supported by a gunmetal bracket and two rollers which run on an overhead rail fixed to the
turntable. The lower part of the pipe has a guide arm and horizontal roller which travels in a channel
rail fixed to the revolving trunk. This ensures that the pipes take up their correct relative positions when
passing the centre of their motion.
(ii) Systems with a Power Unit inside the Revolving Structure.
145. Hydraulic Pressure driving turret machinery is supplied by a variable delivery pump, driven by an
electric motor. The pump takes its suction from a make-up feed tank through a strainer, and discharges
into a pressure manifold, from which stop valves admit pressure to the various machines. When the by-
pass valve is open, the pump discharges oil through the short pipe line back to the suction side, so that
there is merely a circulation of oil taking place and no pressure is generated. When the by-pass valve is
closed, this circulation of oil is stopped and pressure is set up in the system.
The feed tank is fitted with a breathing pipe which admits air as the oil level falls, and allows air to escape

as liquid returns from the exhaust system.
146. Exhaust System. All machines deliver their exhaust liquid into an exhaust manifold, which in
certain cases is fitted with a number of non-return valves. These valves ensure that in the event of a burst
joint, or damage to an exhaust pipe line, liquid from the damaged section alone can escape, whereas
without the valves, the entire exhaust liquid would quickly run to waste. Exhaust liquid passes from the
manifold to a cooler by-pass valve, which enables liquid to be directed to the make-up feed tank either by
direct passage,
44
or through a Serck oil cooler. Between the manifold and the by-pass valve, is a relief valve, loaded to 50
lbs., which allows liquid to pass directly to the tank should the pressure of liquid in the exhaust system
become excessive.
HYDRAULIC MACHINES. Plate 15.
147. Hydraulic machines may be divided into two main types:-
(i) Reciprocating; (ii) Rotary.
(i) Reciprocating. (a) The Plain Ram (see Plate 15) is used for all ammunition hoists, where the weight
of the cage, when empty, is sufficient to overhaul the wire quickly, forcing the ram into the cylinder, and
forcing the liquid from the cylinder to exhaust. The machine consists of a cylinder closed at one end.
Through the other end works a plain ram, the open end of the cylinder being made watertight by a gland
containing cotton packing.
The cylinder is fixed to the structure of the turret. On the outside of the closed end are fitted the standing
sheaves. The moving sheaves are fitted to the outer end of the ram. The standing part of the wire is made
fast to the cylinder, and is fitted with an adjusting screw to adjust the length of wire. The other end of the
wire is rove through the sheaves and made fast to the cage.
The machine is controlled by means of a lapless, or spigot type of control valve. It consists of two piston
valves, seated on top of which are two spigot valves connected externally by a floating lever. A spring
connected to the floating lever tends to keep both spigot valves on their seatings. With the control lever in
its normal position (i.e., centered) both spigot valves and both piston valves are on their seatings. Pressure
from the hydraulic system entering the valve box passes up through the small vertical channel in the right
hand piston valve and acting on the top of the latter keeps it seated against the pressure acting on the
lower surface, by virtue of the fact that the area of the top of the valve is larger than that of the lower
surface.

On putting the control lever to RAISE, the left hand spigot valve becomes the fulcrum of the floating lever
and the right hand spigot valve is therefore lifted. Pressure which had gained access to the top of the right
hand piston valve through the small channel is now enabled to escape through the larger inclined channel
in the piston valve. The pressure acting on the lower surface of the right hand piston valve will now lift
the latter and pressure from the hydraulic system will be able to pass straight through the valve box
around the left hand piston valve to the hydraulic cylinder where it forces out the ram and so raises the
cage. The piston valve however having thus been raised the spigot valve will again be seated in the larger
inclined channel, but the valve will remain up due to the area exposed to the pressure from the hydraulic
system (i.e., the lower surfaces) being larger than that exposed to the pressure passing up through the
small channel (i.e., the top surface).
As pressure flows through the valve box, some pressure passes up through the small vertical channel in
the left hand piston valve and acting upon the upper surface of the piston valve keeps it seated and so
prevents the escape of pressure to exhaust.
When the control lever is put to LOWER, the R.H. spigot valve is forced down, closing the piston valve
beneath it. The R.H. spigot valve now becomes the fulcrum, and the L.H. spigot valve is raised releasing
pressure above the L.H. piston valve. The weight of the cage acting on the liquid inside the cylinder,
forces the L.H. valve off its seating, allowing liquid to pass directly to exhaust.
45
It should be borne in mind that the hunting action of a main valve with its pilot valve is instantaneous; the
least movement of the pilot valve being followed up immediately by the same movement of the associated
main valve. Thus, the greater the travel of the pilot valve, the faster will be the speed of the machine. This
applies to the spigot type of control valve, any movement of either spigot valve being followed
instantaneously by a corresponding movement of the associated piston valve. Plate 15 shows a spigot
valve with the control lever to LOWER and the valve to EXHAUST.
(b) The Constant Pressure Piston (see Plate 15) consists of a piston and rod working in a cylinder,
which is closed at one end, the gland around the piston rod being made pressure tight by means of a "U"
leather and cotton packing. Constant pressure, direct from the source of supply is admitted to the piston
rod end of the cylinder, forcing the piston into the cylinder. Two "U" leathers fitted on the piston prevent
leakage of constant pressure past the piston to the opposite end of the cylinder.
The control valve is a two-ported "D" slide valve, which in its normal position puts the closed end of the
cylinder to exhaust. A small spring and plunger are fitted on top of the valve, the plunger bearing against
a rubbing strip on the valve cover, thus keeping the spring compressed and holding the valve down on its
seating. Two ports are cut in the valve face, one being connected directly to exhaust, and the other to the
closed end of the cylinder. Constant pressure is admitted to the casing above the valve, thus giving an
added force to keep the valve on its seating. Glands at either end of the valve spindle are kept pressure
tight by means of "U" leathers and cotton packing. The valve itself is a casting which fits in a guide, the

latter being connected to a control lever. The bottom of the valve is hollowed out, leaving a narrow
bearing strip around the four edges.
With the valve in its normal position, the two ports are spanned by the hollow "D" of the valve, thus
connecting the closed end of the cylinder to exhaust. When the lever is moved to the left, the "Out"
position in the drawing, the valve moves right, and uncovers the L.H. port, through which pressure is led
to the closed end of the cylinder, where, acting on the larger area of the piston, it forces it out against the
action of the constant pressure. When the lever is reversed, the constant pressure will force the piston into
the cylinder, forcing liquid from the cylinder to exhaust through the "D" of the valve, the condition shown
in the Plate. The speed of the machine may be controlled by adjusting the amount of opening of the ports.
This is done by lengthening or shortening the travel of the control lever. This type of reciprocating
machine is used where sensitive control is important.
(c) The Double Acting Piston may be compensated or uncompensated, i.e., with or without a tail rod. In
the compensated machine, the diameter of the tail rod is equal to that of the piston rod, so that whichever
way the piston is moving, the area upon which pressure acts is the same. The piston is fitted with two "U"
leathers facing in opposite directions to prevent the escape of pressure from one side to the other. Plate 15
shows a double acting valve controlling an uncompensated piston.
The machine is controlled by a three-ported "D" slide valve, which is similar in design and means of
operation to the two-ported valve: except that an additional port is cut in the valve face the other side of
the exhaust port. Normal position of the valve is central, with both outer ports completely- covered by the
solid ends of the valve (as shown in Plate 15).
If the valve is moved to the right, lever to DEPRESS, the left hand port is uncovered, to admit pressure to
the right side of the piston, forcing it to the left, exhaust liquid expelled from the cylinder passing to
exhaust through the right hand port and the "D" of the valve. If the valve is moved to the left, lever to
ELEVATE, then the reverse action takes place.
46

(ii) Rotary.
148. The Swashplate Engine. The principle on which this type of engine works, is one widely used for
hydraulic power motors, both in gun mountings and fire-control installations. The principle will be
understood from a study of the following Figs. I to IV and the following description:-
If an ordinary wedge (see Fig. I) is laid on a flat surface and a pressure is applied vertically to the sloping
surface the wedge will move in the direction in which its thick end is facing.
If we cut a wedge-shaped piece from a cylindrical block and mount it upon a shaft, and squeeze the wedge
near the point of maximum thickness (see Fig. II), neglecting friction the wedge will rotate upon the shaft
in such a direction as to bring the point of minimum thickness between the points of pressure. If we now
move the points of pressure back to the original position (i.e., to near the point of maximum thickness)
and apply the pressure again the wedge piece will rotate further in the same direction until the point of
minimum thickness is again between the points of pressure.
If we now mount the shaft in a bush on which the square-cut rear face of the wedge can bear, and apply a
force to the sloping surface of the wedge via a thrust ring by means of a piston rod the piston of which is
contained within a small fixed cylinder (see Fig. III), it will be seen that if pressure is admitted to the
cylinder the wedge piece will be rotated by the pressure applied through the piston rod and thrust ring
until the point of minimum thickness is in line with the piston.

47
If we were able to move this piston round the shaft, the wedge piece could be further rotated in a manner
similar to that described above when the hand was used.
Note. The thrust ring itself does not revolve but performs a peculiar wobbling motion.
Finally, if instead of moving this one piston round the shaft we use a number of pistons (for certain
practical reasons this number should be odd), carried in a cylinder block (see Fig. IV), we can produce a
constant steady rotation of the wedge piece, by alternately admitting pressure to and connecting to
exhaust, the small cylinders whose pistons are operating on the wedge piece. To do this we must use a
form of valve which is secured to the shaft of the wedge piece and which has cut in it two kidney-shaped
ports connected to pressure and exhaust respectively.
In Fig. IV cylinders 1, 2 and 3 are all connected to pressure through port A, and cylinders 5, 6 and 7 are
all connected to exhaust through port B, cylinder 4 being blanked off. The pressure in cylinders 1, 2 and 3
will thus, as already shown, cause the wedge piece to rotate in the direction shown by the arrow. In
rotating, as the point of maximum thickness approaches pistons 5, 6 and 7 they will be forced in one after
the other and the liquid will pass to exhaust. But as the wedge piece rotates so also does the valve, so that
cylinder 7, for example, will now receive pressure, the point of maximum thickness of the wedge piece
having passed its piston. And so we see that in the case of a seven-cylinder engine three of the pistons will
always be exerting a force on the wedge to keep it rotating.
It was stated above that an odd number of pistons is used. In the position of the engine shown in the
illustration it will be seen that cylinder 4 is blanked off and that as the valve plate rotates so each cylinder
in turn will be blanked off, but the pistons in the cylinders so blanked off are always in contact with the
point of minimum thickness so no movement of the piston occurs. Each cylinder therefore always passes
from pressure to exhaust through this blanked-off stage irrespective of the direction of rotation. This
arrangement is necessary to ensure that the pistons "follow" the wedge and do not suddenly shoot out
when they apply their effort and that an equal force is applied to rotate the wedge irrespective of the

direction of rotation.
It will be seen that to reverse the direction of rotation of the wedge piece it is only necessary to
interchange the pressure and exhaust connections to the kidney-shaped ports in the valve.
The wedge piece is usually known as the "swash"; from which word this type of machine derives its
name. The principle described above is, however,
48
used in other machines not normally known as swashplate engines. Both these and the many types which
are actually known as swashplate engines operate on the same fundamental principle though there is
considerable variation in the methods by which this principle is applied.
. . . never hammer it . . . (para 73 (vii))
THE 6-in. B.L. MARK XXIII GUN ON TRIPLE MARK XXIII MOUNTING
Plate 17.
149. The 6-in. Triple Mark XXIII mountings are fitted in the later 6-in. cruisers. The design of the
mounting follows closely on that of the 6-in..Mark XXII mountings, which are mounted in the earlier
cruisers fitted with triple 6-in. turrets. The main difference is that the cordite hoists and shell hoists are
fitted, one of each to each gun, on the revolving structure from the cordite handing room and shellroom to
the gunhouse, so that it is not necessary to transfer the shell and cordite from the hoists in the fixed
structure to hoists in the moving structure.
150. The revolving structure consists of the following:-
(i) The Gunhouse.
This contains three 6-in. B.L. Mark XXIII guns, of the all-steel type. The weight of the shell is 112 lbs.
and the charge 30 lbs. The guns can be elevated independently between the limits of 5° depression and

45° elevation. Ramming of the shell into the gun is done by hand rammers. The guns can be loaded at any
elevation between 5° depression and 12 1/2° elevation, the limiting factor for the angle of loading being
the travel of the intermediate loading tray which carries shell to the gun loading tray.
(ii) The Turntable Compartment.
This is immediately below the gunhouse and contains the elevating gear and training gear.
49
(iii) The Working Chamber.
This is immediately below the turntable compartment and contains the power unit, the oil cooler, and
pressure valves, and also, in the fore end, the hand training gear.
(iv) The Access Platform.
This is supported underneath the working chamber and enables the gear leading the electric cables into
the turret to be examined.
(v) Shell Loading Platform.
A circular shell loading platform is carried from the underside of the working chamber floor into the shell
room and so revolves with the turret. This platform is approximately on the same level as the shell room
floor. The shell hoists terminate at this platform, but the cordite hoists pass through it to a platform
below.
(vi) Cordite Loading Platform.
Below the shell loading platform, in the cordite handing room, is a small circular cordite loading platform.
This is supported by the shell loading platform. The cordite loading platform is 8 inches above the cordite
handing room floor, and carries the lower end of the cordite hoist.
The Guns.
151. The guns are made of steel, and consist of an "A" tube, jacket, breech ring, and breech bush. The
centre gun is set back 2 ft. 6 ins. in order to prevent guns' crews of adjacent guns from getting in one
another's way. The guns are of the B.L. type (see Chapter III; para. 55).
The Breech Mechanism. Plate 5.

152. The breech mechanism is of the Asbury type. The centre gun has a right hand breech mechanism.
When the breech mechanism lever is pulled downwards the breech swings outwards to the "Open"
position (Plate 5, left hand).
Safety Arrangements.
(i) When the breech has been closed, it cannot be re-opened until the gun has recoiled. This is
done by means of a hangfire latch. If it is required to open the breech for drill purposes this
mechanism is set to DRILL.
(ii) The guns cannot fire unless the breech is fully closed, because electrical contact to the
tube is not made.
(iii) The breech cannot be unscrewed by the force of the explosion if the B.M. lever is fully
closed.
The Lock and Box Slide.
153. This carries the 1-in. tube for firing the charge and the electric firing contacts. No percussion firing
arrangements are provided.
Recoil and Run-out Arrangements.
154. The energy of the recoil is absorbed mainly by the recoil cylinder and piston and also partly by the
compression of air in the recuperator cylinder. The recoil cylinder, which moves with the gun, is
underneath and the recuperator is on top of the gun. The recuperator cylinder is fixed to the cradle and
does not move as the gun recoils. A hollow ram, attached to the gun, with its open end to the rear and
inside the cylinder, recoils with the gun, thus compressing the air in the recuperator cylinder. The
recuperator cylinder is charged to 1,000 lbs. per sq. in.
An intensifier is fitted at the side of the recuperator cylinder.
50

The Power Pump.
155. The hydraulic power required for laying, training, shell and cordite supply, is provided by a
swashplate pump in the working chamber. Special mineral oil is used as the pressure medium.
The pump is driven by an electric motor.
Exhaust oil is led through a Serck oil cooler, also in the working chamber, before returning to the feed
tank.
The Elevating Arrangements.
156. The guns can be elevated either by hand or power. The gunlayers look towards the breeches of the
guns. In front of each layer is the hand elevating wheel, the elevation receiver, and one elevating control
lever which operates the elevating motor. A hand-or-power-clutch pedal is operated by the gunlayer's
foot. This is depressed when elevating by power. The elevating control lever returns to the neutral
position as soon as it is released. To elevate the gun, the layer presses the foot pedal and puts the elevating
control lever to ELEVATE. As soon as he is "On" by director he releases the pedal and lever, and gets
"On" accurately by hand. "On" Training Arrangements.
157. The trainer sits at the local director sight situated between the centre and left guns, and his
handwheel operates the control valve to the training gear. There are two training engines; either or both
can be clutched in to train the turret, but both cannot be unclutched simultaneously.
Hand training gear is also fitted in the working chamber.
Ammunition Supply Arrangements.
158.
(i) Magazines. The charges, in cardboard containers are passed by hand from the magazine
into the handing room. In the handing room the charges are fed into the cordite hoists through
shutter doors which are opened and closed automatically.
(ii) The Cordite Hoists. The cordite hoists are started by depressing a pedal in the gunhouse.
The cordite charges are moved up the hoists on endless chains.
(iii) Shell Rooms. The shells are lifted by hand from the stowages in the shell rooms and
placed on the revolving shell ring. The ring can be revolved as required. The shell are taken
from the ring and placed on a loading tray at the bottom of the hoist. The shell hoist is started
by a hand lever at the top of the hoist in the gun house. When it arrives at the top of the hoist,
the shell is pushed out by a tilting bucket into a fixed tray. From there it is pushed on to an

intermediate tray. The weight of the shell causes the intermediate tray to descend to the level
of the loading tray. When the breech is open the loading tray is swung over to the ramming
position.
THE 5.25-in. Q.F. MARK I GUN ON THE H.A./L.A. TWIN MARK II MOUNTING. Plate 18.
159. These guns are combined High Angle and Low Angle Guns. The Mark II Mounting is found in all
Dido class cruisers. The Mark I Mounting is found in King George V class battleships, where they fulfil
the combined functions of H.A. Long Range Armament and Secondary Armament against surface craft.
The main differences between the two mountings lie in the arrangements of the
51
shellrooms and magazines, and the supply of ammunition to the guns. In this chapter, only the Mark II
Mounting, as found in Dido class cruisers, is discussed.
The 5.25 in. calibre with separate ammunition is used for dual High Angle and Low Angle Armament,
since it gives the reasonable maximum weight of shell which can be loaded by the average gun's crew for
sustained periods at all angles of elevation. The maximum rate of fire should be 10-12 rounds per minute.
160. The Revolving Structure consists of the following:-
(i) The Gunhouse. This is arranged to accommodate two 5.25-in. Mark I Semi-Automatic
Guns in separate cradles. Hydraulic power, used for elevating, training, ramming, and
working shell and cordite hoists, is supplied by a pump situated in the motor chamber. The
Gunhouse Crew, with the exception of the breechworker, is stationed between the guns.
(ii) The Turntable. This is directly beneath the gunhouse and is supported by a number of
rollers between the Upper and Lower Roller Paths on which the weight of the revolving
structure rests.
(iii) The Motor Chamber. This is directly beneath the turntable, and houses the electric
motors and the Newton hydraulic pump. Inclined chutes from the gunhouse under each gun
are made so as to direct empty cases into the compartment between the motor chamber and the
fixed structure.
(iv) The Trunk. This is bolted to the bottom of the motor chamber and connects the gunhouse
with the combined magazine and shellroom. It contains two H.A. shell hoists, two L.A.
shell hoists and two cordite hoists.
The Guns.

161. The guns themselves are of all-steel construction. Each gun consists of a loose barrel, jacket,
removable breech ring and sealing collar.
The Breech Mechanism.
162. The breech mechanism is of the Q.F. type, and is so arranged that the breech mechanism levers are
on the outer sides of the breeches at both Right and Left guns.
Firing Mechanism.
163. Electric firing only is provided for. Guns can be fired by Director, by gunlayer's pistol, or by
breechworker's push. For the two latter the source of electric supply may be either L.P. Mains or Local
Battery.
Recoil and Run-out Arrangements.
164. The gun is controlled during firing by a recoil cylinder fitted under the cradle and a run-out
recuperator mounted in the upper part of the balance weight. An intensifier is fitted on the top
supporting beam, which is attached to the cradle. This supporting beam also carries the semi-automatic
gear. As the gun recoils, the recoil piston rod is pulled to the rear and liquid passes from the rear of the
piston to the front part of the recoil cylinder. At the same time the recuperator ram, entering the
recuperator cylinder, causes air pressure to rise, until at the end of recoil a pressure of 1,800 lbs. per sq. in.
is reached. As soon as the gun has been brought to rest, the pressure in the recuperator, acting against the
end of the recuperator ram begins to force the gun out.
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Air Blast Gear.
165. Air blast is fitted to the mounting for the purpose of expelling through the muzzles of the guns, the
gases and residue remaining after each round has been fired.
Compressed air for this purpose is obtained from the ship's supply, but should this fail, air for this purpose
is stored in two air cylinders in the empty cylinder compartment at the motor chamber level.
The Power Unit.
166. The pressure system for each turret is separate and self-contained: it is wholly inside the revolving

structure. The power unit for each turret consists of a rotary hydraulic Newton pump driven by an
electric motor. Both the Newton pump and electric motor are in the motor chamber.
Two oil tanks are fitted: they are outboard of each gun and as high up as possible, just abaft the
breechworker's platform. The pump takes its suction from directly underneath each tank.
The pump delivers its pressure into a pressure manifold from which leads are taken to the control valves
of the various machines.
To start the pump:-
(i) Push the starter push in the motor chamber.

(ii) Watch for the Green light, situated near the starter push.
(iii) Close the by-pass when the Green light shows.
This sequence must invariably be followed whenever a pump has been stopped and is being re-started. It
takes about half a minute.
To stop the pump:-
(i) Open the by-pass.

(ii) Press the stop push.
Emergency stop pushes are fitted at the O.O.Q. position and at the bottom of the trunk in the combined
magazine and shellroom. They enable all machinery to be stopped instantly should an accident occur.
The Elevating Arrangements.
167. Each gun elevates separately and has its own elevating motor fitted in the turntable. A power
elevating handwheel facing each gunlayer controls the motor.
Auxiliary hand elevating gear is also fitted. A clutch is placed near the gunlayer's right hand to change
from POWER to HAND and vice versa.
Training Arrangements.
168. The turret is trained by a training motor fitted in the turntable. This motor is controlled by the
power training wheel which faces the trainer who is sitting between the two gunlayers.
Auxiliary hand training gear is also provided, and a clutch lever is fitted close to the trainer's right hand
to change from POWER to HAND.

Ammunition Supply Arrangements.
169. The magazines contain both shell (H.A. and L.A.) and cordite cartridges. The shell are sent up from
the magazine by an H.A. hoist, and an L.A. hoist at each gun, and the cordite cartridge by a cordite hoist
at each gun.
53
Each hoist is of the "Pusher" type. The H.A. shell are loaded into the bottom of the trunk horizontally, and
are delivered by extension hoists in the gunhouse into the fuze-setting trays. From there they are
transferred by hand into the gun-loading trays.
Cordite is loaded into the bottom of the trunk vertically and is delivered into the rear of the gunhouse.
From there each charge is transferred by hand into the gun-loading trays.
The L.A. shell are loaded into the bottom of the trunk vertically and are delivered into the gunhouse
where they are transferred by hand into the gun-loading trays.
The gun-loading tray is attached to the rear of each cradle and is swung into position behind the breech.
The trays are fitted with power and hand-operated rammers.
Turret Ventilation.
170. Turret ventilation is very important in these small gunhouses, and ventilating fans are provided on a
generous scale. The fans are powered from the same source as the electric motor driving the main pump,
so that when power is off the mounting it is also off the fans.
UPKEEP OF MACHINERY.
171. The ability of machinery to run for long periods without giving trouble or needing repair depends,
apart from the way in which it has been designed, upon the care and attention it receives, and it will
respond immediately to sudden and large overloads provided it is well looked after in other respects.
This attention takes two forms: day by day attention to such matters as lubrication, and regular
examination of each machine in order that timely refitting or replacement of worn parts may be made.
Naturally the frequency of the examination will depend on the amount of work the machine has to do.
The first form of upkeep is known as "Maintenance" and the second as "Examination." Together these
constitute the principal job of the Ordnance Officer who, in addition to knowing how a machine works,
must know how to look after it.

With regard to "Maintenance," the larger items of gunnery equipment, such as gun turrets, have their own
handbooks which, in addition to containing descriptions of their machinery, also give directions for
looking after it. Besides these handbooks, a lot of information of a general nature about maintenance is
given in a book called Instructions for the Maintenance of Naval Ordnance and Gun Mountings, usually
known by its number, B.R. 292.
172. One of the chief means of ensuring proper upkeep of machinery is by paying scrupulous attention to
its regular lubrication. Many parts are exposed to the weather and require suitable lubricant for their
protection as well as for their working surfaces. A lot of information about lubrication is given in B.R.
292, which also contains a full list of the various oils and greases used for different types of machinery.
The principles which decide the type of lubricant to be provided for any particular job are:-
Heavy Loads. Parts subject to heavy intermittent loads are arranged for lubrication by grease,
which, unlike oil, is retained as a working film of lubricant over long periods.
Medium Loads. Parts subject to continuous loads and relatively rapid movements, such as
training worm shafts, are provided with an oil bath in which mineral oil must be maintained at
the correct level by periodical replenishments.
54
Light Loads. Parts subject to light loads such as drives for director and fire control gear are
designed for oil lubrication, and should be given frequent attention. In order to reduce the
amount of maintenance, self-lubricating bearings are fitted wherever possible.
173. The second form of upkeep is known as "Examination." It is necessary to take machines to pieces at
regular intervals (this is called "Stripping"), to enable those responsible to keep themselves up to date
about the condition of their machinery. The nature and frequency of these examinations are naturally
based on long experience. Those required for the smaller gun mountings (known as transferable gun
mountings because they can be comparatively easily handled) are given in B.R. 292. Those necessary for
the heavy mountings (known as non-transferable gun mountings) are given in the Register for Non-
Transferable Gun Mountings.
174

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CHAPTER VI.
AMMUNITION.
GENERAL.
175. The object of this chapter is to give all the information that is required by an officer or man in his
ordinary duties on board with respect to:-
(i) Ammunition supplied to Naval guns, including the colour and markings, and the packages
in which it is supplied.
(ii) Fireworks supplied to the Service.
(iii) Magazines and shell rooms.
Detailed information regarding the construction and methods of working of the various stores has not
been included. If such information is required the various text-books on the subject must be studied.
This chapter should be read in conjunction with the other chapters, certain portions of which are repeated
here to make this chapter as self-contained as possible.
GUNS.
176. The simplest form of gun is a strong steel tube into which is placed a projectile; the gun is rifled to
impart spin so that the projectile may be rotated and so kept steady in the air. In order to propel the
projectile out of the muzzle a charge is placed in the gun behind the projectile; the space occupied by the
charge is called the chamber, and the rear end of the chamber is closed with a breech block. Arrangements
are made so that the charge can be ignited, with the consequent formation of a large volume of gas, in the
chamber behind the projectile; the pressure thus created propels the projectile from the gun.
Guns are divided into two classes, according to the method adopted to make the breech end gas-tight.
First, B.L. (breech loading) guns, in which the breech is made gas-tight by an elastic pad (called the
obturator) carried on the face of the breech block. When the charge is ignited, this pad is forced back
against the breech block and made to expand outwards against the inside of the chamber, completely
sealing the breech during the moment of firing.

Second, Q.F. (quick firing) guns, in which the breech end is made gas-tight by a brass case (known as the
Q.F. cartridge case), in which the charge is carried. When the gun is fired, the cartridge case expands and
seals the breech end.
EXPLOSIVES.
177. An explosive is a substance which, on being given a suitable initiation, is rapidly converted into a
large volume of hot gases.
Explosives are used in Naval gunnery for two purposes.
Firstly, for the cartridge placed behind the projectile in the gun. When the gun is fired the cartridge is
ignited, and the large volume of gas produced hurls the projectile out of the gun at a speed of over 2,750
feet per second (nearly 2,000 miles per hour). This type of explosive is known as a "propellant".
56
Secondly, to fill, and subsequently burst, the shell. This type of explosive is known as a "disruptive", and
when initiated it explodes with great violence.
The only difference between a disruptive and a propellant is the speed at which gas is produced when they
are ignited. Disruptives explode almost instantaneously. Propellants burn comparatively slowly and
regularly.
Cordite is the propellant chiefly used in Naval guns. It is a mixture of nitroglycerine and nitro-cellulose
with a stabiliser or preservative. It is pressed into various shapes which have a brown hornlike appearance
and, in the case of tubular cordite, into sticks not unlike macaroni.
The sticks are pressed in various thicknesses, and each size is given a three-figure number, which is its
approximate diameter in thousandths of an inch. For instance, size 280 means that the stick is .28-inch in
diameter, size 070 that it is .07 inch in diameter. All the cordite of any one size produced by the cordite
factory in a certain period is blended together and given a lot number, which remains with that cordite
throughout its life, thus enabling its behaviour to be observed.
Flashless cordite has a whitish appearance and is usually supplied in the slotted-tube form and is
described in terms of exterior and interior diameters of the tube in thousandths of an inch, e.g., S.T. 164-
048 means that the slotted tube is .164 inch external and .048 inch internal diameter.
Another form of propellant is called " N.H." or " non-hygroscopic ". This is a plain nitro-cellulose
propellant and contains no nitro-glycerine. It is supplied in short lengths about .1 inch long and is usually
" multi-tubular ", i.e., each piece is pierced with seven holes longitudinally.

N.H. is described by the " web " size, e.g., N.H. 050 means that the thickness of the web between the
holes or tubes is .05 inch.
178. High explosives or "disruptives", are used for filling shells and aircraft bombs (and also mines and
torpedo war-heads, etc., which do not come within the scope of this book). When properly initiated, they
are instantly converted into gas with great violence, the process being called detonation. In order to assist
the transmission of the impulse from the fuze to the filling, an exploder is fitted under the fuze which acts
as a booster. The exploder consists of a small quantity of some high explosive which is more sensitive and
therefore more readily affected by the fuze unit than is the main bursting charge of the shell. The
composition of the exploder depends on whether the fuze gives a combustive or detonative impulse, i.e.,
whether the shell filling is required to "explode" or "detonate".
The high explosives used in the Naval Service as shell fillings are: R.D.X., T.N.T., shellite and lyddite (or
picric acid).
The following high explosives are in use in the Naval Service as exploders and fillings for caps, fuzes and
gaines: T.N.T., picric acid, C.E. (composition exploding), fulminate of mercury, lead azide and picric
powder. Caps, fuzes and gaines are described later.
Gunpowder, one of the earliest explosives, was originally used both as a propellant and as a shell filling.
Though now superseded in these two functions, it is still used in the Naval Service for many purposes,
such as bursters in shrapnel and star-shell, and in tubes, igniters, primers, fuzes, blank charges and
fireworks, all of which are described later.
CARTRIDGES.
179. For safety, convenience, and rapidity of loading, the cordite charges for guns are placed in silk cloth
bags, or cylindrical metal cases, and are then known as cartridges.
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Cartridges for B.L. Guns.
180. These cartridges consist of a number of cordite sticks, tied together in a bundle with silk thread, and
sewn up in a silk cloth bag. They are made up containing a whole charge, two-thirds, one-third, one-
quarter or one-sixth of a charge, according to the size of the gun and the method of loading employed.
When firing in action, cartridges are loaded to make up the "full charge". In peace-time full-calibre (as
opposed to sub-calibre) practices, "reduced charges" are generally used for the large guns as they do not
wear out the gun so much. Reduced charges are normally three-quarters or two-thirds of a full charge.
To facilitate igniting the cordite, igniters may be employed on cartridges for B.L. guns. The igniter
consists of gunpowder in a red balloon bag, sewn over one or both ends of the cartridge. Gunpowder
catches fire more readily than cordite, and the duty of the igniter is to ensure that the flash from the tube
(see under " Tubes ", paras. 186-189) sets the cordite alight. The igniter, by its inflammable nature, is a
potential source of danger in action; therefore, to reduce this danger, those cartridges which have igniters
and are made up in fractions of full charges do not have an igniter on each fraction, but two per full
charge. B.L. cartridges must be put into the gun with the red igniter end to the rear and as close as
possible to the breech block of the gun. Special care is necessary in cordite handing rooms to ensure that
where igniters are fitted the cartridges are placed in the hoists the right way round.
Igniters for certain cartridges are protected by silk igniter covers or millboard "tear-off" discs fitted over
the end of the cartridge. These must be removed in the last place of handling, i.e., in the cordite handing
room of turrets when using main loading, or at the gun in hand-worked mountings. The rear igniter cover
only need be removed. Igniters of other cartridges are protected by non-removable igniter covers which
are coloured red and are sewn both to the igniter and cartridge bag.
Most B.L. cartridges are fitted with lifting bands of tape or braid to assist in their removal from the
magazine cases. These bands are to be taken off on withdrawal of the cartridge from the case, before
passing it to the ammunition hoist.
Tin Foil is introduced into every B.L. cartridge to prevent coppering of the bore.
On the silk cloth bag is stencilled all information concerning the cartridge, which includes:-
(i) The gun for which it is intended.

(ii) Weight of the charge.
(iii) Nature, size and lot number of cordite.
(iv) Fraction denoting size of charge, i.e., 1/4, 1/6, etc.
(v) Date of filling and monogram of filling station.
(vi) N-for Naval Service.
Cartridges for Q.F. Guns.

181. For these the bundle of cordite sticks is placed in a brass Q.F. cartridge case. The ammunition for Q.
F. guns is divided into two classes: fixed ammunition, in which the base of the projectile is secured in the
mouth of the cartridge case, and separate ammunition, where cartridge and projectile are separate.
Where N.H. propellant is used the propellant is confined to the lower part of the case by a leatherboard
cup held in position by a distance piece, one end of which bears on the top of the cup, and the other on the
base of the shell in fixed ammunition and on the lid of the case in separate ammunition.
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In both classes the Q.F. cartridge case protects the cordite during transport and stowage, and seals the
breech end of the gun when it fires. At the rear end of the cartridge case is a brass disc and flange, made
solid with the case and drilled and screwed for the primer which initiates the firing of the cartridge (see
para. 190). The primer is protected from accidental knocks by a clip, which is removed before loading.
Clips are not provided for electric primers.
The gunpowder necessary to ensure regular ignition of the cordite is contained either in the magazine of
the primer or in a metal igniter (see under "Primer", para. 190).
The front end of the cartridge case of separate ammunition is closed by a metal or plastic lid.
Tin foil is introduced to prevent coppering.
All information relating to the charge and cartridge case is stamped on the base and stencilled on the base
or side of the case. This information includes:-
(i) Stamped on base:-
(a) Nature and mark of gun.

(b) Mark of empty case.
(c) Monogram of manufacturer of case and date of manufacture.
(d) Marks by which the history of the case may be read.
(e) Lot No. of cordite and distinguishing letter of cordite manufacturer.
(ii) Stencilled on base or side:-
(a) Lot number of cordite.

(b) Mark of cartridge.
(c) Monogram of filling station and date of filling.
Drill Cartridges.

182. To enable loading drills to be carried out, drill cartridges are supplied, having approximately the
same weight and outside dimensions as the cartridges they represent. Those for B.L. guns are either wood
covered with raw hide, or lengths of rope covered with canvas. Those for Q.F. guns, both fixed and
separate, are usually made of wood with brass facings.
Blank Cartridges.
183. Blank cartridges, filled with gunpowder, and designed to make a great deal of noise and smoke, are
supplied for saluting purposes and signalling. Blank cartridges for B.L. guns are enclosed in silk cloth
bags, and are only supplied when specially required.
Blank cartridges for Q.F. guns are contained in Q.F. cartridge cases. They are usually supplied to ships in
their component parts to be made up on board as required.
No projectile is used with a blank cartridge.
As gunpowder is easily ignited, blank charges should be treated very cautiously, and never exposed to a
possibility of a spark or smouldering matter. They are usually stowed in a separate magazine or shell
room, or with small arm ammunition.
184. All information is stencilled on the B.L. cartridge and on the bag of the Q.F. charge. This
information includes:-
(i) Mark of cartridge.

(ii) Contractor's initials or recognised trade mark.
(iii) Nature of gun.
59

(iv) Weight of charge.

(v) Class of powder.
(vi) N-for Naval Service.
(vii) Initials or monogram of filling station.
(viii) Date of filling.
The word "BLANK" is stamped or stencilled across the base of Q.F. cartridges supplied for such use.
Precautions to be observed.
185. On all occasions of withdrawing a blank cartridge from a B.L. gun it is to be passed overboard.
Before firing blank charges from a B.L. gun, the cartridge is to be kept in a Clarkson's case or waterproof
duck bag and is not to be uncovered until the bore has been inspected.
TUBES AND PRIMERS.
186. B.L. cartridges are fired by tubes placed in the vent of the breech, while Q.F. cartridges are fired by
primers screwed into the base of the cartridge case.
Tubes.
187. To distinguish them from other types of tube, they are known as tubes, vent.
Tubes, vent, consist of a means of ignition and a magazine of powder pellets and loose powder contained
in a small brass case. The powder pellets, when ignited, fly, burning, into the igniter (where fitted) of the
B.L. cartridge and ignite it. Tubes are of two types, electric and percussion.
Electric tubes are fired by an electric current passing through an electric lock. When this current is
switched on, by the gunlayer or director-layer pressing his trigger, it flows along a thin iridio-platinum
wire " bridge " surrounded by explosive inside the tube. The bridge fuses almost instantaneously, and
ignites the explosive and the powder pellets in the tube magazine. Owing to the frailty of the bridge,
electric tubes must be handled with care; otherwise the bridge may be broken and the tube missfire.
Electric tubes are usually balanced by a megger before firing to confirm that they are electrically correct.
Their resistance should lie between 0.9 and 1.1 ohms. Electric tubes which have missfired (i.e., which
have been reported as "tube not fired") should be set aside for examination.
Percussion tubes are fired by the blow of the striker of a percussion lock. The striker, when it flies
forward, hits the tube striker at the rear end of the tube and fires the cap of the tube. A flash from the cap
ignites the powder pellets in the tube magazine. Percussion tubes must be handled with the greatest care,
as an accidental blow on the cap may cause the tube to fire. Percussion tubes which have been struck, as
indicated by a dent in the centre of the striker of the tube, but have not fired, are dangerous and should be

thrown overboard as soon as possible.
188. Tubes are made in three sizes: 1-in., electric, and .5-in. and .4-in. electric or percussion:-
(i) 1-in. tubes are used in certain B.L. guns the cartridges for which are not fitted with an
igniter.
(ii) .5-in. tubes are used in all other B.L. guns in the service, except as in (iii).
(iii) .4-in. tubes are now only used in 6-in. Marks VII and XI guns.
60
Drill tubes, representing .5-in. and .4-in. percussion tubes, for use at loading drill, and dummy tubes for
instructional purposes, are also supplied. Fired tubes may also be used for drill and at the loader.
189. Tubes can be identified as follows:-
(i) Electric tubes are left plain and smooth. Electric tubes for some guns have a raised contact
piece in the head, and are fired by strikerless locks; they are called "S" tubes. The others have
a small sunk disc in the head, where the striker makes contact.
(ii) Percussion tubes have four notches cut out of the rim of the head.
(iii) Drill tubes are blackened and have four longitudinal indents impressed on the body. The
heads are milled.
Tubes are packed ten in a flat tin box, sealed by a soldered tear-off band. When this seal is broken, the
date is to be recorded on the tin and the contents relegated for testing purposes only after one week (one
month during war). Tubes are stowed in a special locker in the gunner's store room. Lockers are fitted
near the guns for a ready-use supply of tubes in action.
Primers.
190. Primers screw into the bases of Q.F. cartridges and provide the means of firing them. Three types are
used:-
(i) Percussion.
(ii) Electric.
(iii) Electric and Percussion.
Percussion primers consist of a powder magazine and a percussion cap contained in a metal holder. They
are fired by a blow from a striker which hits and ignites the cap; flash from the cap passes into and ignites
the contents of the magazine of the primer.

Electric primers are similar in operation to an electric tube, and are fired by electricity.
Electric and percussion primers may be fired either by percussion or by electricity.
Primers screw in flush with the base of the cartridge case, and are protected by a clip, which must be
removed before loading. Special keys are provided for removing the primers after the cartridge has been
fired.
AMMUNITION PACKAGES.
191. Cartridges are supplied to ships packed in aluminium alloy, steel or brass cases, or in steel or wooden
boxes. Some of the latter have a tinned plate lining. The cases and boxes stow in magazines on board in
such a manner that, so far as possible, their contents can be removed while they remain in their stowage.
Boxes, however, may be carried with their contents to the place where they are required. (See also para.
245.)
Ammunition cases and boxes are made air-tight and water-tight by the use of luting (a sort of non-drying
putty), and rubber or dermatine (a form of rubber) rings at the lid joint.
Cases and boxes containing cordite cartridges are "sealed" before being supplied to a ship, so that it will
at once be apparent if anyone has opened or tampered with the lid of a case. The sealing is generally
effected by sticking a
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station sealing label, with the Royal Naval Armament Depot monogram on it, over the junction of the lid
and the body, or by the use of sealing tapes in conjunction with such labels.
192. The cases and boxes most generally encountered are:-

(i) Cylindrical cases, made of brass or steel. Used for stowing the cartridges for 14-inch and
larger guns. One end has a circular lid, which is opened and closed with a metal key.
(ii) Rectangular cases, made of aluminium alloy or brass, the bodies usually corrugated or
indented to give strength. Used for stowing B.L. cartridges of smaller guns. These cases are
fitted at one end with a round lid, which is opened and closed by a metal key. Certain B.L.
cartridges are enclosed, for additional security, in cardboard or box cloth wrappers, when in
their magazine cases. Such cartridges should be kept in their containers until just before
loading into the gun.
(iii) Boxes for Q.F. Ammunition. Most of these are made of wood and lined with tinned plate.
Some bows arc made of steel. Diaphragms and packing pieces, termed furniture, are fitted
inside the boxes to prevent movement of the cartridges. Boxes for fixed ammunition are
termed " ammunition boxes "; those for the separate loading cartridges are termed " cartridge
boxes." Various types of lids are employed, some of which can be opened without a key.
(iv) Metal-lined cases, made of wood and lined with tinned plate. These are used for small
combustible stores and for boat work, as they can be made water-tight again after being
opened. The lining is closed by a circular bung made water-tight by luting, while the case has
a hinged wooden lid, secured by two screws, for which a key is supplied, over the bung. These
cases are made in three sizes-whole, half, and quarter.
(v) Small arm ammunition (S.A.A.) boxes, made of wood with a tinned plate lining. These are
used for small arms ammunition of all kinds. They can be opened, without a key, by removing
a pin and knocking out the wedge-shaped sliding lid. The tinned plate lid below, which is
soldered in place, is then torn off. Once opened S.A.A. boxes cannot again be made water-
tight.
All cases and boxes containing ammunition should be handled with care to avoid injuring their contents.
Rough usage of cases and boxes causes them to lose their air tightness, with detriment to their contents. It
may well occasion hangfires, missfires, or even premature explosion, and jamming of the lids which
causes loss of time in opening cases, a common result of rough usage.
COLOURING OF AMMUNITION PACKAGES.
193. Except as stated below, all packages containing ammunition and fireworks are painted a stone
colour.
" Packages painted the following colours contain stores as shown:-
Green Target smoke ammunition. (Never to be stowed below.)

Brown stain S.A.A. bundled, belted or in cartons (for machine guns) or in chargers (for rifles).

Red Blank ammunition and cases for detonators.

Black Drill and dummy ammunition.
Stone with yellow lid Sub-calibre ammunition.
Yellow Bombs."
62
The following packages are not painted externally apart from their special markings:-
Magazine cases made of aluminium-silicon alloy.
Boxes for warheads and projectiles.
Galvanised steel packages.
One end of some cylindrical cases is painted blue to show that that end is permanently closed.
The following band markings will be found:-
Two red All packages containing explosives, except those painted red.
Dark blue Packages for non-explosive Naval armament stores including drill and dummy
ammunition boxes.
Practice (bright) yellow Q.F. target smoke ammunition boxes.
194. To assist in the rapid identification of the type of projectile, all fixed ammunition packages are
marked with a coloured bar on the lid or on the side bearing the label:-
Light blue H.A. practice.

Dull yellow Common H.E.
Bright or practice yellow Practice.
Red Shrapnel.
White S.A.P.
Black (broken bar) C.P.
Black C.N.F.
Details of the contents of a package are stencilled on the outside of the box, and are also indicated on the
contents label affixed to the outside of the package (except for cases, magazine).
A.S.A. boxes have coloured labels stuck on the outside so that their contents can quickly be recognised.
Boxes containing star-shell have a star-shaped piece of brass screwed to the lid to enable the contents to

be identified in the dark by sense of touch.
All packages containing explosives are marked with a government explosives group label in red with a
white numeral indicating to which group the contents belong for stowage purposes.
PROJECTILES.
195. There are various kinds of projectiles, whose design depends on the function they are required to
fulfil. They can, however, be divided into three main groups:-
(i) Piercing shell.

(ii) H.E. shell.
(iii) Miscellaneous projectiles.
63
All projectiles are fitted with copper or cupro-nickel " driving bands " near their bases. On the projectile
being forced through the bore, the grooves of the rifling bite into the copper and so give the projectile the
spin which keeps it steady in flight. The driving band also prevents any escape of cordite gas past the
projectile while it is in the gun. Rope grommets or carriers for certain calibres are supplied to protect the
driving bands of all separate loading projectiles during transport and stowage in the shell room bins. They
should be removed when the shells are lifted from the bins preparatory to loading.
Piercing and H.E. shell, which are designed to do as much damage as possible to the enemy, are steel
cases filled with disruptive explosives. The filling is detonated or exploded by a fuze screwed into the
base or nose of the shell. Between the fuze and main filling is placed a small quantity of fairly sensitive
explosive termed an " exploder " (see para. 178).
Piercing Shell.
196. These shells are designed to perforate thick armour at battle ranges, and to burst effectively when
inside. To achieve this the shells are made with thick heads and walls, and consequently carry only a
small amount of explosive. In modern shell, to assist perforation a penetrative cap of hard steel secured
over the nose of the shell, is generally employed, the letter "C," for capped, being added to the title of the
shell.
Sometimes light steel domes are fitted on the cap or nose of the shell to bring it to the best shape for flight
through the air. These are called ballistic caps, and in no way assist the actual perforation. The suffix "B.
C." is sometimes used to indicate the presence of a ballistic cap.
Fuzes of all piercing shell are fitted in the base, where they can be best protected from damage during

penetration.
197. The following types of piercing shell are supplied to the Naval Service:-
(i) A.P.C. (Armour Piercing, Capped). The principal shell for 14-in. guns and above for use
against battleships and battle cruisers which have thick armour protection.
(ii) S.A.P.C. (Semi-Armour-Piercing, Capped). Supplied for 8-in. guns for use against
medium thicknesses of armour.
(iii) C.P.B.C. (Common Pointed Ballistic Cap). The latest type of piercing shell for 6-in.
guns.
(iv) S.A.P. (Semi-Armour-Piercing). A type of piercing shell for 5.25-in guns and below.
(v) C.P.C. (Common Pointed, Capped). An older type of shell with inferior penetrative
qualities but a correspondingly bigger bursting charge, supplied for 6-in. guns and above for
use against unarmoured ships and light targets.
H.E. Shell.
198. These are designed to burst with great shattering effect on unarmoured targets, but have little or no
penetration. They contain the largest possible bursting charge consistent with the shell having the
necessary strength
64
to withstand the shock of discharge from the gun. They are made for guns of all calibres, and are used for
anti-aircraft fire and for bombardment. They may also be used against ship targets. They have nose fuzes.
Miscellaneous Projectiles.
199. The characteristics of other types of shell which are likely to be met with are as follows:-

(i) Shrapnel Shell are thin-walled shell containing balls of lead hardened with antimony and a
small burster, and are for use against troops ashore and low flying aircraft. When the shell is
burst by its time nose fuze, the balls are ejected from the case and spread out, in the form of a
cone, over a large area, the shell being timed to burst a little short of the target.
(ii) Star Shell contain an illuminating star attached to a parachute, and are used for
silhouetting the target during night actions. When the small bursting charge in the shell is
exploded by the time nose fuze, the illuminating star is ignited and, with the parachute, blown
out through the base of the shell. The burning star then sinks slowly throwing out a bright
white light until it falls into the water.
These shell must be handled carefully to avoid damaging their weak bases. They are supplied
to ships packed separately in boxes. The shell have a minimum wall thickness so that there is
a maximum space available for the parachute and the star container. Until recently no star
shell could be fired with a full charge because the remaining velocity, when the parachute was
ejected, was too high for the parachute to remain intact. Strengthened parachutes are now
fitted in all Star shell 4-inch - 5.25 inch, the shell being marked with a green star; only the
5.25-inch and the new long range 4.5-inch, however, may be fired with a full charge because
of the limitation of the strength of shell design of the other calibres concerned.
(iii) Smoke Shell are designed (a) for firing from anti-aircraft guns so that the burst leaves a
small grey smoke cloud which provides a target for anti-aircraft practice or for wind-finding
observation, and (b) to provide a smoke screen for use in landing operations, etc. Type (b) can
be of similar design to type (a), except that they are fitted with an impact instead of time fuze
or they may be designed so that the smoke composition is held in a container which is ejected
from the base. Type (a) are distinguished by the term, target smoke shell. Type (b) deliver a
larger quantity of smoke.
(iv) L.A. Practice Projectiles contain no explosive filling, and are used for practice firings.
They are frequently old shell with the explosive filling removed and replaced by an inert
substance to keep the shell correctly weighted. Solid shot are also used.
(v) H.A. Practice Shell, designed to do the minimum of damage when they burst, contain a
small powder burster and a few smoke pellets. On bursting, the fuze is blown out and a black
smoke puff appears, while the body of the shell continues its flight. Their use enables a greater
variety of firings at sleeve targets to be carried out than when H.E. shell, with the many safety
restrictions necessary, are used.
(vi) Special Bombardment Shell are designed to do as little damage as possible, consistent
with producing a burst large enough to be seen. They are H.E. shell with a large part of the
filling removed, and replaced by an inert substance.

65
(vii) Drill Shell of wood and Dummy Shell of wood covered with a tan hide are supplied for
loading drill at the guns. Drill at the loading teacher is carried out with practice projectiles.
Drill shell of iron (or practice projectiles) are also supplied for pusher hoists or Fuze Setting
Drill, and are marked NOT TO BE LOADED IN GUN.
SUPPLY AND CARE OF PROJECTILES.
200. Projectiles 5.25 inch and above, except star shell, are supplied in bulk. Projectiles 4.7 inch and
below, and star shell of all calibres, are packed in boxes which are returned to the depot after the shells
have been stowed in the bins. Capstan-headed grabs are supplied for embarking and disembarking shell 8-
inch and above. Quick-action grabs, as used in shell rooms, are never to be used for embarking or
disembarking shell.
When handling projectiles, care should be taken:-
(i) That driving bands are not damaged. (Rope grommets are provided, to protect them.)
(ii) That caps are not subjected to any strain.
(iii) That markings are not obliterated.
(iv) That heavy shell are slung slightly nose heavy.
(v) That star shell are not subjected to rough usage or dropped. A drop of two feet on to its
base may be sufficient to render a star shell unserviceable.
TRACERS AND IGNITERS.
201. To enable the flight of the projectile to be seen, a tracer may be fitted into the base. A tracer consists
of a small tube or disc filled with tracer composition, which is ignited when the gun fires.
The igniter is a device to ensure self-destruction of the shell if the fuze has not operated by a given time.
The tracer and igniter is a similar device combining the functions of tracer and self destruction.
COLOURING AND MARKING ON PROJECTILES. Plate 19.
202. In order that they may readily be distinguished, types of projectile are painted differently (see Plate
19).
The bodies of shell are painted:-

Dull Yellow All shell filled with high explosive. These include A.P.C., C.P.B.C., C.P.C., S.A.
P., S.A.P.C., and H.E.
Black All shell filled with gunpowder and practice projectiles. These include Star Shell,
Shrapnel, Practice, H.A,. Practice, and Smoke Shell (old method only).
Green Smoke Shell (new method only).
The points or caps of shell are painted the same colour as the body, with the following exceptions:-
Red point Shrapnel Shell.

Green cap or point Shell filled with shellite.
66
203. The following coloured bands are painted round projectiles:-
(i) Old Method.
POSITION OF BAND COLOUR OF NATURE OF PROJECTILE DENOTING

BAND
Head or shoulder Red All shell filled explosive. Shell is filled with
explosive.
Shoulder, above red White S.A.P.C. S.A.P.C. shell.
band.
Body Green Shell is filled with T.N.T.
Bright yellow Practice and target smoke. Shell is for practice
firings.
Two green with H.E., special bombardment Shell is tilled with T.N.T.
bright yellow practice. (green) and is for practice
between. firings (yellow).
Black zig-zag H.E. Radar Radar Shell
Two bright yellow Target ship practice. Suitable for practice
firings at target ships.
White, 1/4-inch wide 15-inch Centre of gravity.
White, 1-inch wide 14 and 16-inch Position for grab.
(ii) Present Method.

POSITION OF BAND COLOUR OF BAND NATURE OF DENOTING

AND MARKING AND MARKING PROJECTILE
Head or Shoulder Red - Shell is filled with
explosive.
Shoulder above red White S.A.P.C. and S.A.P. S.A.P.
band
Shoulder, above and White A.P. and A.P.C. A.P. or A.P.C. shell.
below red band.
Shoulder or body Green or black and - Shell filled T.N.T. or
green. head filled T.N.T.
Shoulder or body Black zig zag H.E. H.E. (Radar) shell.
Blue H.E Shell filled RDX/BWX.
Blue with T.N.T. H.E. Shell filled RDX/T.N.T.
stencilled below band.
Bright yellow Practice Shell is for practice
firings.
Above driving band Red Tracer shell Fitted with live tracers.
Body Two green with bright H.E. special bombardment Shell is filled with T.N.
yellow between. practice. T. (green) and is for
practice firings (yellow).
Body White, 1/4-in. wide 15-inch Centre of gravity.
White, 1-in. wide 16-inch Position for grab.
(G. 6619/46.-A.F.P. P.75147.
67

"Starshell have a green or red star painted on a white circular background."
The letter "S" on a white circle denotes that the shell is fitted with a smoke box (present method).
The method of painting target smoke shell is best seen from Plate 19.
Stencilled on the shell are the calibre of gun from which it is to be fired, the date and place of filling the
shell, and particulars of the exploder and the fuze, and game or tracer if fitted.
The gas check cover plate or disc tracer of base fuzed shell and the screwed ring which holds the cover
plate in position are coloured to indicate what fuze is fitted.
FUZES.
204. Fuzes screw into the nose or base of shell, and are used to start the explosion or detonation of the
bursting charge in the shell. They fall into three main groups:-
(i) Percussion (D.A. and base).

(ii) Time (Combustion and Mechanical).
(iii) Time and Percussion.
Fuzes contain a detonator, i.e., a small quantity of sensitive high explosive and a magazine.
Percussion Direct Action Fuzes.
205. These are the simplest kind of fuze. They screw into the noses of H.E. shell and burst them on
impact. When the fuze hits the target, a striker in its nose is forced into the detonator which fires and
detonates the fuze magazine, and thence the exploder and the shell filling. There are two main types of
this fuze, direct action (D.A.) and direct action impact (D.A.I.). D.A. fuzes are very sensitive and are used
for bombardment and in 2-pdr. shell. D.A.I. fuzes require a harder blow to cause them to work and are
used in H.E. shell which is fired at ships.
The larger D.A. and D.A.I. fuzes have caps to protect them from accidental damage, spray, and moisture
during transport and stowage. These fuzes are prepared for firing by removing the caps in the following
manner:-

Nos. 44 and 45 P. .. (Old types of fuze screwing into a G.S., i.e., tapered, fuze hole). Pull out
the pin securing the cap. Take off the cap, which fits on a bayonet joint. A second pin secured
to die bottom of the cap by twine is pulled our when the cap is removed. In No. 44, Mark X
and later fuzes, the second pin is secured to the first and is removed with it.
Nos. 118 and 230 .. (Modern D.A. fuzes, for all H.E. shell, 3 inch. to 15 in., screwing into a 2
in. fuze hole.) Unscrew the cap, which is lightly held by a flat spring. There is no pin. The
striker cover, which acts as a wind cap, must not be removed.
If a fuze is prepared for firing and then not fired, the cap and pin, where fitted, should be replaced, except
in No. 44, Mark X and later fuzes. In No. 44 Mark X and later fuzes, and in fuzes where the pin is
difficult to replace the fuze should be carefully removed from the shell and thrown overboard.
H.E. shell for low angle work are supplied already fuzed to small ships. For larger ships the fuzes are
supplied separate from the shell, the hole in the nose of
68
the latter being plugged. On the outbreak of war, or when required, the shell are fuzed on board (see para.
210).
If nose-fuzed shell are to be left for more than a few hours on the weather deck, those fuzes which are not
fitted with watertight caps are protected from damp by rubber covers or kit plasters which fit over them.
Percussion Base Fuzes.
206. Piercing shell, which are required to perforate armour before bursting, are fitted with base fuzes
which are not damaged by the passage of the shell through the armour. The action of the fuze is started
when the shell strikes, but the burst does not occur until a fraction of a second later, when the shell has got
well inside the enemy ship.
Base fuzes are supplied screwed into their shell. Normally no preparation is required. Care must be taken
not to damage them with the point of another shell. Base fuzes must never be removed on board.
Time Fuzes.
207. These are supplied for H.E. shell to be fired at aircraft, and for star shell H.A. practice, and target
smoke shell. There are two types, powder burning and mechanical. In the powder-burning fuze, a powder
train is started burning by the action of a detonator when the shell is fired. By revolving a ring the
effective length of the train can be so adjusted that the projectile will burst in the air at any desired
interval after leaving the gun. In the mechanical fuze, revolving the dome similarly causes the fuze to fire

after the desired interval. Both types of fuze are "set" by revolving to the required setting immediately
before loading the shell into the gun.
The setting must never be zero or very close to zero, as this may have the effect of bursting the shell
whilst the gun and crew are still within the danger zone.
Some time fuzes have, in addition, a percussion arrangement that causes the shell to burst on impact if it
strikes anything before the time fuze works. These fuzes are called time-and-percussion fuzes, and are
used mainly with shrapnel. Time mechanical fuzes will also cause the shell to burst on impact with
substantial targets.
The fuzes used in the ammunition for close range A.A. weapons must not be confused with time-and-
percussion fuzes. The fuze in this case is a D.A. fuze. A self-destroying element, operating after a fixed
length of time, is fitted inside the shell to prevent it returning to earth intact and possibly causing injury to
a friendly party.
Most time fuzes have a cap as a protection. The cap must be removed before the fuze can be set and
should immediately be replaced if the fuze is not going to be fired.
208. In addition, the following fuzes have safety pins which must be removed before loading: Nos. 65a,
81, 92, 93, 181 and 192. These pins are on no account to be replaced. If the pin has been withdrawn and
the shell is not required for immediate use, the fuze is to be carefully removed from the shell and thrown
overboard.
Time and time-and-percussion fuzes are always supplied to ships separately in suitable packages. The
shell are fuzed with them on the outbreak of war, or when required in peace-time. If the shell are going to
remain fuzed on the weather deck for more than a few hours, the fuzes, if not fitted with water-tight caps,
should be protected by rubber covers or kit plasters.
If a time or time-and-percussion fuze has been set and is then not fired, it is reset to SAFE usually
indicated by a small red triangle a little beyond the highest
69

setting mark. It is then removed from the shell, sealed in its tin and, unless it has got wet, may be
considered serviceable for three months. After this period, or if it has got wet, it should be returned to an
armament depot. When resetting a mechanical time fuze to SAFE the motion of the dome must always be
clockwise as viewed from above.
Safety Arrangements of Fuzes.
209. In addition to the caps and pins mentioned above, all fuzes have internal safety arrangements to
prevent their functioning accidentally during transport or stowage. The chamber pressure, shock of
discharge, and rotation, " arm " the fuze when it leaves the gun, so that it may function correctly at the end
of its flight.
FUZING OF SHELL.
210. The regulations concerning this are laid down in N.M. and E.R. Detailed directions are given in the
Handbook on Ammunition (B.R.932/45).
The most important points to remember are:-
(i) Fuzing must be done on the upper deck.

(ii) No two fuzing parties may be within 100 feet of each other.
(iii) Only one shell at a time may be fuzed at each position.
(iv) No other shell may be within 10 feet of shell being fuzed.
(v) Screw-threads must be scrupulously clean.
(vi) Special fuzing keys are required, and no force may be used except that which can be
normally applied by the hand.
(vii) No tools are to be used other than those supplied for the specific purpose, or otherwise
than in the manner prescribed.
GAINES.
211. A gaine is a small magazine of sensitive high explosive which is placed between time fuzes (except
No. 211, which has the gaine incorporated in it) and the exploders of the shell in which they are fitted. Its
object is to step up the explosion of the fuze so as to produce detonation of the shell filling. Shell fitted
with gaines are also used occasionally with D.A. fuzes, for bombardment.
AIRCRAFT BOMBS.
212. Bombs at present in use can be divided into 7 groups:-
(i) A.P. (Armour-Piercing) and S.A.P. (Semi-Armour-Piercing)

(ii) G.P. (General Purpose) and M.C. (Medium Capacity) }H.E. Bombs
(iii) A/S (Anti-Submarine). }H.E. Bombs
(iv) Anti-personnel. }H.E. Bombs
(v) Incendiary.
(vi) Practice.
(vii) Drill.
The main filling of H.E. bombs is detonated by similar means to those employed in shell, i.e., by an
exploder which in turn is ignited by a detonator. The detonator is initiated by means of a pistol. In some
bombs the detonator and pistol mechanism are combined in one unit termed a fuze. In either case when a
bomb is
70
fitted for service it is said to be fuzed. Mechanical arrangements in the pistol or fuze allow the bomb to be
dropped "Safe" or "Live" as desired. When dropped live, the fuze cannot function until the bomb has
travelled through the air far enough to " arm " the fuze. This travel is called the " arming distance."
(i) A.P. Bombs-2,000 lb.

These bombs are designed for use against heavily armoured targets and are made of steel. They contain a
comparatively small charge in relation to the total weight. Detonation is initiated by a fuze in the tail.
S.A.P. Bombs-500 lb. and 250 lb.

These bombs are designed for use' against lightly armoured targets. They are made of steel and contain a
comparatively small charge. Earlier types are fitted with a tail fuze, and the latest type with a tail pistol
and detonator, giving the required delay.
(ii) G.P. 250 lb. and M.C. Bombs, 500 lb.

These bombs, as the name implies, are used to attack a variety of targets. They rely chiefly on blast effect
to cause damage and have a relatively large charge. They are fitted for nose (instantaneous) or tail (delay)
fuzing, and use a pistol and detonator in both cases.
(iii) A/S Bombs, 100 lb.

These bombs are used against submarines, and also against certain targets where a large blast effect is
required. They have a relatively large charge, and are fitted for a tail pistol and detonator. (Earlier types
were fitted for a nose fuze.)
(iv) Anti-Personnel Bombs, 40 lb. G.P. and 20 lb. Fragmentation.

These bombs are designed to give a large number of small fragments on bursting and are fitted with a
nose pistol and detonator only. Otherwise they are generally similar to the larger G.P. bombs.

(v) Incendiary Bombs, 25 lb. and 30 lb.

The 25 lb. incendiary bomb consists of a metal case containing seven magnesium and thermite firepots
which are ejected at 4-second intervals by means of small explosive charges. The 30 lb. incendiary bomb
contains an incendiary filling which is ignited and spread by means of an exploder contained in a nose
fuze.
(vi) Practice Bombs. 8 1/2 lb., 10 lb. and 11 1/2 lb.

These bombs contain either a smoke flame or a flash composition; smoke for day and flame or flash for
night use respectively. On impact a small detonator-burster is ignited by means of a pistol which is an
integral part of the bomb.
(vii) Drill Bombs.

These may be of any of the above types differing only in that the filling is inert.
Safety Arrangements.
213. Bomb pistols and fuzes are fitted with safety arrangements to prevent detonation of a bomb before it
is required for use or in the event of a crash or premature release. The safety arrangements take the
following forms:-
71
(i) Safety Pillar: This is fitted to fuzes to prevent the rotation of the arming vanes (see below)
during transit and is removed only after the bomb is loaded on to the aircraft.
(ii) Safety Clips: These are fitted to pistols and fuzes to prevent the rotation of the arming
vanes whilst attached to the aircraft in the air. They are removed when the bomb is released "
live," or remain on the bomb if it is dropped " safe."
(iii) Arming Vanes: These are fitted to fuzes and pistols and rotate as the bomb falls through
the air if the safety clip has been removed. In the case of fuzes they drive a system of gears
which renders the fuze " live " requiring only the shock of impact to fire the detonators. In the
case of pistols they unscrew an arming nut or cap from the striker which is then held by a
creep spring or shear wire only.
Note. In the case of tail pistols the arming vane is fitted on the bomb tail and connected to the
pistol by means of a spindle.
Supply and Fuzing.
214. Bombs of 100 lb. and above are supplied unboxed, their tail units and nose pistols being in separate

containers. Tail pistols are usually supplied in position in the bomb. Smaller bombs are supplied boxed
with pistols in position. Detonators and fuzes are supplied in separate boxes.
Fuzing is carried out in accordance with N.M. and E.R. Article 249.
Markings. Plate 20.
215. Stencil markings on bombs give the following information:-
(i) Nomenclature and mark.

(ii) The monogram of filling station or trade mark of filling contractor.
(iii) The date of filling.
(iv) The lot number of filling.
Coloured markings are as follows:-
(i) H.E. bombs are coloured green (old supply were yellow).
(ii) A red band round the nose denotes Filled.
(iii) A white band contiguous to the red band denotes S.A.P.
(iv) A white band either side of the red band denotes A.P.
(v) A plain green band denotes T.N.T. filling. T.N.T. is stencilled on or near the band.
(vi) A plain green band with a numeral above and a fraction below indicates an amatol filling
of low grade.
(vii) A criss-cross green band with a fraction below denotes an amatol filling of high grade.
(viii) Incendiary bombs are painted dull red.
(ix) Practice bombs are painted white. Two green bands on the tail denote "filled with smoke
composition "; two black bands on the tail and a red band on the body denote" filled with flash
composition."
(x) Drill bombs are painted black with yellow band.
Note. In (v) and (vi), new supply, the green band is of a lighter shade than the body colour.
... such as smoking ... (para 126)
SMALL ARMS AMMUNITION.

216. The term Small Arms Ammunition includes ammunition for aiming rifles, machine guns, aircraft
guns, rifles and pistols of 1 inch or less calibre.
Various types are supplied. Except for 20 m.m. Oerlikon the type is indicated by letters preceding the
mark number stamped on the base of the cartridge. The interpretation of the letters is as follows:-
No letter Ball H Rifle Grenade.

B Incendiary J Illuminating.
D Drill. L Blank.
F S.A.P. U Dummy.
G Tracer W Armour Piercing.
Letters after the mark of a cartridge are an indication of the nature of the propellant, e.g., Cartridge, S.
A. .5 inch W Mark I Z. has an armour piercing bullet and a nitrocellulose propellant. Similarly, the letter
T in place of Z would indicate a black powder propellant, and absence of a final letter a cordite filling.
(i) 1 inch Aiming Rifle Ammunition is fired from aiming rifles, which fit into parent guns. It is
manufactured either for electric or percussion firing.
(ii) 20 m.m. Ammunition of various types is fired from 20 m.m. automatic guns such as the Oerlikon and
Hispano. It fires by percussion and is supplied in bulk. The different types are distinguished by the colour
of the shell.
(iii) .5 inch Ammunition is fired from Vickers and Browning machine guns. It fires by percussion and is
supplied in bulk and in articulated belts. Care should be taken that this ammunition is fired only from
guns for which it is intended. Types now available are Ball, Tracer, A.P., S.A.P., S.A.P. Tracer,
Incendiary and Drill.
(iv) .303 inch and .30 inch Ammunition is fired from machine guns, including aircraft machine guns,
and rifles. It fires by percussion. The cartridges are supplied in chargers, bandoliers, strips, articulated
belts, and in bulk. Ammunition is not to be fired from synchronised aircraft machine guns more than
fourteen days after the box has been opened and the rounds " exposed "; this period may be extended to
forty days if such ammunition has been exposed and subsequently kept in airtight lockers. Types now
available are Drill, Blank, Dummy, Ball, Armour Piercing, and various sub-types of Tracer and
Incendiary.
(v) .45 inch Ammunition is fired from the Thompson sub-machine gun.
(vi) .455 inch Revolver Ammunition is fired from the Webley Revolver (Pistol, revolver, No. 1). It is
supplied in packets of six (828 rounds in box, A.S.A. 1/2 N., H.3).

73
(vii) .38 inch Revolver Ammunition is fired from the .38 inch Revolver (Pistol, revolver, No. 2). It is
supplied in cartons of twelve (360 rounds in boxes A.S.A. H.9).
(viii) .22 inch Ammunition is fired from Service rifles and pistols that have been tubed to fire this small
cartridge. Unique amongst percussion-fired cartridges, it is fired by a blow on the rim of the base instead
of in the centre. The designation R.F. means rim-fire. It is supplied in boxes of 100 (10,000 rounds in
case, powder, M.L. quarter).
RIFLE GRENADES.
217. The No. 36M grenade, the only one likely to be encountered, consists of a Mill's bomb, to the bottom
of which a gas check plate has been screwed. The grenade is projected by a special blank cartridge, out of
a 2 1/2 inch discharger, which can be fixed to the muzzle of a rifle; the latter is specially strengthened for
the purpose. The special blank ballistite cartridge is blackened for half its length from the mouth, which is
not crimped. No other cartridge is to be used.
Outside the grenade is a striker lever. Before it is projected, one end of this lever holds the striker against
its spring away from the detonator, while the other end of the lever is kept into the side of the grenade by
a retaining pin. When the grenade has been loaded into the discharger, this retaining pin is removed; the
striker lever is then held against the grenade by the wall of the discharger.
218. On firing, the striker lever is no longer restrained by the wall of the discharger, and is thrown off by
the striker travelling downward under the action of its spring. The striker fires a cap, which ignites a
length of safety fuze in the grenade. The safety fuze burns for four or seven seconds before firing the
detonator which detonates the filling. If for some reason the grenade is not projected, either from the
discharger or by hand, the pin retaining the safety lever must be replaced before the safety lever is
released either from the side of the discharger or the hand. Should the safety lever be released
inadvertently, there must be no hesitation in throwing the grenade clear, or serious injury, possibly death,
will result to anyone nearby.
Detonators for grenades are issued separately and are provided with instructions for fitting them to the
grenades.
FIREWORKS.
219. The fireworks supplied to the Service are:-

Signal Rockets. Portfires.

Illuminating Rockets 9 lb. and 3 3/4 lb. Slow Match.
Line Carrying Rockets. Signal Cartridges (1 inch).
Rockets, Target, Practice. Magnesium Flares.
P.A.C. (anti-aircraft) Rockets. Distress Signals.
Short Lights.
In addition the following are for use by aircraft:-
Signal Cartridges (1 inch Red) Reconnaissance Flares.

(Magnesium Star). Aircraft navigation smoke floats.
Distress Signals, 2 Star Red. Flame floats.
Flotation Gear Actuating Cartridges. Sea Markers.
Signal Cartridges (1 1/2 inches). Engine starting cartridges.
FIREWORKS SUPPLIED FOR NAVAL SERVICE.
Signal Rockets.
220. Rockets are employed for signalling and display.
Rockets on board are fired from a rocket machine by means of a copper friction
74
tube. Before the rocket is put in the machine, the tear-off disc or plug in the base of the rocket is removed,
and a stick is attached to it by pushing the stick up into the socket on the side of the rocket, and pressing
in the tongue. One end of the stick is shaped to fit the socket, and has a small piece cut away to take the
tongue.
The friction tube is a small copper cylinder in which fits a friction bar. When the bar is pulled out smartly
the tube fires and its flash ignites the composition in the base of the rocket.
Rockets are fired from a boat by means of a rocket upright, a portfire or slow match being employed to
ignite the rocket.
At the end of its flight the rocket bursts, and throws out a number of white stars. The rocket supplied to
the Service is:-
Rocket, Signal, 1 lb., Service, with red, green, or white stars.

Line-carrying Rockets. (see para. 239.)
Rockets, Target Practice.
221. These are ignited by friction match and safety fuze: 'they eject a paper or cotton red parachute as an
aiming mark for A.A. practices. Short Lights.
222. Short Lights burn with a white light for about two minutes, and are used for signalling and
illuminating purposes. They are supplied fitted with a handle, which has an igniter plug in the bottom like
a large match. To ignite the light, tear off the cap, pull out the plug, and draw its primed end lightly across
the top of the light in an upward direction. Hold the light so that it points away from the body and with the
back to the wind.
Portfires.
223. Portfires are brown paper cylinders filled with composition, and are used for lighting rockets or
setting fire to anything They burn for about 10 minutes and normally cannot be put out by water. They
can be lit by short light or slow match, and put out by cutting off the burning end.
Slow Match.
224. Slow Match is hemp soaked in saltpetre. It is generally used for keeping a light burning, as in a boat.
It burns at a rate of one yard in eight hours. A yard weighs about 1/4 lb.
Signal Cartridges.
225. Signal Cartridges (1 inch) are fired from a special pistol and are used for signalling at night and by
day at limited distances. When fired, a star is shot a short distance into the air, and burns red, green or
white as it travels. Where practicable the pistol should be fixed to a bracket or otherwise secured, and
fired by a lanyard.
The cartridge which contains the star is made of metal or cardboard, and the end is closed by a paper disc
of the same colour as the star. In the dark the colours may be recognised by feeling the rim at the base of
the cartridge:-
Red is milled.
Green is smooth.
White is half milled and half smooth.
A useful mnemonic is to associate the colours of road-crossing lights, viz., Red the way is barred, Green
the way is clear, and White is halfway between the other two.

75
The foregoing markings identified by sense of touch are being superseded in the 1 inch signal cartridges
by a metal closing disc at the mouth of the cartridge on which is embossed a different mark for each
colour as follows:-
Red. A Cross.
White. A Circle.
Green. A Triangle.
To fire a signal cartridge, open the pistol by pressing down on the catch on the side. Insert the cartridge
and close the pistol. If the pistol is not held in a holder, it should be lashed to a boathook or an oar. Before
pressing the trigger, the head should be turned away. The pistol should be pointed about 60 degrees in the
air to windward.
Magnesium Flares.
226. Magnesium Flares are of two types:-
(i) Flare illuminating white, Type 26. Fired by friction.

(ii) Flare illuminating white, Type 26E. Fired by an electric current (an ordinary service torch
battery will do).
Two flare stands are allowed to each small vessel supplied with flares. Instructions for firing appear on
each flare. Flares can be burned either from the rigging or from the special stand supplied. When the flare
is burned from the rigging, precautions must be taken to ensure that the molten residue does not set fire to
anything on which it may fall. When burned from a stand this residue falls into the sea. Flares burn for
about 4 1/2 minutes. As they temporarily blind personnel in the ship burning the flares, full value is only
obtained when observing vessels are present. The flares illuminate an area of water which extends for a
range of about 3/4 mile, and hence any object between the observer and the flare will be illuminated or
silhouetted. The flare burning vessel should be to leeward. When flares are required for immediate use
they should be kept away from heat. The packages in which flares are supplied should be kept in a cool
dry place and no more should be taken out than necessary.
FIREWORKS SUPPLIED FOR USE IN AIRCRAFT.
227. A Distress Signal is ignited in the same way as a short light. When ignited, it shows a red flare for
about 10 seconds and then ejects 5 red balls like a signal cartridge at approximately five second intervals
to a height of about 50 feet.

Flotation Gear Actuating Cartridge when fired allows carbon dioxide to inflate the collapsible dinghy
carried in aircraft. It functions by means of an electrical circuit which is completed on immersion in salt
water and which ignites a filling of guncotton dust.
The above-mentioned fireworks are kept stowed in or near the aircraft dinghy.
228. Cartridges, 1 1/2 inch are fired from a 1 1/2 inch signal pistol in a similar manner to the 1-inch
cartridges described in para. 225 above. They include:-
(i) Signal Cartridges, emitting red, white, yellow, or green, stars or combination of stars and
used for various signalling purposes.
(ii) Smoke Drill Cartridges (large brown or small white), producing smoke for windfinding
and signalling purposes.
(iii) Illuminating Cartridges, giving a bright illumination for about 10 seconds and used to
obtain a fleeting glance of an object when the use of a reconnaissance flare is unjustifiable.
229. Reconnaissance Flares have a candle power of about 750,000 and are fitted with parachutes to reduce
the rate of fall to 500 ft. per minute.
76
230. Various pyrotechnics are used for marking positions on the sea. They include:-
(i) Aircraft Navigation Smoke Floats, producing white smoke for about six minutes.
(ii) Flame Floats giving a calcium phosphide flare for about six minutes.
Flame floats must be kept dry when not in use.
Flame Floats, Message Carrying, are similar to Flame Floats, only their buoyancy chamber
is fitted to take a piece of paper coiled round a wire inside a cylinder. To get the message the
man in the dinghy must hold the burning float under water with one hand while with the other
he unscrews a plug, which brings the cylinder containing the message with it. The float will
flood and sink when its plug is withdrawn.
(iii) Sea Markers which scatter aluminium dust on the surface thus forming a patch easily
recognisable in daylight.
(iv) 13-lb. Smoke Float which is dropped from a ship to indicate a departure point in the sea.
231. Engine Starting Cartridges are filled with a propellant charge in the form of pellets. Five cartridges
are carried in the breech of the starter in certain aero-engines and their explosion drives the piston for the

first stroke.
FIREWORK BOXES.
232. Fireworks are supplied to ships in firework boxes or metal-lined cases, which are stored in the
Firework Magazine, Firework Tank or Shell Room. But as fireworks may be wanted in a hurry, ready-
use supplies are kept in the following:-
Night signal box,

Sea-boats' boxes,
Boats' magazines and gigs' magazines.
233. The Night Signal Box is kept on or near the fore bridge. It contains:-
3 signal rockets.
1 tin of friction tubes.
18 1-inch signal cartridges, 6 of each colour.
1 pistol, signal, 1 inch.
2 short lights.
As the firing of a rocket is the signal at night for " man overboard," the rocket machine is always kept
loaded and lashed to the weather side of the bridge between sunset and sunrise. The placing of the rocket
is the duty of the Seaman Gunner of the Watch.
234. A Sea-boat's Box is kept in each sea-boat whilst the ship is at sea. It contains:-
24 1-inch signal cartridges, 6 red, 6 green and 12 white.

1 pistol, signal, 1-inch.
4 short lights.
235. A Boat's Magazine forms a ready supply of ammunition and fireworks to be taken away in case of
prolonged duty in a cutter or larger boat armed with 3-pdr. Q.F. or .303-inch machine guns. It contains:-
204 rounds of pistol ammunition in a special pouch with a strap.

1 key for metal-lined cases.
1-1b. slow match.
2 portfires.
2 1-lb. signal rockets.
2 Short lights.

77
236. A Gig's Magazine is supplied for boats armed with rifles only. It contains:-
96 rounds of pistol ammunition in a pouch with strap.
1 signal rocket.
1 portfire.
1 short light.
1-lb. slow match.
237. Power-worked boats are at all times to carry:-
18 1-inch signal cartridges, 6 of each colour.

1 pistol, signal, 1-inch.
6 short lights.
LINE-THROWING GUNS.
238. All ships are supplied with one or more of these. Older ships are supplied with Coston guns, but
these are being replaced by rifles, M.L.E. .303-inch, (long). Both types of gun are supplied with special
projectiles and blank cartridges. The cartridge for use with the Coston gun has a diameter of nearly .5
inches, that for the M.L.E. .303-inch rifle is blacked all over.
The guns are fired as follows:-
(i) Attach the line to the projectile and coil it down, free for running, in the box provided or in
a Clarkson's case.
(ii) Load the projectile into the muzzle of the gun and load the blank cartridge provided into
the breech.
(iii) See the range clear, and line clear outside the left arm and berthing rail.
(iv) Fire the gun with an elevation of about 20° and slightly to windward. The butt of the
Coston gun should be rested on the deck or against a stanchion. The rifle may be fired from
the shoulder, but the face should be kept clear and the trigger pulled with the tip of the finger,
keeping the part of the hand between the first finger and the thumb well clear of the bolt.
(v) The cartridge cases for Coston guns occasionally split on firing. Should this occur, any

piece of brass remaining in the chamber should be removed before re-loading.
LINE-CARRYING ROCKETS.
239. The Schermuly line-carrying rocket is supplied for carrying the end of a line through the air. It
consists of a steel tube, filled with rocket composition, to the outside of which a short steel rod, or
outrigger with a thin wire pennant, is attached; to this is secured the end of the line.
The rocket is to be fired as follows:-
(i) Coil down the line free for running in the box provided or in a Clarkson's case, having
secured the standing end.
(ii) Attach the free end of the line to the rocket.
(iii) Load the rocket into the muzzle of the pistol and the cartridge into the breech.
(iv) See the range clear and the line clear outside the left arm.
78
(v) Hold the pistol at an elevation of about 20 degrees, and fire it pointing slightly to
windward as necessary.
MAGAZINES AND SHELL ROOMS.
240. Cartridges for guns are kept in magazines. Projectiles are stowed in bays or sliding shell stowages, in
shell rooms. Fixed ammunition is stowed in magazines. When required, the cartridges are passed from the
magazine to the handing room outside, and thence to the guns. Handing rooms are not found in sloops or
destroyers. In some ships shell-handing rooms are also fitted.
241. Magazines of big ships, i.e., battleships, battle-cruisers, cruisers, aircraft carriers, and depot ships,
are built as water-tight compartments and protected from shell fire by armour. They are fitted with
ventilation arrangements; magazines sited in hot positions (e.g., near machinery spaces) and also those in
certain ships in which bare cordite charges are handled have, in addition, cooling arrangements
incorporated in the ventilation system. By adjusting the valves in the ventilation system the fan can supply
fresh air direct to the magazine or alternatively recirculate the air on a closed circuit, either through or by-
passing the cooler, as desired. Magazines with cooling arrangements are fitted with long-distance
thermometers, or with thermometers in tubes, called temperature tubes, which project into the magazine,
so that the temperature can be taken without entering the magazine. When cooling arrangements are fitted

the temperatures are taken every watch. The temperatures of all magazines are taken daily and entered
into the magazine log.
The principal magazines of big ships are protected from flash, such as might occur if a cartridge became
ignited on the way to or at the gun, by flash-tight doors and scuttles, through which the cartridge must
pass on its way to the gun. Smaller magazines in big ships and magazines of small ships are not fitted
with any special flash-tight arrangements. This is to save weight and because Q.F. cartridges, which are
better protected against flash than B.L. cartridges, are usually stowed in these magazines.
Magazines of small ships are either unprotected or protected by light armour only. In some cases the
magazine and shell room together make a water-tight compartment, the bulkhead between magazine and
shell room being flash-tight only.
Magazines, handing rooms, and shell rooms are inspected every 24 hours and after work, drill, or firing.
242. Points to receive special attention at inspections are:-
(i) Doors, hatches, and man-holes efficient and properly secured.

(ii) Compartments properly stowed, battens and stanchions in place.
(iii) Lids of cases and boxes on and properly secured.
(iv) Deck clean and free from dust.
(v) No cleaning gear, rags, inflammable material or other unauthorised articles in the
compartment.
(vi) Oil from glands efficiently caught.
(vii) Flooding and spraying arrangements correct and free from leaks.
(viii) Lighting switches efficient and properly covered.
(ix). Clarkson's cases clean, empty and dry.
(x) Temperatures; these are also noted.
79

Much of the responsibility for the state of the magazines, on which the safety of the ship depends, rests on
the men forming their crews.
243. In the event of fire, the magazines and shell rooms of big ships can be flooded through pipes running
directly from the ship's side. In addition, the cordite cases in the main magazines can be sprayed with salt
water from the ships fire main.
The valves operating the flooding gear can be worked from at least two positions, one close to the
magazine and the other in a flooding cabinet or locker some distance away. The spraying gear can be
operated from inside the magazine, from outside the magazine, and from the cabinet or locker.
Flooding arrangements are to be tested weekly, except when the valves are too numerous to be worked
conveniently once a week. In this case they are divided into groups, each group being worked in rotation
so that every valve is tested during the course of each month.
Valves on the spraying system are to be worked weekly or, by groups, at least once a month. The
perforated pipes are to be blown through every two years. A thorough test of the system by the admission
of water is to take place whenever the magazine is cleared.
The above systems are quite separate from the drenching system which in the case of 15 inch or 14 inch
turrets works off the hydraulic pressure main.
Magazines of "small" ships have no cooling plant, and usually no spraying arrangements. Water for
flooding is supplied by the fire main system.
244. To prevent unauthorised persons from entering the magazines and shellrooms, all doors and hatches
which lead to these compartments are kept locked. The keys for these locks are called " Magazine Keys,"
and are grouped 1, 2 and 3, according to their importance. They are kept on a special key board, under the
charge of a sentry, and only officers and certain specified ratings are allowed to draw them.
The times when magazine keys are drawn from and returned to the magazine keyboard are recorded,
against signature, in the magazine log. In the log are also recorded magazine temperatures and results of
the various inspection rounds. The sentry signs the log at the end of each watch to attest the accuracy of
the entries relative to the issue and return of the keys during his watch.
Before a party goes into a magazine, all knives, matches, and anything which may cause sparks or fire
must be left outside. To obviate any possibility of sparks being caused by the sole of a boot striking the
deck, special rubber or felt-soled shoes are always to be worn in B.L. magazines. The lights are switched
on by special switches outside the magazine, and a light shows at the magazine keyboard when these
switches are all off. The sentry is thus able to check that all the lights have been switched off when the
keys are returned. Should the main lighting fail, portable electric hand lamps are used.

245. The cases in the magazine are stowed in bays, care being taken that, when possible, the lid of each
case is accessible without having to remove stowage battens. Lids of cases are removed by hand or by
gunmetal keys, but must not be taken off until the contents are actually required. In modern warships with
Q.F. ammunition the cartridges are removed from the transport cases and stowed in bottle-rack stowages
built into the magazine. The cartridges are kept in place by a spring-loaded clip which takes over the edge
of the base of the cartridge. A small key is supplied to lift the clip against the pressure of the spring, thus
enabling the cartridge to be removed from the rack.
80
Shell rooms of big ships are fitted with flooding, but not spraying, arrangements. They are kept locked
with their keys on the magazine keyboard. They are inspected daily.
AMMUNITIONING SHIP.
246. The regulations regarding this are laid down in N.M. and E.R. The more important of them are
summarised below.
Before commencing to embark ammunition, all stowages are to be thoroughly cleaned; ventilation,
flooding and spraying arrangements tested, and compartments dried out.
No smoking material is to be taken into the hold of the ammunition ship or lighter. Smoking is prohibited
while work is going on. When work is not going on, smoking may be permitted in places set apart and
well removed from the explosives; the latter are to be guarded by sentries.
Explosives or cases and boxes containing explosives are to be hoisted and lowered with care. Shot mats
are to be used at the dumping positions. Rough usage is liable to loosen shell caps, injure driving bands,
impair the flash-tight, and water-tight properties of cases, and render tubes dangerous or inefficient.
The receipt or discharge of ammunition should never be treated as an evolution, and care should be taken
not to bump cases on the deck. Cylindrical cases should not be rolled. Should a box or case catch or jam
in any way such that damage may be caused, it should be set aside and carefully examined. If any damage
or suggestion of damage be found the package should be returned to an Armament Depot for examination.
247. Embarking or disembarking ammunition is not to be carried out in very wet weather if it can be
avoided. If it cannot be avoided, protection from the wet is to be provided. Wet cases and shell are to be
wiped thoroughly dry before being stowed.
W/T transmission is prohibited when embarking or disembarking ammunition.
In the event of a thunderstorm, the operation of embarking or disembarking ammunition is to be

suspended from the time the first thunderclap is heard until the storm has ceased. During this period,

whips must be removed at least 6 feet from any explosive.
248. None other than the authorised appliances are to be used for lifting and transporting explosives, and
the proper lifting handles and beckets fitted to the cases and boxes are to be used. Where two or more
beckets are fitted, two of these are always to be used. In many ships special whips for hoisting
ammunition are provided, and are to be used; they are not to be used for any purpose other than
ammunitioning. Ammunition whips are to have the standing part of the wire secured to the drum of the
winch.
Special capstan-headed grabs are supplied for hoisting shell 8 inch and above. Care must be taken that the
grab is screwed properly down before lifting and that, when removing it, it is pulled clear of the shell
before "Hoist" is ordered.
249. All whips, tackles and other appliances used for embarking or disembarking ammunition are to be
examined before starting work, and occasionally afterwards, to ensure that they are sound.
Double or multi-legged, slings are not to be used for shell grabs owing to the possibility of damage to, or
the opening up of, the palms of the grabs. This may be caused by their clashing together when being
hoisted. An exception to this
81
is allowed for 8-in. projectiles; for these, a steel spreader, to which two grabs are shackled directly, may
be used for hoisting two shells simultaneously.
250-254.
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82
CHAPTER VII.
LOW ANGLE FIRING.
SECTION 1. THE DIRECTOR SYSTEM.
255. Chapter I gave a general description of three main types of ships. This chapter deals, in more detail,
with the methods employed in directing the guns on to the target and firing the guns.
The guns are directed and fired from a DIRECTOR SIGHT (see Diagram 9a), mounted in the
DIRECTOR CONTROL TOWER which is situated in the after end of the bridge. This contains the
Director Sight in the fore part, the Rangefinder is underneath the Director Sight, and the Control Team is
in the rear (see Diagram 9). The position of the rangefinder is shown in Diagram 20.
REASONS FOR A DIRECTOR SYSTEM.
256. Before describing a Director Sight in detail it is useful to consider why this method of firing is used.
The disadvantages of laying, training and firing the gun from the gun itself may be briefly summarised as
follows:-
(i) It is difficult to point out a target to several gunlayers simultaneously.
(ii) The guns, being comparatively low down near the water-line, do not get a very good view
of distant targets.
(iii) Being low down near the water-line the telescopes of the gun-sights are liable to be
clouded by spray.
(iv) Each gunlayer has his own individual error, and though these errors may be small, they
accumulate and cause the shots of a salvo to fall some considerable distance apart from each
other.
(v) It is most unlikely that all the gunlayers in the ship will fire at the same instant; as a result
there may be an appreciable period during which one or more guns will be firing and making
noise and smoke.
(vi) As all the guns are more or less on the same level, the smoke from some guns is bound to
cause interference in the laying of other guns.
(vii) Spotting the fall of shot from a number of guns fired one after the other is extremely
difficult.

257. To overcome these disadvantages, the director system is used. In this system one sight only is aimed
at the target and arrangements are made so that when the telescope of this sight is on the target, all the
guns arc at the correct angles of elevation and training to hit the target. Arrangements are also made so
that the man looking through this one director telescope can fire all the guns at the same instant when his
telescope is aimed at the enemy.
258. The reasons for having a director system are as follows:-
(i) The target has to be indicated to one man only. This is a much easier and quicker task than
getting many gunlayers on the target.
(ii) As the sight need not be at the guns it can be placed high up on the bridge, where its user
can obtain a far better view of distant objects.
(iii) Being high up the director telescopes are clear of spray.
83
(iv) The errors of the individual layers do not prevail to the same extent; the error of the layer
of the one sight will affect all guns alike so that the shells will all fall close together; but such
a layer, being specially picked, can be trained to a higher degree of skill. This makes the
observation and control of fire easier and increases the hitting power of a broadside.
(v) As all guns are fired at the same instant, the shots of a salvo will all fall at the same time;
this makes observation of the fall of shot easier for the control officer. Also, the period of
noise and disturbance is over quickly and longer periods of quiet are available for rangetaking
and control orders, etc.
(vi) The sight can be placed so high that little or no interference is caused by smoke from the
guns.
(vii) Blind fire can be carried out
ALLOWANCES TO BE MADE IN DIRECTOR FIRING FOR ELEVATION AND FOR

TRAINING.
259. In a system of firing where the sight, situated high up in the ship, has to transmit electrically both
elevation and training, through a FIRE CONTROL TABLE, to guns which are lower down and also
widely separated along the length of the ship, it is fairly obvious that certain allowances must be made if
all the shells from a broadside fired together are to fall in one place.
These allowances may be summarised as follows:-
For Elevation Dip.

Differences in muzzle velocity of each gun.

Tilt.
Displacement.
For Training Convergence.
Drift.
For Elevation.
Dip. (Diagram 4.)
260. Dip is the correction to elevation necessary because the Director Sight is mounted considerably
higher than the mean level of the guns. It is also an allowance that is sometimes made at individual guns,
which are some distance higher or lower than the mean level of the guns. This mean level is known as the
STANDARD LEVEL.
Diagram 4 is an illustration which shows the angle of dip from the Director to the standard level, which
has to be allowed for. In this picture the guns are
84
not elevated for the range of the target, and the ship is shown upright in order to make the diagram more
simple.
It will be noticed that the line of sight from the Director to the target dips downwards compared with the
line of sight from the gun. If no allowance was made for the angle of dip, the guns would be depressed by
that amount and consequently, when range was applied and all the guns were elevated, they would be
below the correct elevation, by an amount equal to this angle.
261. The size of the angle depends upon the range. At short ranges it is large, and becomes smaller as the
range increases. It also depends upon the height of the Director above the Standard Level.

In all modern Fire Control Systems this allowance is made in the FIRE CONTROL TABLE, and the
corrected elevation is sent electrically to the guns.
When it is necessary to correct a single gun or turret, because of its distance above or below the Standard
Level, this allowance is made mechanically in the ELEVATION RECEIVER at that particular gun. This
moves the mechanical pointer at the receiver, so that the gunlayer, in re-aligning his mechanical pointer
with the electrical pointer, moves the gun through the required angle.
Differences in Muzzle Velocity and Temperature of the

Charge at each Gun. (Diagram 5.)
262. Every time a gun is fired the hot gases generated by

the cordite charge and the rapid movement of the shell
down the bore, wear away the surface of the gun tube. This
wear is slight but after a large number of shells have been
fired it has an appreciable effect on the velocity with which
the shells leave the muzzle. It can, however, be measured
and the loss of muzzle velocity can be calculated.
On each Elevation Receiver is a mechanism which can be

set for the calculated muzzle velocity and also for the
temperature of the charge (see Diagram 5). This also has to
be taken into account, because the hotter the cordite, the
greater the muzzle velocity, and it may be that various
magazines in the ship are at different temperatures.
263. In Diagram 5 will be seen the arrangements for

setting the muzzle velocity and temperature. The
instructions for setting the mechanism are given
85

inside the cover-plate and the settings should always be checked by the gunlayer, on closing up at the gun.
The effect of moving the corrector is to move the mechanical pointer in the receiver, which, when re-
aligned with the electrical pointer, will give the corrected elevation to the gun. Range also affects the
mechanism because the correction to elevation necessary for a given loss of muzzle velocity or
temperature varies with the range.
Tilt. (Diagram 6.)
264. The guns and' director all rest and train round on roller paths fixed to the ship. When the ship is built
the planes of these roller paths are fixed as nearly
86

as-possible parallel with one another, so that if a spirit level were placed on each in turn, both fore-and-aft
and athwartships, the bubble ought to be central in each case. Unfortunately slight differences among the
roller paths are always bound to occur, causing each roller path to be tilted slightly, like a plate which has
something underneath one side. Unless this error of tilt is allowed for, the guns will not have the same
elevation above the deck. A gun, mounted on a roller path, which is tilted up away from the enemy would
shoot over and vice versa.
The amount and direction in which each roller path is tilted is measured and calculated when a tilt test is
carried out in dock. The result of this test is applied to a tilt corrector.
265. A tilt corrector is fitted at each director and in the Elevation Receiver of each gun (see Diagram 6). It
consists of a worm-wheel with bearing ring which is driven in training at the same speed as the gun or
director. The bearing ring is graduated from 0° to 180° red and green and reads, against a fixed index, the
bearing of the gun or director. Frictionally connected to the inside of the ring is a slotted plate normally
secured by two clamping screws "A." An arrow engraved on the plate is set to the bearing at which tilt is
highest. A sliding block is fitted in the slot and can be clamped by means of a butterfly nut so that the
arrow on the block reads the tilt in minutes against the scale on the plate. Formed on the rear side of the
sliding block is a stud which is in the centre of the plate when the tilt is set to zero minutes. As the bearing
ring and plate rotate with the stud in this position no cranking movement can take place and hence no
movement for tilt is imparted to the receiver pointer, but when the sliding block is set to a number of
minutes the stud will be moved to the right, off centre of the plate, so giving a cranking movement as the
bearing ring and plate rotate. This cranking movement is imparted to the mechanical pointer of the
receiver and when the gunlayer re-aligns his pointers the necessary correction to elevation is given to the
gun on its new bearing.
The amount and direction of the tilt are set on the corrector by the ordnance artificer and must not be
altered. The gunlayer, however, must ensure when lining up, and subsequently, that the bearing ring reads
against the index the same bearing as that to which the mounting is trained.
Displacement. (Diagram 7.)
266. When firing on the beam all the guns are approximately the same distance from the enemy but when
firing fine on the bow, all guns will be at a different distance from the enemy and will therefore require
slightly different elevations. An elevation correction is therefore made to each gun corresponding to its
distance from a selected point in the ship. The distance of each gun from this point is called its
displacement. The small difference in elevation required by each gun depends on its displacement and
also the bearing of the enemy. The allowance is made by including the necessary correction on the tilt
corrector.
We now have two allowances set on the tilt corrector and to identify what settings we require, we call
them either testing tilt or firing tilt. Testing tilt only allows for tilt and is used when carrying out a director
test. Firing tilt combines tilt and displacement and is always used for firings.
For Training.
Convergence. (Diagram 8.)

267. When the director is trained on to the target, the bearing or angle from the fore-and-aft line of the
director sight, is shown on the electrical pointer in the training receiver. If all guns follow and get their
black pointers in line, they will be trained on the same bearing or angle from the fore-and-aft line and will
therefore shoot on parallel lines (see Diagram 8). This means that when firing
87
on the beam, the shell will fall the same distance apart as the guns are in the firing ship and the lateral
spread will be very large. To overcome this, a correction must be applied to each gun to make it converge
on to the same point as the director.
The amount of convergence depends on the distance of the gun from the director, the bearing of the
enemy and the range of the enemy. The larger the distance between the gun and the director and the
shorter the range, the greater will be the correction required for convergence. If all the guns and director
are mounted on the fore-and-aft line the convergence will be greatest on the beam and zero on the fore-
and-aft line.
268. In modern Fire Control Systems this correction is made in the FIRE CONTROL TABLE and the
corrected training is sent electrically to the guns.
In destroyers the correction is applied automatically at the training receivers; the range, which affects the
amount of convergence, being transmitted electrically to the receivers from the Admiralty Fire Control
Clock.

Drift.
269. Owing to the right-handed spin given to the shell by the rifling of the gun, the shell wanders to the
right as it flies through the air. This wander has to be
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89

allowed for if the shell is going to hit the enemy, but the amount of wander can be measured during
experimental firings for all guns and types of shell, and a mechanism can be constructed to allow for it.
The amount of wander due to DRIFT depends, of course, upon the range, which is related to the time that
the shell is flying through the air.
The allowance for drift is not confined to the Director System of firing, because all shells are affected,
whether they are fired locally at the gun or by the Director.
In Director Firing the allowance is made in the Admiralty Fire Control Table and the corrected training is
sent to the guns electrically.
Summary of Corrections When Firing by Director.
270.
(a) Corrections to Elevation.
DIP Allowed for in the Admiralty Fire Control

Table.
DIFFERENCES IN MUZZLE VELOCITY AND Allowed for by Corrector Mechanism at
CHARGE TEMPERATURE AT EACH GUN. each ELEVATION RECEIVER.
TILT Allowed for by Corrector Mechanism at
each ELEVATION RECEIVER.
DISPLACEMENT Included in the TILT Correction.
(b) Corrections to Training.
CONVERGENCE Allowed for in the Admiralty Fire Control Table or at TRAINING RECEIVERS in
Destroyers and some other ships.
DRIFT Allowed for in the Admiralty Fire Control Table.
Provided that efficient lubrication is religiously carried out (para 130)

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91

THE DIRECTOR SIGHT. Diagrams 9 and 9a.
271. Having considered the various reasons for using the Director System and the allowances to be made
when firing by DIRECTOR, let us consider the sight itself.
Diagram 9a is an illustration of a typical Director Sight. As we have already seen, this sight is situated in
the foremost part of the DIRECTOR CONTROL TOWER and has as its crew a DIRECTOR LAYER and
a DIRECTOR TRAINER.
It will be noticed that both the Director Layer and Trainer have a telescope and a pair of binoculars
through which to look. The telescopes are STABILISED; that is to say a prism inside them is kept upright
by a fast driven Gyro, with the result that the Director Layer and Trainer can always see the target through
the telescope, even when the ship is rolling. The telescopes are called the STABILISED TELESCOPES
and are always used, as long as the Gyro is operating correctly. The BINOCULARS are fixed to the
mounting of the Director Sight and therefore move with it. These are called UNSTABILISED.
272. The Gyro, which is housed in between the two stabilised telescopes, besides keeping the prisms
upright in the telescopes, has an attachment, which will fire the guns automatically at the correct moment
if the TRIGGER, which is beside the DIRECTOR LAYER, is kept pressed. This trigger has two positions
and can be turned so that the guns can either be fired by the Gyro, called GYRO FIRING or by the
Director Layer looking through his unstabilised binoculars and firing when he is on the target, in which
case it is called DIRECTOR FIRING. The firing can be done either by pressing the trigger itself or by
pressing a foot pedal. The trigger is not shown in Diagram 9a but can be seen in Diagram 9.
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The "P" Sight.
273. The difference which at once distinguishes the power director or type "P" sight from any other gyro-
stabilised sight previously mentioned, is that whereas in the latter, the gyro stabilises a part of the optical
system only, in the "P" sight, a powerful oil motor controlled by the gyro stabilises the whole elevating
part of the sight, including the brackets which hold the binoculars.
By this means the gyro itself is freed from all the external influences which affect it when it stabilises a
prism, as in the previous sights.
This sight can also be used against an aircraft target. The Layer and Trainer each have one pair of
binoculars which have greatly improved optical qualities for night-use instead of a stabilised telescope
and a pair of unstabilised binoculars as in previous sights.
The stabilisation of the sight can also be relayed to outside instruments in the Director Control Tower,
such as the Control Officer's binoculars and the inclinometer, so that they too are kept on the target when
the ship is rolling.
The stabilised line of sight can be elevated or depressed relative to the horizon by the SIGHT
ELEVATION ADJUSTMENT. This is used for getting on to the target or for forecasting when necessary.
274. The FIRING SWITCH, which closes the firing circuits and so fires the guns, is mechanically
operated at the correct instant when the sight is to STABILISED and GYRO firing is used. It is operated
by the Director Layer when DIRECTOR firing is used. The switch is put either to GYRO or DIRECTOR
by the Director Layer.
The sight is put to STABILISED or DIRECTOR by the Layer.
By the side of the Director Layer is a handwheel which the Director Layer uses to counteract the roll of
the ship. This movement is called DIRECTOR ELEVATION and the handwheel, the DIRECTOR
ELEVATION HANDWHEEL. The Director Trainer also has a handwheel, which trains the Director
Control Tower and also the Director Sight, the movement being called DIRECTOR TRAINING.
275. When these handwheels are turned so as to get on and keep on the target, these movements are
transmitted electrically to the ADMIRALTY FIRE CONTROL TABLE and through this instrument, to
the guns, where they move electrical pointers at the Elevation and Training Receivers.
At the Director Sight are also two small dials, which are called REPEAT RECEIVERS. They show the
Director Layer and Trainer that the correct amount of Director Elevation and Director Training are being
transmitted. This can readily be seen by noting whether the mechanical pointers in the Repeat Receivers,
which are driven by pinions from the handwheels, are in line with the electrical pointers, which show the
movement being transmitted. The two pointers in each Receiver should move together.
THE GUN RECEIVERS.
The Elevation Receiver. Diagram 10, Fig. I.

276. In Diagram 10, Fig. I is a picture of a Destroyer's Elevation Receiver Type EM, Mark I. This
Receiver is situated at the left hand side of the gun, facing the Gunlayer. It will be noticed that there are
two dials in the Receiver; a large central dial and a smaller dial to the top left. The larger dial is the
accurate or fine dial, which is used for following the movements that are sent down to the guns
electrically; the Gunlayer having first aligned the pointers in the smaller dial. The large dial is graduated
in degrees and minutes and one complete
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94
revolution equals 5 degrees of elevation; the Mark III Receiver of this type provides that one revolution
equals 10 degrees, each small graduation being three minutes.
The smaller or coarse dial is for degrees of elevation. There are two pointers in each dial. The red pointers
are known as "Electrical Pointers" and are the pointers that are moved both by the Director Layer hunting
the roll and by the Transmitting Station applying changes in the range, which directly affect the elevation
of the gun. The movements therefore, of these red pointers indicate to the Gunlayer the elevation at which
his gun should be. On the dials are also two white pointers called the "Mechanical Pointers"; that is to say
they are driven mechanically from the elevating arc of the gun. The Gunlayer, in following the electrical
pointers with the mechanical pointers by means of his handwheel has elevated the gun to the correct angle
when both pairs of pointers are brought in line.
277. Behind a hinged cover-plate at the Elevation Receiver will be seen the Muzzle Velocity and

Temperature Corrector (see para. 262 and Diagram 5) to allow for differences in muzzle velocity and the
temperatures of the charge. At the lower left hand corner is a screwed cover-plate under which is found
the Tilt Corrector; this is adjusted to allow for Tilt and Displacement (see paras. 264 to 266 and
Diagrams 6 and 7). Just above this is another cover-plate enclosing the range-setting handle for the dip
correction, the scale being read through a small circular window. Normally the range for dip correction is
transmitted to the receivers electrically from the Transmitting Station.
The effect of setting these corrections is to move the mechanical pointer in the Receiver; and the
Gunlayer, seeing the pointer move, immediately brings it back until the white mechanical pointer is again
in line with the red electrical pointer. By doing this he alters the elevation of the gun slightly and so
applies the necessary correction to elevation. During an action, the electrical pointers are moving the
whole time between salvos and the Gunlayers are following this movement very carefully with their
mechanical pointers.
278. This type of receiver is used with "Magslip" transmission which requires no "lining up". (see para.
290.)
On other types of receiver there is a " LINING UP " knob.
Cards showing the "LINING UP" settings are prepared and placed at the gun position in all ships not
fitted with " Magslip " transmission.
Whenever the order "Line Up" is received at the guns, the Gunlayers align their electrical pointers, by
means of the lining up knob, to the lining up setting shown on the card.
"Lining up" is done with no current in the electrical circuits and when all positions have reported "Lined
up", the circuits are closed and all receiver electrical pointers are in their correct positions.
The Gunlayer should note that the pointers do not jump when the circuits are closed and that the correct
bearing of his gun is showing on the Tilt Corrector.
"Lining Up" can also be carried out with current "On". This, however, would be a slow and laborious
procedure, especially if the pointers had to be moved through a large angle.
The Training Receiver. Diagram 10, Fig. II.
279. In Diagram 10, Fig. II, is a picture of a Destroyer's Training Receiver Type "D," Mark IV. In this
Receiver there is only one dial, engraved so that the inner portion is showing 20 degrees and the outer
portion 360 degrees for one revolution. It is the inner scale, therefore, which is the accurate one, and the
Gun Trainer accordingly aligns the outer pointers first and then follows up the inner pointer carefully. As
in the Elevation Receiver, the electrical pointers are red and are moved by the Director Trainer and also
by the Transmitting Station
95

sending out the necessary "Aim off" to the guns. The mechanical pointers are white and are driven off the
Training Rack at each gun, thus showing the actual training of the gun. By following the red electrical
pointers with the white mechanical pointers the Gun Trainer points the gun in the correct direction.
280. In the Receiver there is also a range scale. The range is sent electrically to the Receiver from the
Transmitting Station, but can be set by hand, if the transmission breaks down, by means of the small
range-setting handwheel. The setting of this range is required for convergence (see paras. 267 and 268)
and has the effect of moving the mechanical pointer. The Trainer, seeing the pointers separate, brings the
mechanical pointer back in line with the electrical by means of his training handwheel and so gives the
necessary correction to the gun.
There is also a "LINING UP" knob in the Receiver for initially lining up the red electrical pointers with
the red crosses engraved on the face of the dial at zero. This is for the same reason as in the Elevation
Receiver when "Magslip" transmission is not used.
These two Receivers have been taken as typical for all classes of ships. In each class of ship there are, of
course, slight variations but the reader should have no difficulty in recognising these differences, bearing
in mind the essential requirements of the Receivers themselves.
FIRING ARRANGEMENTS. Diagram 11.
281. The guns are normally fired from the DIRECTOR, but it is necessary to provide means whereby the
Gunlayer may fire them should the electric circuits be broken by damage.
As will be seen from the previous description of a typical Director Sight, the Director Layer has either a
trigger or a foot pedal which he presses to fire the guns electrically. This trigger can be put to either
GYRO or DIRECTOR, according to the method of firing that is going to be used. When the trigger is
pressed the circuit for firing the guns is completed up to the gun. At the gun is a switch, called the
INTERCEPTOR, which, when closed, brings the gun to the " Ready " position for firing. Thus, when both
the Interceptor and trigger are closed, the guns will fire.
282. The firing circuits are energised from a motor generator and are led from the Director to the
Transmitting Station, through a change over switch, which decides whether the foremost or after Director
is to fire, and from the switch along either side of the ship to the guns, so that, should one circuit get
damaged, the other can still be used. When the trigger is pressed, both circuits are energised up to a
change over switch at the gun, marked PORT and STARBOARD. From this switch a single circuit goes to
the INTERCEPTOR and from there to the electric tube which fires the gun. Thus, with the change-over
switch at the gun to PORT, the circuits on both sides of the ship are energised up to the switch and from
there the Port circuit fires the gun, via the Interceptor. Should the gun not fire with the remainder of the
broadside, owing to Port firing circuit being damaged, the switch is put to STARBOARD and the gun may
then fire.
283. Should all the guns in the broadside not fire when the trigger is pressed, it means that both the port
and starboard firing circuits are damaged, because half the guns have their switches to PORT and half to
STARBOARD. When this happens, it means that each Gunlayer must now fire. Alongside the Gunlayer is
another switch marked DIRECTOR and LOCAL. Normally this switch is to DIRECTOR but when it is put
to LOCAL the Gunlayer's trigger is brought into operation and when this is pressed it completes a circuit

from the Gunlayer's trigger, through the INTERCEPTOR to the electric tube. This circuit is energised
either from the main generator or from local batteries in the turret.
96
The above description gives typical arrangements for cruiser and larger ships. In destroyers there is only
one firing circuit, which is led down to starboard side of the ship from the Director. There are also means
by which the guns can be fired by percussion should all electrical power fail.
97

ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION AND LINING UP.
284. So far we have seen that certain movements are sent down from the Director Control Tower to the
Transmitting Station and from the Transmitting Station to the guns, electrically. This is a broad term for
various types of electrical transmission, the efficiency of which has improved steadily as later types of
ships have been built and as the accuracy of the weapons and the controlling instruments has increased.
The three main types of electrical transmission to be discussed here are:-
(i) Step by step.

(ii) Synchronous.
(iii) Magslip.
Each type of transmission is dealt with separately with a few words on the advantages and disadvantages
of each and how each type is lined up.
Step by Step. Diagrams 12 and 13.
285. This is the original transmission system. It is simple and cheap to make, and is used in a variety of
circuits. It has been largely superseded, but is still to be found. Diagram 12 shows a step by step counter-
drum receiver. Diagram 13, Fig. I gives a diagrammatic representation of the principle on which the
system works.
The receiver shown in Diagram 12 is, within limits, a very reliable instrument owing to its simplicity.
Provided the system, of which such a receiver forms a part, is properly lined up in the beginning, and
nothing goes wrong elsewhere in the circuits, there can be no reasonable doubt about the information it
gives.

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99

The principal disadvantages were:-

(i) If the transmitter moved too fast the receivers would lag behind and get out of step.
(ii) The number of receivers that could be served efficiently by one transmitter was limited.
(iii) There could be no change over from one transmitter to another (e.g., from one Director to
another) unless both transmitters were in line, each with the other.
(iv) Certain faults which might develop in one receiver might throw the whole system out of
gear by mutual interference.
Lining Up.
286. From the above it will be seen that lining up, that is to say making the Receiver and Transmitter
show the same reading, is very important.
If no lining-up knob is fitted, the instruments are run from one limit to the other and back again and then
brought to a pre-arranged position, the power being kept on the whole time.
If a lining-up knob is fitted the Receivers are brought to the lining-up setting with power off. The circuits
are then closed. When the circuits are closed it is important to watch the Receivers very carefully to see
that they do not jump a step. If they do, either because they have been lined up badly or owing to an
electrical fault, one should re-align them if one can. If not, the amount they have jumped should be
reported.
Synchronous. Diagram 13, Fig. II.
287. This system was adopted in 1922 for use in Director Systems, to replace Step by Step in certain
systems, and is found in "Nelson" class and earlier battleships when modernised and 8-in. and early 6-in.
cruisers of new construction.
In this system a HUNTER controls the relay switch supplying power to an ELECTRIC MOTOR, which
has enough mechanical power to drive a number of "M" Type Motor transmitters to outlying positions,
which require a stronger drive than could be given by a simple "M" Type transmitter. The system is
energised electrically from a direct current supply.
The Hunter is turned one way or the other by the mechanical input, for instance, the Director Trainer's
handwheel. This closes an electrical contact, which sends current to a relay and thence to the ELECTRIC
MOTOR. The motor then runs in the direction determined by the way the training handwheel is turned.
This motor drives the "M" Type transmitters and so away to the outlying positions, and at the same time,
a separate "M" Type transmitter imparts a similar movement through a circuit back to the Hunter, where a
motor brings it back to the central position, opening the electrical contact. The electrical recentring drive
also goes to the other Director.
288. Between the Electric Motor and the " NI " Type transmitters is a Magnetic Clutch and a Magnetic
Brake. The former unclutches the motor from the shaft, as soon as the Hunter is recentred to prevent any "

over run " of the Electric Motor being transmitted. The Magnetic Brake prevents any " over run " of the
shaft, stopping it exactly at a " step " of the recentring "M" Type transmitter. When the Hunter is first
displaced, the current allowed to flow to the Electric Motor also puts in the magnetic clutch and takes off
the magnetic brake. The relay, motor, clutch, brake and transmitters are all contained in the Synchronous
Unit."
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101
ADVANTAGES:
(i) The " input " drive can be moved very fast without much fear of the system getting out of
step.
(ii) It is capable of operating a large number of transmitters from a safe position under armour.
Only the Hunter is aloft. The " Synchronous Unit " is below decks, usually on the
Transmitting Station bulkhead.
(iii) It does not need lining up when changing over from one position to another.
(iv) If electric current fails, it will get into step again as soon as current is restored provided
the transmitters are not being moved.

DISADVANTAGES:
(i) It is not quite so accurate as step by step.
(ii) Following at high speeds is not quite so smooth as with step by step.
(iii) It is possible to move the Input drive faster than the Output will operate, and there is a
danger of the guns being fired, before the transmission has been completed. This can be
obviated by close attention to good drill.
(iv) It is more expensive and complicated than Step by Step.
Lining Up.
289. Lining up is always done with the power off. Pointers are lined-up by lining-up knobs-as in
Elevation and Training Receivers (see paras. 278 and 280). The Hunter (see Diagram 14) must also be
lined up by its own lining-up knob until the contact arms are dead central otherwise current will flow in
the relays as soon as the main switches are closed. Normally the hunter is lined up in the "stable gate"
with the director bearing directly ahead 000°. The " unstable gate " is a mechanical feature of the hunter
which permits lining up to be made 180° out of phase, such as may take place in the after director when it
bears 180°, i.e., directly astern. It is preferable that the after director be trained to 000° during lining up
procedure when its hunter should be centred with a broad arrow on a disc in the hunter pointing to the
letter "B" on the outer casing. It would then be lined up in the "stable gate." If, however, the after director
is bearing 180° during the lining up procedure, the hunter should be centred with the broad arrow pointing
to the letter "A." The hunter would then be lined up in the "unstable gate."
Magslip.
290. This form of electrical transmission is the latest and best now in existence. It came into service in
1938, and is found in all modern cruisers and larger ships.
There are two types of Magslip Transmissions, Indicator Magslip and Power Magslip.
(i) Indicator Magslip. Diagram 15, Fig. I.
This system consists of a pair of Magslip Transmitters wired to a pair of similar Receivers operated by
alternating current. The Receivers follow to within one degree, any movement of their respective
transmitters. One transmitter sends a "coarse" movement, which covers the whole arc of movement of the
directing position, while the other is geared to send a fine movement, which is accurate to within one
minute of arc. This is necessary because an accuracy of one degree is not good enough for Naval
Gunnery.
102

ADVANTAGES:
(i) Magslip needs no lining up whatsoever.

(ii) It moves smoothly and not in steps.
(iii) It cannot get out of step, however fast the transmitters move, even if power fails.
DISADVANTAGE:
The mechanism is delicate and Receivers cannot normally be repaired on board.
Lining Up.
Not required. Just close the circuits.
(ii) Power Magslip. Diagram 15, Fig. II.
291. Indicator Magslip has no appreciable mechanical power in its Receivers beyond that required to
drive the pointer. The pointers are made of very delicately balanced aluminium strips. Power Magslip is
the modern system, which has the necessary power to drive into Fire Control Instruments.
It consists of a distant Magslip Transmitter, a Magslip Hunter and a local transmitter or Re-setter, all
connected by alternating current.
The Hunter, which is really a differential, follows exactly the movements of the Distant and Local
Transmitters and is connected to the Sensitive Control Valve of an oil or air motor. When both the
movements are equal, the movement from the Hunter is NIL.

The sequence of events is that the Input Mechanical Drive (for instance the movement of the Director
Trainer's Handwheel), moves the Distant Transmitter. The Hunter follows the movement exactly and so
opens the control valve to admit pressure to the motor one way or the other. The Local Transmitter or Re-
setter
103
is moved by the Output Drive from the motor and the Hunter also follows the movement. When the
Output Drive has moved the same amount as the Input Drive, the Hunter will be central, so closing the
control valve and stopping the motor.
On the sensitive valve of the oil or air motor will be seen a Sector Control Knob. The reason for this is
that, although Power Magslip has an accuracy of a quarter of a degree, this is not accurate enough for
gunnery purposes. The input drive is, therefore, geared down, so that one revolution of the transmitter
covers an arc of only twenty degrees, giving an accuracy within one minute. The system is thus self-
aligning only in the particular sector of twenty degrees in which the transmitter happens to be. An
Indicator Magslip Transmission is therefore incorporated in the same dial as the Power Magslip and an
operator keeps the power system in the correct sector, by keeping the Power Magslip pointer under the
Indicator Magslip pointer using the Sector Control Knob, which works the sensitive valve of the motor.
ADVANTAGES:
The same advantages as in Indicator Magslip and has not the disadvantages of Synchronous
Transmission.

DISADVANTAGE:
The mechanism is delicate.
Lining Up.
No lining up is necessary, after initial installation. Sector Control is, however, necessary and is
particularly important
(i) When circuits are closed.

(ii) When the Director gets quickly on to a target.
(iii) After changing over Directors.
104
DIRECTOR LAYING AND TRAINING.
292. We have discussed so far in this chapter, the various instruments and electrical transmissions that go
to make the Director System of firing and in para. 256 saw the reasons for adopting this form of firing.
These full benefits cannot, however, be obtained unless the Director Trainer and Layer are equal to the
great responsibility that rests upon them.
On the Director Layer, more than on any other individual in the ship, except perhaps the Control Officer,
depends the success of a gunnery action. He works alone and unobserved and he must make himself
worthy of the responsibility imposed on him. He must practise in all weathers and especially at night,
because he is the eyes of the guns and unless he has practised at night and in foul weather he will not be
able to see when the enemy is met. If his opponent in the enemy ship is quicker and steadier than he, by
virtue of drills and practice, his ship will be sunk instead of the enemy's.
293. The Director Layer is responsible for the following important points:-
(i) The spread of a salvo, that is to say, how close together the shells from each individual gun
are, when they fall. It is, of course, of paramount importance in achieving small spreads, that
the gunlayer at each gun keeps his pointers exactly in line when the salvo is fired, but they
will not be able to do this if the Director Layer puts a large movement on his handwheel just
before he presses his trigger. If the spreads are large, the chances of hitting are remote, even
though the enemy is continually being straddled.
(ii) The accuracy with which each salvo is fired. That is to say that each salvo must fall at the
range intended by the Control Team; otherwise spotting the fall of shot becomes misleading.
He must remember to be quite frank in admitting mistakes. If he fires a "bad shot," he must
immediately report to the Control Officer "Bad shot high (or low)." He is also responsible
that the Director Trainer is on for training before the salvo is fired.
(iii) The speed with which he fires a salvo after the fire gong has rung, that is to say that his "

time on aim " must be as small as possible but it must, on no account interfere with the
accuracy of the salvo or be achieved at the expense of the gunlayers, who are following their
pointers.
Practical Working of a Director Sight.
(i) Reports to be made.
294. In order to open fire with the minimum delay, certain standard reports must be made by the Director
Layer, so that no confusion will arise.
When put on a LOOKOUT BEARING, report "Director on" as soon as on.
When the enemy is reported in sight, get on as quickly as possible and report "Director target" when the
enemy is in the telescope field. It must be borne in mind that other orders are being passed by the Control
Team during this period, so the report must be made in a loud clear voice, when few or no orders are
being passed to the Transmitting Station.
(ii) Standard Point of Aim.
The point where the vertical through the foremast cuts the horizontal on the forecastle deck level.
(iii) Consideration for Gunlayers and Trainers.
The importance of this has already been stressed. Allow a slight pause before firing, so that the electrical
pointers at the guns are stopped and the gunlayers are able to get their mechanical pointers in line. The
length of the pause depends
105
upon the conditions and is especially important when the Director is controlling POWER WORKED
MOUNTINGS.
When the Director is controlling HAND WORKED GUNS, as long as the motion is reasonable and in one
direction, continuous laying and training may be allowed but it is desirable to stop if possible. This does
not apply to High Angle Directors controlling High Angle Guns. The movement in this case must be
continuous in order to follow the target.
Reverse movements and sudden movements of the gun pointers just before firing must be avoided at all
costs.
(iv) Hunting the Roll.
The object of hunting the roll is to reduce the time on aim between the fire gong and the firing of the
salvo.

This must be achieved by moving the Director Elevation handwheel, so that the horizontal crosswire of
the telescope is in such a position relative to the target when the fire gong rings, that the movement of the
ship will quickly take it on.
Do not chase after the target. Run to meet it or keep just ahead of it.
Success depends on intimate knowledge of the behaviour of the ship under all conditions of roll, and an
enormous amount of practice.
(v) Reporting Bad Shots.
If you are a Layer Rating, see that you are quite clear in your mind when to report a bad shot. If in doubt,
consult your Gunnery Officer about it, but never be afraid of reporting. The mistake can be accounted for
if you report. If you do not, it will lead to far worse errors in the other salvos which follow.
(vi) The order "Wait."
This order may be given to you by the Control Officer, either before or after the fire gong has rung.
Repeat the order to show that you have received it and do not fire until the fire gong is rung again.
(vii) Night Firing.
You may not be able to see anything through your Director telescope if the enemy is badly illuminated.
Use your open sight or Aldis telescope. Plenty of practice is needed to be able to see at night and make
sure that the illumination of the crosswire in your telescope is not so great that it blinds you. You will also
suffer from eye strain if the lenses are not clear and the focus is not correct. This also applies by day.
Errors in Director Firing Due to the Roll and Pitch of the Ship.
(i) Due to Roll, Firing on the Beam.
295. When the ship is rolling and the guns are being fired on the beam, large errors in the fall of shot will
arise if the Director Layer presses the trigger when he judges the crosswire to be exactly on the point of
aim.
The errors are caused chiefly by the following:-
(a) The human lag; that is to say the time it takes for the eye to see, the brain to appreciate and
the finger to pull the trigger.
(b) The gun firing interval; that is to say the time taken after the trigger is pressed for the
circuit to be completed, the tube and cartridge fired and the shell to travel up the bore.
(c) The "flip" either up or down given to the shell, as it passes up the gun muzzle and leaves
the muzzle due to the speed of the roll.

During (a) and (b), about two fifths of a second, the ship will be rolling and
106
the muzzle will have moved through an appreciable angle. This, combined with (c), means that the guns
must be fired before the crosswires reach the target; low on an up roll and high on the down roll. The
amount depends upon the speed of the roll and the range, and can only be successfully gauged after a
great deal of practice. This is known as forecasting.
In Gyro firing, ships are fitted with an instrument which works out the error, called TIME INTERVAL
COMPENSATING GEAR. When this is fitted and used, the normal point of aim is used by the Director
Layer and the guns will fire automatically at the correct moment high or low, as long as the trigger is
pressed. When using the unstabilised director telescope, the Layer himself must judge the moment to fire.
(ii) Due to Roll, Firing on the Bow.
295A. When firing on the bow with the ship rolling, salvos will fall out of line, owing to the fact that as
the ship rolls across the line of fire, part of the elevation angle becomes a training angle. For instance, in
the extreme case of a ship being rolled through 90 degrees, all the elevation angle would become training.
The error is called CANTED TRUNNION ERROR.
These line errors are extremely serious, especially during chasing actions, firing ahead with the ship
rolling heavily. They can be counteracted by firing always at the same point on the roll but this cuts down
the rate of fire, so an instrument called CROSS LEVELLING GEAR is introduced into the Director
Control Tower. This counteracts the errors, by moving the electrical pointers in the Training Receivers at
the guns.
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CH. VII. SECTION 2. THE FIRE CONTROL PROBLEM AND ITS SOLUTION.
296. Before continuing with the problem of engaging an enemy ship at sea, it would be as well for the
reader to go over Chapter I again, so as to be in no doubt as to the general position of the Transmitting
Station and of its main functions. The general term given to the process of hitting the enemy ship hard and
often is FIRE CONTROL and the problem of how best to do this, the FIRE CONTROL PROBLEM. As
will be seen from Chapter I, the first and obviously vital factor is to point out the enemy ship to be
engaged to the DIRECTOR, whose functions were dealt with in the previous part of this chapter.
"TARGET INDICATION
297. Target Indication, as its name implies, is the method by which the Armament is directed on to the
correct target, which is selected by the Captain. If the enemy is visible this can be done by a Captain's
Sight on the bridge which transmits the bearing of the target to the director electrically. If the enemy is not
visible, but has been detected by Radar (see paragraph 351) the movements of the enemy ship are plotted
and the bearing and range of the target chosen by the Captain is passed to the transmitting station. There
the information is set on the Admiralty Fire Control Table and goes to the Director Control Tower and
guns."
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OBTAINING THE CORRECT RANGE.
298. The problem of obtaining the correct range, and thus the correct elevation for the guns, of an enemy
ship that is moving and altering course from your own ship, which is also moving and altering course, has
three main points to be considered:-
(i) Taking a range of the enemy ship.
(ii) Determining from the enemy's course and speed, and your own course and speed, how this
range is going to alter up to the moment of firing. the guns.
(iii) Making allowances for the distance the enemy ship is going to move, whilst the shell is in
the air and also for any outside effects on the shell as it travels through the air.
299. We will deal with these separately.
(i) The range of the enemy is taken by Radar or by optical rangefinders. These are dealt with more fully in
Section 3 of this chapter and here 't will suffice to say that the range is taken in yards, as often as possible
consistent with accuracy. The larger number of ranges that are taken will obviously help to determine
more correctly the range at that particular moment.
(ii) The range, once taken, may not remain the same. If both ships are moving away from each other, the
range will increase more and more as time goes on. This is known as " opening ". If both ships are coming
towards each other, the range will become less and less as time goes on and this is known as "closing".

The rate at which the range is opening or closing is known as the RATE OF CHANGE OF RANGE or
more shortly RANGE RATE. Thus, if your own ship is stopped and the enemy is coming towards you at
15 knots, the range would be altering at the rate of 15 nautical miles per hour or, converting it into more
convenient units, 500 yards per minute.
The course and speed of our own ship also affects the rate; and if we also move towards the enemy at 15
knots, the closing rate will be doubled, namely 1,000 yards per minute.
If both ships are steaming on parallel courses and at the same speed, there will be no rate and the range
will remain the same the whole time.
In order to keep the range adjusted for range rate, we use an instrument like a clock, which is part of the
calculating instrument in the Transmitting Station. The adjusted range is known as the CLOCK RANGE.
Each time we get a new range from the rangefinders, we can check the Clock Range. Radar should be
able to give us a continuous measurement of range and by doing this we can keep the Clock Range
adjusted the whole time.
From this it can be seen that if we estimate the enemy's course and speed correctly, we can get the correct
rate of change of range. This we can check and adjust continuously, so that the range is correct up to the
moment of opening fire.
(iii) As the shell takes some time to travel (called "Time of Flight") the enemy will have moved closer or
farther away from our own ship by the time the shell has arrived. This distance has to be allowed for on
top of our Clock Range. Our own speed, especially if firing right ahead, will affect the speed of the shell
as also will the wind, the effect being greatest, so far as the range is concerned, if firing straight into the
wind or with the wind blowing directly behind the shell. This will affect the distance the shell will travel,
and so will the shape of the shell, and the temperature and the density of the air, especially if they differ
much from the normal that is used in the design of the calculating instrument.
All the above are known collectively as the RANGE CORRECTION, and it has to be added to or
subtracted from the Clock Range, to get the most accurate range to go to the gun, called the GUN
RANGE. This Gun Range must now be
109

converted into an angle of elevation and goes to the electrical pointers in the Elevation Receivers at the
guns, which it will be remembered from the previous discussion on Director Firing (see para. 276) are
already being moved by the Director Layer to counteract the roll of the ship.
Thus the final GUN ELEVATION is the correct elevation above the horizontal plane for that gun range.
OBTAINING THE CORRECT LINE OF FIRE.
300. Having got the correct range, it is obviously equally important to get the shells to fall on the correct
line, if we are going to hit the enemy ship.
The target is indicated to the Director Control Tower, and the Director Trainer training round until he is
on the enemy ship, will send an electrical movement to the TRAINING RECEIVERS at the guns, which
follow up until they are on the same bearing as the Director and, as the Director Trainer moves his
training handwheel to follow the enemy, so the guns will follow also. But on top of this the guns must be
given a certain amount of "Aim off" from the Director's bearing.
This "Aim off" is called DEFLECTION and is calculated in the Transmitting Station from whence it is
sent to the Training Receivers at the guns electrically.
Composition of Deflection.
301. In the same way that the range has to be under or over-rated owing to the fact that the range
decreases or increases during the time of flight of the shell, by the distance the enemy travels along the
line of fire, so must the guns be "Aimed off" to allow for the distance that the enemy travels across the
line of fire, during the time that the shell is in the air. This is the first part of deflection, and the amount to
be allowed for depends on the course, speed, and range of the enemy.
For an enemy going straight across the line of fire at high speed and at long range, the amount has to be
large, if the shell and enemy ship are going to meet. The amount decreases if the enemy alters course
towards or away from you, if he reduces speed or if the range, and hence the time of flight, gets less.
The second part of deflection is the sideways effect that your own speed has on the shell, as it leaves the
gun. If you are steaming at high speed and firing on the beam, the shell will be carried bodily in the
direction in which the ship is going and if this is not allowed for the shells will fall out of line.
The wind blowing across the line of fire will also affect the shell, for this an allowance must be made.
DRIFT, already discussed in para. 269, will cause the shells to fall off the correct line and this also must
be taken into account.
SUMMARY OF THE FIRE CONTROL PROBLEM.
302. Summing up the above, to get the best gun range, we must:

(i) Take an initial range.

(ii) Calculate the rate of change of range.
(iii) Make range corrections for:
(a) The ENEMY'S TRAVEL along the line of fire during the time of flight.
(b) The effect on the shell of our own SPEED along the line of fire.
(c) The effect of WIND along the line of fire.
(d) The effect of the difference in the SHAPE of the shell, the TEMPERATURE
and DENSITY of the air.
To get the shells to fall in line we must:
(i) Get the Director Control Tower and guns pointed at the enemy ship.
(ii) Keep the Director Control Tower on the enemy ship.
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(iii) Aim the guns off for DEFLECTION, composed of allowances for:
(a) The ENEMY'S TRAVEL across the line of fire during the time of flight.
(b) The effect on the shell of our own SPEED across the line of fire.
(c) The effect of WIND across the line of fire.
(d) The effect of DRIFT.
303. These calculations are made as accurately as possible in the Low Angle calculating system in the
Transmitting Station, and are discussed later in this chapter. But, however accurate the instruments may
be, certain errors are liable to come in, owing to incorrect estimations of various parts of the problem,
such as the enemy's course or speed or the wind. These errors will make the shells fall over, short, right or
left and, as the shell splashes appear, so corrections are made in order to bring the splashes on to the
enemy ship. These corrections are called SPOTTING CORRECTIONS.
THE ADMIRALTY FIRE CONTROL CLOCK. Diagram 17.
304. The Admiralty Fire Control Clock is shaped like a box and is situated in the Transmitting Station. Its
function is to solve the Fire Control Problem, previously discussed in this chapter, and to send away to the
guns the correct elevation and training for each salvo.
As will be seen from the diagram an arrow is engraved on the top of the clock, which passes through two
dials, one representing our own ship and the other the enemy ship. This arrow is the LINE OF SIGHT,
and the two dials give a representation of the relative positions of our own and the enemy ship. Also on
the "OWN SHIP" dial is a small red arrow, which shows the bearing of the Director Control Tower and,
unless there is a breakdown between the Director Control Tower and the Transmitting Station, this small
red arrow is on the same line as the engraved arrow on the top of the clock, which shows that the Director
Control Tower is on the line of sight to the enemy.
305. Around the outside of the " OWN SHIP " dial is a gyro ring, worked from the ship's gyro compass

and the course of our own ship can be read off where the bow meets the Gyro Ring. The " OWN SHIP "
dial, once it has been lined up, will be kept set automatically for any alterations of course by our own ship
and by the Director Control Tower training round on to the target. The speed of our own ship is put on by
a small knob and shows in a small window by the "OWN SHIP" dial.
305A. The course and speed of the enemy are passed down by telephone from the Director Control Tower
and are set on the "ENEMY" dial. The enemy's course is estimated in terms of INCLINATION (see
Diagram 18). The inclination of a ship is the angle between the LINE OF SIGHT produced beyond the
enemy ship and her bows. The angle is measured in degrees right or left, according to which way the
enemy is going and is zero when the enemy is going straight away from our own ship and 180 degrees
when coming straight towards. When going from right to left, the inclination is left, and from left to right
the inclination is right. Study Diagram 18, Figs. I, II and III until this is thoroughly understood, because
this method of estimating the enemy's course is universal for all types of Fire Control Installations.
306. The inclination of the enemy ship can be set to whatever is ordered, by means of the inclination
handwheel and will be kept correct automatically by the A.F.C.C., because the inclination of the enemy
will alter when the compass bearing alters, as long as both ships are steaming on a steady course. This can
readily be seen by Fig. IV in Diagram 18.
111

The speed of the enemy can be set by turning a small handwheel, wan it shows in a window on the top of
the clock, by the "ENEMY SHIP" dial.
Also showing on the enemy ship dial is a small yellow arrow, which is set to the direction of the TRUE
WIND by means of a handwheel, the force of the wind also being set by turning another handwheel, until
it shows in a dial on the top of the clock.
307. All this information is passed down by telephone from the Director Control Tower by the Rate
Officer.
112

When the clock has been set the "picture" is complete.
The mechanism inside the clock now divides up the relative movements of our own ship, the enemy and
wind, sending away RANGE CORRECTIONS for the travel of the enemy and the effect of wind along
the line of sight. Deflection is calculated for the speed of our own ship, the travel of the enemy and the
effect of wind all across the line of sight, and also drift. It will be noticed that the effect of our own speed
along the line of sight is not allowed for in this instrument.
The range of the ENEMY is sent down by a step by step transmitter from the RANGEFINDER to a
similar Receiver above the A.F.C.C. or to a RANGE MATCHING RECEIVER alongside the clock from
the Radar set. When this range is received, one of the operators " tunes " the clock to the range, that is to
say, he moves the range tuning handwheel until the same range is showing on the CLOCK RANGE
counters, as is shown in the range receiver or matching receiver. This gives us the initial range which is
the first part of the problem. The "Own" and "Enemy" dials, as has already been shown, are set and the
combination of the two, besides working out range corrections and deflection, give the RATE OF
CHANGE OF RANGE, which shows on a scale by the Enemy dial and keeps the initial range up to date
for RATE; this solves the second part of the problem.
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308. When the range corrections have been calculated they move the spotting dial, marked in the diagram,
which is to the left of the " Own Ship " dial. This dial is also moved by the temperature and barometer
settings, which are put in at the side of the clock. Subsequent spotting corrections for range ordered by the
Control Officer are also applied to this dial.
When this spotting dial moves, the range operator follows the movement of the dial with a pointer, by
means of the SPOTTING HANDWHEEL and this adds RANGE CORRECTION to CLOCK RANGE to
give GUN RANGE. This is converted inside the A.F.C.C. to ELEVATION by the RANGE TO
ELEVATION UNIT, and added to DIRECTOR ELEVATION from the Director Layer's handwheel. The
Dip from the Director to the standard level is also added and the whole is sent away as GUN
ELEVATION by step by step electrical transmission to the electrical pointers at the Elevation Receivers
at the guns. This solves the elevation side of the problem.
309. Now to consider corrections for training. On the Deflection dial near the top of Diagram 17 will be
seen three pointers marked A, B, and C. When the enemy and wind settings are applied a movement is
imparted to pointer A. During the lining up process pointer B was locked to pointer A and moves with it.
The amount of deflection due to own ship's speed across the line of fire offsets pointer C. The operator, by
turning the deflection handwheel, brings C into line with A and B, and in doing so transmits total
deflection. This is added to Director training and drift and the whole goes away to the guns as Gun
Training, appearing as the angle shown by the electrical pointer in the training receiver. When spotting
corrections for line are ordered by the control officer the operator, moving the deflection handwheel,
moves pointer C by the amount ordered using the scale on pointer B, having done this he re-aligns B with
C by pressing the recentring push, ready for any further correction to be applied.
310. On the A.F.C.C. will also be noticed a stop watch marked " salvo interval watch " and a fire gong
push. The watch is set for the interval between broadsides and the fire gong is pressed at the end of that
time. This rings a gong at the Director and at the guns and is the permission for the Director Layer to fire.
There are also gun range and deflection counters, which show the gun range and deflection that is being
sent away to the guns, as well as gun elevation and training (range and deflection are used for setting the
sights at the guns when they are being laid and trained by telescope in Gunlayers or Quarters Firing (see
para. 343) ). The dials to the left and below the spotting dial were used when "concentrating" with other
ships, but are now obsolete.
311. A " Time of Flight " push is also included on the left of the clock. This is pressed in when the guns
fire and, by means of a mechanism inside the clock, work a rattler in the Director Control Tower when a
broadside is about to fall. This helps the Control Officer to identify the fall of the broadside.
TYPICAL MODERN FIRE CONTROL TABLE. Diagram 19.
312. This is a larger instrument than the Admiralty Fire Control Clock, and is found in the
TRANSMITTING STATIONS of modern cruisers of the types shown in Plates 1 and 2.
Its function is to solve the Fire Control problem. It is a more accurate instrument than the A.F.C.C.,
although it is based upon the same principles and likewise sends to the guns, gun elevation, gun training,
range and deflection.

114
115
The central portion of the instrument is very similar to the A.F.C.C., the main differences being as
follows:-
(i) There is a TRUE RANGE counter beside the " Own " ship dial, as well as a CLOCK
RANGE and GUN RANGE counter.
(ii) There are two dials showing the DIRECTOR ELEVATION being sent down from the
Director in the Director Control Tower by Magslip transmission.
(iii) There are two scrolls which are used in bombardment for correcting the gun elevation for
the height of the target.
(iv) There is a DIRECTOR/T.S. change-over switch and a TARGET VISIBLE LAMP.
(v) There are two wires over the ENEMY DIAL, whose functions will be explained later, a "
Dummy ship " engraved on glass over the dial and also a pointer on the Enemy dial, showing
the inclination that is being measured by the INCLINOMETER in the Director Control
Tower.

313. The modern F.C. table differs, however, considerably from the A.F.C.C. in that it is equipped with
PLOTS at either end of the centre clock portion, and also by the method of transmission from the Director
to the Table, and the Table to the guns being Magslip, as opposed to synchronous and step by step,
although step by step transmission is still used in certain cases.
The functions of the various parts of the A.F.C.C. having already been explained in some detail in paras.
304 to 311, these paras. can be taken to apply in a general way to the central portion of the F.C.T. to
which it is very similar. We now go on to explain the functions of the plots.
314. The plot immediately to the left of the centre portion of the table is the Range Plot. This is used to
get the most accurate range from the Rangefinders before opening fire. The Rangetakers in the Director
Control Tower take ranges and these are sent down electrically to pointers on the rangefinder range dial,
by the side of the range plot. An operator follows these pointers with another pointer by moving the "
Rangefinder Range Follower Handwheel " and when the appropriate "CUT" lamp burns, presses a push
beside the dial. By turning this handwheel a typewriter above paper plot is moved and when the
appropriate push is pressed, the typewriter marks the paper at the correct rangefinder range. There is a
push for each rangefinder in the ship and consequently, when ranges are being taken, a series of
typewritten marks will appear on the plot as it moves. The range tuning operator then positions the pen on
the plot, until it is in the middle of these marks, by means of the range tuning handwheel, on the front of
the instrument, and by so doing tunes the table to the best TRUE RANGE. This plot can also be used as a
diary of events for analysis purposes, because the pen on the plot is moved when any range spotting is
applied.
315. To the left of the rangefinder plot is the spotting plot. In various places around the ship, spotters are
situated, whose sole duty is to look intently at the enemy and to note when each salvo falls, whether it is
over, short or straddling. The spotters then each press a push in the "Spotter Observation Push Box" at
their positions, which burns a light in the "Spotter Observer Lamp Box," which faces the spotting plot
operator.
116 and 117

118
The spotting plot operator thus sees from the lights that are burning, whether the spotters consider the
salvo to be over, short or straddling. He marks this information on the plot as it moves and is thus able to
note the direction of the target relative to the fall of the broadside and to order the appropriate spotting
corrections. The spotting corrections are applied, as in the A.F.C.C. on the spotting dial by the range
tuning operator, using the spotting handwheel.
316. Over the Table are one or more RANGE MATCHING RECEIVERS, which can be used to follow
the Radar, ranges being sent from the Radar ranging panels in the Transmitting Station or Radar Office.
On the same paper as the spotting plot is an " Error in Range " plot on which is plotted the difference
between the range that is being calculated in the table (in the same way as in the A.F.C.C.), and the range
being measured continually by Radar. From the slope of this plot can be found whether the inclination and
speed of the enemy set on the table agrees with that being measured, and when a " suggestion " is

obtained from this plot, one of the wires over the enemy dial is moved. The other wire is moved by
suggestions from the plot at the opposite end of the table called the SPEED ACROSS PLOT. This plot
compares the relative speed across the line of sight that is being measured by the Director Control Tower
as it follows the target with the relative speed across calculated by the table. The clock operator, by
positioning the dummy ship mentioned in para. 312 on the enemy dial over the intersection of the two
wires, can tell the rate officer that the plots suggest a different enemy inclination and speed to that already
in the table or it may suggest that the enemy has altered course. If the rate officer in the Director Control
Tower accepts these suggestions, the new enemy settings are put on the table.
317. The speed across plot also enables the Director Control Tower to be kept on an invisible target,
which might be behind a smoke screen, as its bearing changes. This is called BLIND FIRE and is not
dealt with in this book, except to say that it can be carried out, as long as means are available to spot the
fall of shot; there are arrangements on the Speed Across Plot to make line spotting corrections based on
the reports received.
THE FIRE CONTROL TEAM. Diagram 20.
318. Once the enemy ship to be engaged has been pointed out by the Captain, it is the job of the Fire
Control Team to hit that enemy ship quickly, to hit her hard and to go on hitting her.
The considerations that have to be taken into account in the Fire Control problem and the instruments that
are fitted in ships to solve that problem have already been discussed. This part of the chapter is confined
to the part that each member or group of the Fire Control Team undertakes, so that by working together as
a team, they produce the best answer out of the Fire Control Installation of the ship. The size of the team
varies, naturally, with the size of the ship and here the ship is taken as a "Dido" class cruiser (see Plate 2).
Composition of the Team.
(i) The Control Officer.
319. He is the leader of the team and may be the Gunnery Officer. He supervises the whole of the team
from the centre position in the rear of the Director Control Tower, where he is near to the other members
of the crew of the D.C.T. and can talk by telephone to the Captain, the officer in charge of the
Transmitting Station, the spotting group and the rate group. He has powerful stereoscopic binoculars,
mounted immediately in front of him, with which he can see the enemy ship.
119

(ii) The Primary Spotting Officer.
320. He is the head of the spotting group, consisting of himself in the rear of the D.C.T., to the right of the
Control Officer, a " spotter " in B Turret and a "spotter" in the After Director. In the Transmitting Station
the spotting group consists of the officer in charge of the T.S., the spotting plot operator and the deflection
spotting operator. In front of him and each spotter is a box with three pushes marked "OVER,"
"STRADDLE" and "SHORT." He looks intently at the enemy through stereoscopic binoculars in front of
him and when a broadside falls, presses the appropriate push in the spotter observer push box. The
primary spotting officer is also responsible for giving the necessary orders to get the guns in action as
quickly as possible and for keeping the broadsides in line with the enemy.
(iii) The Rate Officer.
321. He is the head of the rate group, consisting of himself in the rear of the D.C.T. to the left of the
Control Officer, the Rate Officer in the After Director, and the Clock Operator in the T.S. The Rate
Officer's job is to estimate the enemy's inclination and speed, by looking intently at the enemy ship
through stereoscopic binoculars mounted in front of him, and also to note as soon as the enemy alters
course or speed and to pass this information to the T.S. He is assisted by "suggestions" from the T.S.,
given by the "Speed Across Plot," the Radar "Error in Rate Plot" and by the INCLINOMETER, which is
mounted just in front of him. He must be thoroughly acquainted with the capabilities of each of these
instruments, because upon him rests the responsibility of accepting or refusing the suggestions given to
him.
(iv) The Director Crew.
322. The Director's Crew comprises the Director Layer, the Director Trainer and The Cross Level
Operator (see Diagram 9). Their importance in the team is very great. The duties of the Director Layer
and Director Trainer are outlined in para. 292 et seq.
(v) The Radar Operators.
323. These are very important members of the team. The Radar operators man the Ranging panels of the
Low Angle sets in the Transmitting Station or Radar Office. Their duties are to take accurate ranges
continually throughout the action, thus giving both an accurate range for opening fire and accurate
measurement of rate. They may also be able to spot the fall of shot on the trace.
"Radar operators also man the bearing panels and their duty is to keep the director pointing at the target in
blind fire".
(vi) The T.S. Crew.
324. They are under the supervision of the officer in charge of the T.S. and are all responsible for the
accurate elevation and training being sent to the buns. The range spotting operator, especially, must
realise that range spotting alters the elevation being sent away, as well as the movement of the Director
Layer's handwheel and must not press the fire gong until he has completed the spotting corrections being
applied. All the members of the crew of the table must realise that the best results will only be obtained
from the table by careful drill and concentration.

(vii) The Aircraft Observer.
325. If an aircraft is available for spotting, the aircraft observer is an extremely important member of the
team, even though he is away from the ship. He is of great assistance to the rate group, especially in
passing alterations of course quickly and is the only member of the spotting group, who can judge the
distance over or short of each broadside, except perhaps the Radar operators.
120
(viii) The W/T Ratings.
326. When an aircraft is available or when bombarding, the W/T operators in the T.S. crew are extremely
important. Speed in receiving and transmitting signals, combined with good drill and understanding of the
problem, are the attributes required in these members of the team.
(ix) The Rangetakers.
327. These are as important to the success of the action as the Radar operators, and are entirely relied
upon should the Radar sets fail. Daily drills, constant practice in all sorts of weather and careful
adjustment of the optical rangefinders are required.
(x) The Guns' Crews.
328. The importance of pointer following has already been stressed. The guns' crews are responsible more
than any other members of the team for the spread of the broadside. Unless the spread is small, the enemy
will never be hit hard and correct spotting on the fall of shot will be very difficult.
ORGANISATION FOR NIGHT ACTION.
329. At night, even more than by day, precise drill and strict discipline are essential if fire is to be opened
quickly and accurately. In the dark, unless every man knows his job thoroughly, thinks quickly and
reports clearly, confusion is bound to arise. Speed is essential, because night actions may be fought at
short ranges and the ship which opens fire first has an enormous advantage. The organisation of the ship
for night action is kept as nearly as possible to that for day action but differences have to be made,
especially in the long range High Angle armament, which is used for firing Star Shell (see para. 30). On
the bridge, the Captain is fully occupied handling the ship to bring the maximum amount of gun power to
bear upon the enemy. The conduct of the action, once fire has been opened, is the duty of the PRINCIPAL
CONTROL OFFICER, who is also stationed on the bridge close to the Captain. The Principal Control
Officer is responsible for illuminating the target sufficiently for the Director Layer to see the point of aim
on the enemy ship. He has under him the STAR SHELL CONTROL OFFICER at the Star Shell sights on
the bridge. These latter are the A.D.O.'s sights by day.
330. In cruisers and larger ships, the Star Shell sight is connected to a STAR SHELL DEFLECTION
CALCULATOR, which sends the correct gun training to the star shell guns, on an open faced indicator at
the guns. The star shell guns fire TIME-FUZED STAR SHELL, which contain a star on a small parachute

(see para. 199 (ii)). The fuze is set to burst 1,500 yards beyond the enemy ship at a height of about 2,000
feet. The guns are elevated to achieve this and are laid by means of a spirit level on the mounting, so that
when the spirit level is central, the guns are at the correct elevation from the horizontal. The guns are
controlled from the bridge by the Star-Shell Control Officer and are fired by the gunlayer at the gun, when
the fire buzzer which is worked from the bridge is sounded.
In destroyers, where there is no star shell deflection calculator, the necessary deflection is estimated by
the Star Shell Control Officer and passed by telephone or voice pipe to the star shell gun. (See para. 38.)
331. The following points should be noted:-
(i) The enemy's probable inclination and speed are set on closing up in the T.S. and at the Star
Shell deflection calculator. When sighted
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they are estimated as quickly as possible but it may only be possible to pass the direction in
which the enemy is going, in this case an inclination of 135 degrees right or left is set and the
maximum probable speed of the enemy.
(ii) The fines are set in accordance with the range of the enemy. The old practice of having
three fuze settings only (long, medium and short) is no longer used.
(iii) The report "On" is given by any directing position when on the bearing ordered, and
"Target" when the Control Officer can see the target in his sight.
(iv) The challenge is made in code, by using combinations of coloured lights or by sending a
special signal which is changed every few hours.
(v) The armament is always ready to open fire before the challenge is made, so that if no reply
or the wrong reply is received, fire can be opened immediately.
STANDARD METHODS OF PASSING ORDERS.
332. To prevent people finding new methods in force in each ship to which they go and to avoid
confusion, all orders have to be passed in a certain standard way, as follows:-
"Range
Each figure in the range is to be called separately, omitting the last two figures. The figure 0 is to be
called 'ZERO'. Three figures are always to be used when passing a range if necessary, 'ZERO'S' are
placed in front of the figure. The word 'yards' is inferred and never spoken.
Examples:-

'Two-one-five' means 21,500 or 21,550 or 21,525;

'One-zero-zero' means 10,000;
'Zero-nine-two' means 9,200;
'Zero-zero-eight' means 800."
Range Spotting Orders.
333. To distinguish these clearly from ranges, the word " up " or " down " is to precede the amount, the
word " yards " is omitted and the amount is to be passed in words instead of figures.
Example:-
"Up two hundred."
Bearing.
334. When RELATIVE BEARINGS are being passed, the word "red" or "green" is always to precede the
amount and each figure is to be called separately. " red " Example:-
"Red one five zero" means that the relative bearing is 150 degrees from right ahead on the
port side.
When GYRO BEARINGS are being passed, the word " bearing " is always to precede the amount and the
amount always called as three separate figures, if necessary noughts being placed in front to make the
three figures.
Deflection.
335. For TOTAL DEFLECTIONS each figure is called separately, followed by the words "right" or
"left,"
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Examples:-
"One-two right" means a total deflection of 12 to the right.
"Seven left" means a total deflection of 7 to the left.
For DEFLECTION SPOTTING CORRECTIONS the words "right" or "left" are to be followed by the
amount in words.
Example:-
" Right twelve " means apply twelve units more right deflection to that already on the
transmitter.

Inclination.
336. The numeral value of the inclination is called by three separate figures, followed by the words
"right" or " left." The words "right" or "left" indicate the direction in which the enemy is steaming but the
words " to the " are omitted.
Example:-
"Inclination zero-one-zero-right" means that the inclination of the enemy is ten degrees to
the right of the line of sight.
If the enemy is steaming directly away from the observer along the line of sight, it is said to be zero. If the
enemy is steaming directly towards, the inclination is 180.
"337. Speed is passed in knots, preceded by the word 'Speed', as in examples. The word 'knots' is
omitted."
Examples:-
'Speed thirteen'
'Speed twenty-two'
'Speed three-fifty'."
Rate.
338. The word "rate" is passed, followed by the amount in words and then followed by the words
"opening" or "closing."
Example:-
"Rate two hundred closing" indicates that the range is shortening by 200 yards every minute.
Wind.
339. The word " wind " is passed, followed by the speed or force and then the direction from which it is
blowing.
Example:-
"Wind 40 f.s. from green 120" means that the speed of the wind is 40 feet per second and
that it is blowing from green 120 degrees, or "Wind Force 4 from red 90" means that a wind
of force four is blowing from red 90.
METHOD OF USING TELEPHONES.
340. Using a telephone requires practice in the same way as any instrument. The first essential is to know
what you are going to say, to say it clearly and distinctly and to keep your mouth close to the mouthpiece.

When calling up on a telephone, first name the position from which you are calling, following it up with
the place that you want. For instance, when calling up from the bridge to the Transmitting Station, start by
saying "Fore bridge-T.S." When the T.S. answers by saying "T.S.-Fore bridge," send your message.
Always repeat any message given to you on a telephone, because otherwise there is no means by which
the sender can tell whether the message has been received correctly.
If you do not hear the message, pass Say again When testing your telephone on first closing up, call up in
the usual way, and when answered give the report "Well," i.e.,
"Director-T.S." "T.S.-Director." "Director well." "T.S. well."
123
POSITIONS FOR CONTROLLING AND METHODS OF FIRING THE GUNS.
341. In action, if the ship is damaged, it may not be possible to control and fire the guns from the D.C.T.
Alternative means are therefore provided for both controlling and firing, but the guns should always be
fired together and controlled from some central position, if possible, to avoid any confusion in spotting
the fall of shot and to maintain the heaviest hitting power.
Alternative Positions for Control.
342.
Primary Control. Control by the forward and/or after director (or control) position through the
transmitting station.
Secondary Control. Control from any convenient position or mounting through the
transmitting station.
Emergency Control. Control from any convenient position direct to turrets or mountings.
Group Control. Control by officer of quarters of two or more turrets or mountings.
Local Control. Control by the officer of quarters of a single turret or mounting.
Gunlayer's Control. Control of guns by their gunlayers in the absence of the officer of
quarters.
Divided Control. Simultaneous engagement of two enemy ships by the forward and after parts
of the armament respectively, controlled by corresponding control positions.
Methods of Firing.

343.
Director Firing. All guns are fired by a single layer at the director sight.
Gyro Firing. The Firing Circuits are closed by the Gyro Firing Gear.
Local Firing. The gun is laid and trained by following Director or table and fired by the local
arrangement at the gun.
Gunlayer's Firing. The gun is laid and fired by the Gunlayer or Local Sight Layer, but the
training is by director.
Quarters Firing. The gun is laid, trained and fired by means of its local sighting and firing
arrangements.
Note. Care should be taken not to confuse the position from which the guns are controlled,
with the method by which they are fired. For example Primary or Secondary Control can still
be used although the guns may be in Quarters Firing. Any controlling position is better than at
the gun itself and should be used where possible.
GUNLAYER'S CONTROL.
344. The following procedure is applicable in all classes of ships to a single gun controlled by its
gunlayer.
Opening Fire.
Fire one round with the estimated range and deflection on sights. If the round falls out for line apply a
deflection correction of at least 4 units (8 knots) towards the target. This correction is to be repeated until
line is established, or the target crossed for line.
When the target is crossed for line, apply a suitable correction in the reverse direction.
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Notes:
(i) If the round is not seen, apply down corrections of 800 yards without change in deflection,
and fire single rounds until a splash is seen; then proceed as above. If the first estimate of
range is thought to be seriously in error, re-estimate and order a new range to be set.
(ii) Except in the case given in (i), never correct for range until shots are in line with the
target.
Maintaining Line.
345. Normally, the tendency for shots to creep right or left should be countered by deflection spotting
corrections of not less than 2 units (or 4 knots), but with small end-on targets, steps of 1 unit (or 2 knots)
may be necessary.
Should more than two successive shots fall far out for line, however, the target is to be considered lost for
line and is to be regained as laid down in para. 344 above.
Finding the Range.
346. If, after line is established, shots are observed over or short, correct towards the target in steps of 800
yards, and fire single rounds until the target is crossed.
Every time the target is crossed for range, apply half the last correction in the reverse direction before
firing again.
If this reverse correction fails to cross, corrections of the same value are to be repeated until the target is
crossed.
When the size of the bracket has been reduced to 100 yards, assume hitting, and fire as rapidly as
possible.
Target Lost.
347. If the hitting range is correct, the normal error of the gun and gunlayer will make occasional shots
fall over or short. If therefore, three successive rounds fall on the same side of the target, it is to be
considered as lost, and the procedure to be adopted is that given in para. 348 below.
Regaining the Range.
348. If the target is lost for range the gunlayer is to check fire in independent, and is to regain the target by
the use of a 400 yards bracket, as laid down in para. 346 above.

. . . care should be taken . . . (para 246)
CH. VII. SECTION 3. THE PRINCIPLES OF RADAR, OPTICAL RANGEFINDERS AND

INCLINOMETERS.
RADAR.
Nature of Radar.
349. Radar is the term used by the Services to describe Radiolocation, a method of using radio waves to
determine the position of a target.
Radio waves are known to travel in space at a speed of about 163,000 sea miles
125
per second. It is also known that when they impinge upon an object, they are reflected by it in all
directions.
Radar sets have a transmitter, which sends out pulses of radio waves and a receiver, which receives these
pulses, both from the transmitter and from any object which reflects them.
Transmitter and receiver are each coupled to aerials, which concentrate the waves into a directional beam.
350. To the receiver is connected a device, which displays radio impulses in the form of areas of light
upon a screen and from which microscopically small intervals of time can be read off, by measuring the
distance which separates these areas. The screen upon which this display is given is part of a cathode ray
tube. From the appearance also of these areas, which are caused by reflected impulses (called "echoes"),
the bearing of the reflecting target can be determined.
Display units are variously designed for measurement of ranges (ranging tubes), bearings (training tubes)
and angles of sight (elevation tubes). Furthermore, since when a transmitter is running, an echo from a
target will be almost continuously visible on a ranging tube, it is possible to use such a tube for
measurement of rate.
Uses of Radar.
351. Radar sets differ in design according to the function required of them. There are sets used for
warning of the presence of aircraft and for fighter direction, for warning of the presence of ships, for
target indication, for the control of long range gunfire against aircraft and against surface targets, and for
control of close range weapons. Sets can also be used for navigation and for torpedo control and they will

provide the data necessary to measure a target's course and speed (and hence its inclination) as well as to
enable one vessel to shadow others unseen.
Limitations of Radar.
352. Radio waves will travel through space by day and night, in calm and storm and in clear or thick
weather. Radar can thus be used at all times at sea. It can be used on land and in the air. Since, however, a
target only appears on the screen of a cathode ray tube as an echo, no indication of the nature of the target
is given, such as the human eye receives, when it sees the target through glasses. Nor, owing to the nature
of radio waves and the aerials used to propagate them directionally, can Radar ever be quite as accurate
for bearing as the human eye. For range, however, if the display instruments are properly adjusted, Radar
achieves a far greater accuracy than any optical instrument.
Involving, as it does, radio transmissions, the use of Radar may give away to an enemy equipped with the
necessary gear, the position of own ship. Likewise, since radio transmission may be interfered with or
"jammed" by other radio transmissions, it is possible for an enemy to jam and prevent the use of a certain
number of Radar sets.
Generally, however, the uses of Radar are so great as entirely to outweigh its limitations.
Radar Operators.
353. Radar is now as integral a part of gunnery as the director. Radar operators must be as scrupulous in
lining up and checking their instruments as are the gunlayers, at every dawn and dusk Action Stations and
at Quarters Clean Guns. They must also check over their telephones.
Success with Radar, as with any other part of the gunnery equipment, is achieved only by constant
practice. Radar operators should practice at least once a day, taking ranges and bearings of objects.
If this is done every day, you will find that the set will be working correctly when you meet the enemy. If
you spend a week in harbour and do not use the set
126
at all, you will probably find, on going to sea, that there is some small defect which should have been
discovered three or four days previously.
Of course, there are occasions at sea when you are unable to transmit and use your set, owing to wireless
silence being enforced.
OPTICAL RANGEFINDERS.
354. Full information on the theory and details of rangefinders can be found in the Handbook of Naval
Rangefinders and Inclinometers which is kept in the gunnery office It may, however, fall to the lot of any
seaman to be the trainer at a rangefinder or even to have to take ranges himself, so this section of the
chapter is intended to give a very elementary knowledge on how to use the instrument.

The Use of Rangefinders.
355. Rangefinders are used for finding the range of the target before opening fire and also to assist in
keeping the range correct during firing. There are varying numbers of rangefinders in different types of
ships. As a range is obtained it is sent to the transmitting station and a cut lamp push is pressed by the
operator of the transmitter. This lamp burns in the T.S. and indicates that the reading on the rangefinder
range receiver at the moment is the range to be used.
Principle of Coincidence Rangefinder. Diagram 21, Fig. I.
356. The coincidence rangefinder obtains the range of an object by measuring the angle subtended by the
rangefinder at the object. The size of the angle depends on the length of the rangefinder and the range of
the object. As the former remains constant, any angle will have a definite corresponding range; therefore,
although an angle is measured, the scale on which the answer is shown can be marked with the range.
The length of the rangefinder is small compared with the range of an object, and the angles involved are,
therefore, very small. At long ranges the angles are extremely small, and at short ranges the angles are
relatively large. Ranges and angles do not change at the same rate. For instance, a change in angle of, say,
one minute will have a much smaller effect on range at short ranges, than at long ranges. This has the
following results:-
(i) The spaces between graduations for a given number of yards on the range scale decrease as
the range increases.
(ii) An error in measuring the angle has a greater effect at longer ranges.
(iii) A long rangefinder is more accurate than a short one, because a long base length increases
the size of the angles to be measured.
Focus.
357. Focus is the power of the human eye to adjust itself to see things clearly at different distances. The
eye does this automatically, but when an optical instrument is used, the instrument must be focused to suit
the individual's eyes.
The human eye is normally focused for distant vision and can be used in this state without strain for
longer periods than in any other position.
The rangefinder should therefore be focused so that the object is seen clearly, with the eye accommodated
to distant vision.
Although the right eye only is used, both eyes should be kept open when focusing and when ranging, as
this helps to relieve eyestrain.
On all instruments, the focus adjustment is fitted with a scale. When a satisfactory focus has been

obtained, the reading on the scale should be noted, and on future occasions the correct focus can be set by
the scale.
Magnification or Power.
358. Rangefinders are fitted for one, two or three powers varying from 15 to 28.
127
Where a choice is provided, the highest power should be used when conditions of light are very good.
Low power should be used at night and in poor visibility. Changing the power does not affect focus.
Taking a Range.
359. A face piece is fitted near the centre of the rangefinder, and with one or two exceptions, contains two
eyepieces. The left hand eyepiece gives a view of the range scale, the right, a view of the object. Both
eyepieces can be focused, but the right only can be adjusted for power.

128
The rangefinder is so designed, that the picture which the rangetaker sees when he looks through the right
eyepiece, is a combination of two pictures, one from each end window of the instrument.
Although the form of the picture varies with different types of rangefinders, the rangetaker's problem is
the same in all cases; he has to make two parts of the picture fit exactly. When he has done this, he is said
to have taken a "cut," and the range of the object can then be read off the range scale.
The rangetaker can move one part of the picture horizontally, relative to the other part by means of the
working head.
The drill for taking cuts will be explained later.
Types of Field.
360. The picture that the rangetaker sees when looking through the rangefinder is called the " field."
Upright Field, single separating line. (Diagram 21, Figs. II and III.)
In most L.A. rangefinders a fine horizontal line runs across the centre of the field. This is called the
"separating line." The picture above the line comes from one end window and that below comes from the
other. If the rangefinder is moved in elevation until the separating line cuts an object, it will be found that
the part of the picture above the line is either to the right or to the left of the part below the line. By
turning the working head, the two parts can be brought into line. When the two parts fit exactly, the angle
has been measured and the range of the object can be read on the scale.
To obtain a perfect cut, it is necessary to select some particular part of the object, and with this type of
field, a vertical clear-cut line, such as a mast, or edge of a funnel, is best.
Inverted Strip Field. (Diagram 22, Figs. I and II.)
When ranging on aircraft, which do not present vertical straight lines on which to cut, the single
separating line and upright picture is not satisfactory. Range-

129
finders for H.A. work, therefore, have different types of field, the commonest of which is the inverted
strip field.
In this type there are two horizontal lines and the picture seen between the two lines is an upside down
duplicate of that seen immediately below the lower line. The picture in the strip comes from one end
window, all the remainder of the field comes from the other. The bottom separating line must be used
when ranging.
If the rangefinder is moved in elevation it will be seen that the pictures in, and below, the strip will move
towards or away from each other. The rangefinder is laid so that both pictures are touching the bottom
line and a cut is obtained by fitting a part in the strip to the duplicate below the line.
Astigmatizers.
361. It is sometimes necessary to range on a light, i.e., a gun flash, signalling lamp or a star. Astigmatizers
affect the appearance of the object in much the same way as a curved mirror does, drawing the object out
into a vertical streak, thus presenting the rangetaker with the most suitable shape on which to "cut." They
can be swung into the beams of light inside the rangefinder by means of a lever.
Astigmatizers are seldom of use for ordinary objects, because of lack of contrast between the object and
its surroundings, and if used, will produce a streaky field in which the object cannot be recognised.
Light Filters.
362. These are provided for all rangefinders as follows:-
Yellow. Used in haze or mist, when the air contains

moisture.

Light or dark neutral. Used when ranging close to, or in to bright

sunlight
or reflection of sun's rays on the water, or on
searchlights.
L.A. Ranging.
363. After the lining-up procedure has been carried out, the illumination to the range scale is switched off
to prevent the rangetaker being influenced by previous readings. As soon as the target is seen, the
rangetaker takes a cut, and when satisfied, makes the cut switch. The breaking of the cut switch indicates
that the range has been plotted, and the rangetaker is then free to take another range, but before doing so
he throws the cut off by moving the working head. This ensures that each range is an independent effort.
The cut should be thrown off high and low alternatively, but sometimes the rangetaker may be ordered by
the T.S. to throw off in one direction so as to cut against the rate, i.e., if the rate is closing, the rangetaker
would be ordered to throw off low. The actual order given would refer to the working head wheel in terms
of "clockwise," or "anti-clockwise."
Use made of Ranges.
364. Two distinct uses are made of rangefinder ranges:-
(i) They are the basis of gun range for opening fire.
(ii) The rate of change of range obtained from the range plot is compared with the rate in use,
to assist in obtaining the correct enemy speed and inclination.
130
As the accuracy of the initial salvos is dependent on the mean R/F range, the necessity for quick and
accurate ranging is obvious. Having opened fire, if all rangetakers transmit accurate ranges and plenty of
them, a compact and steady range plot will be produced, from which good suggestions can be obtained. If
the ranges sent down are inconsistent and infrequent, the plot will be irregular with a large spread. From
this type of plot any suggestions obtained will most probably be misleading.
The secret of good ranging is to practice, not only in fine weather, but especially when the visibility is bad
and the ship is rolling. It is under these conditions that you will probably meet the enemy.
365. A rangetaker must help the officer in charge of the rangefinders to keep his rangefinder analysis
chart, which will probably be kept in the gunnery office.
The idea of this analysis chart is that the adjustment of a rangefinder is not "fiddled with" but the fact that
you do a comparison run with another rangefinder or with a Radar set ensures that the officer in charge of
the rangefinders knows exactly how your instrument is behaving.
366. The adjustment of a rangefinder must never be altered without the approval and supervision of the
rangefinder officer.

It is best to get the instrument into adjustment at the beginning of a commission and then to leave it,
accepting a small error, as long as the rangefinder officer knows what this error is. If, however, a
rangefinder is being continually altered and adjusted, it will be difficult for the officer in charge of
rangefinders to know how it is behaving.
Halving Error.
367. When taking a cut, one part of the image is moved laterally, relative to the other part, and made to fit.
To do this accurately, it is necessary that the parts of the pictures coming from both ends of the
rangefinder shall appear at the correct height relative to each other. Considering the double image field, if
one image is higher than the other, although correctly in line with each other laterally, they will not show
up clearly, and unless there is a vertical line, it will not be possible to see when an accurate cut is
obtained.
The difference in height of the two parts of a picture is called halving error.
368-"Detection of Halving or Height of Image Error (Diagrams 23 and 23A).
A test for halving error should be made, if possible, immediately on closing up on all occasions, and the
instrument should be checked if there is any considerable change of temperature during the watch.
The instrument is most easily tested as follows:-
(1) Direct the instrument on to the nearest well-defined object.
(2) Obtain an approximate cut.
(3) (a) With 'erect image' fields.-Move the rangefinder in elevation until the object is in the
lower field, then slowly depress the rangefinder until the separating line crosses the top of the
object.
If the top of the target appears in the upper field before it has reached the separating line in the
lower field there is an error of duplication (see Diagram 23).
If the top disappears from the lower field and does not appear in the upper field there is an
error of deficiency (see Diagram 23).
When the separating line crosses the target without distortion of any kind, then the rangefinder
is correctly adjusted for halving (see Diagram 23).
131

5 A.F.O. P.75/47
(b) With the strip image or inverted image field of view.-The method of detection is slightly
different and the error is called 'height of image error'. The error is detected by moving the
rangefinder in elevation until the object is in the lower field and then slowly depressing the
rangefinder until one of the images touches the separating line.
If the other image touches the line at the same time, no error exists (see Diagram 23A).
If the lower image touches the line first, the image is too high (see Diagram 23A).
If the upper (strip), image touches the line first, the image is too low (see Diagram 23A)."
(G. 6619/46.-A.F.O. P.75/47.)
132

" Care of Optical Instruments-Rangefinders. Telescopes, Binoculars and G.R.Us.
372a. If optical instruments are subjected to any strong sun-light, there is a risk of the balsam in the eye-
piece combination becoming temporarily softened. This will allow a relative movement of the prisms,
thus causing an error in coincidence. 'Stars' may also appear in the cement of the objectives.
To prevent these occurrences all optical instruments should be screened from the direct rays of the sun by
covers, or when this is not possible by depressing the sights or instrument."
(G. 6619/46.-A.F.O. P.75/47.)

133
Except when ranging on an absolutely vertical line, halving will affect the accuracy of the cut, and the
rangetaker must therefore test the instrument for halving on all occasions of closing up, and if necessary,
correct the error.
Normally only small halving errors will be found; if large errors are found the fact should be reported.
In rangefinders with upright images, in certain circumstances a halving error of " Duplication " may be
deliberately introduced by the rangetaker to enable him to obtain a cut. If the height of the object is small,
and, owing to motion on the ship, he has difficulty in keeping the separating line on the object, then by
working the halving adjustment to make the image appear in the upper field before it reaches the line in
the lower field, the height of the image appears to be increased.
Mean Adjustment Error or Coincidence Error.
370. If the true range of an object is known, and a series of ranges of it are taken, then the mean R/F range
should agree with the true range.
If they differ then the difference is the error of the rangefinder and this is called the mean adjustment error
or coincidence error. This error can be corrected at all rangefinders by means of the coincidence
adjustment. The coincidence adjustment is normally locked and the key kept by the officer in charge of
rangefinders, and no adjustments are made without his permission.
INCLINOMETERS. Diagram 24.
371. An inclinometer is an instrument for obtaining the angle between the fore-and-aft line of the enemy
and the line of sight; that is, the inclination. It is purely an instrument for measuring the angle between
two points on the target (say the two masts) of which the horizontal distance apart is known. If the range
is known and this angle is measured, the inclination can be worked out and transmitted to the T.S.
Inclinometers can show if the enemy is going to the right or left and the angle between his fore-and-aft
line and the line of sight but no inclinometer can say whether the enemy is going away or coming towards
the firing ship; that is, it cannot determine whether the inclination is, say, 30 or 150. Thus a Rate Officer
is essential in addition to the inclinometer. The instruments can, however, tell very quickly if the enemy is
altering course and this is one of their most important uses. If the operator of the inclinometer reports
"Target getting fatter" or "Target getting thinner" the Rate Officer knows which way it is altering.
MAINTENANCE OF RANGEFINDERS AND INCLINOMETERS.
372. These instruments can be covered by their own special covers when necessary. Before covering, all
dampness should be removed by wiping it off. Clean linen is supplied for cleaning the outsides of the
windows and glasses.
Never clean a rangefinder or inclinometer with a gritty substance.

Never paint over these instruments and always treat them with the utmost care and delicacy. Keep them as
dry as possible.
Never attempt to strip a rangefinder or inclinometer. If any defect is found report it at once to the gunnery
office.
Never touch the coincidence adjusting head without a direct order from the officer in charge of the
instrument.
Spare part boxes are supplied, one to each rangefinder. They contain all the gear necessary for the
Ordnance Artificers to strip it down or clean it internally. This gear must be mustered frequently and care
taken that it is all in place.
134
In the event of a thunderstorm . . . (para 247)
CH. VII. SECTION 4. THE GUN.
373. In Section 1 of this chapter, the method of laying, training and firing the guns by DIRECTOR was
discussed. This is the primary means employed in nearly every ship, except those carrying only one gun,
but should any part of the Director system fail, it is very necessary that we should still be able both to
point the gun at the enemy and fire it at the gun itself.
374. The point that must be quite clear before discussing the sighting arrangements at the gun is this:
gunsights and director instruments are completely separate and have nothing whatever to do with each
other. Range and Deflection are transmitted from the T.S. to a Receiver at each Gun, so that the Gunsights
may be kept set, although they may not actually be being used. Thus, if there is a breakdown, and
Quarters firing is used, the sights will be set with the latest information.
GUNSIGHTS. Diagrams 25 and 26.

375. The object of a gunsight is to make it possible for the gunlayer and trainer to aim the gun so as to hit
the enemy. As the enemy ship is probably some distance away, telescopes are fitted so that the gunlayer
and trainer can see the enemy more plainly.
When the gunsight is fitted to the gun, it is very important to check that these telescopes are exactly in
line with the centre line of the bore of the gun when zero settings are applied. This then is the basis of the
gunsight. Both the gunlayer's and trainer's telescopes are in line with the bore of the gun, with RANGE
and DEFLECTION set to zero.
376. If we now fired the gun, under these conditions, the shell would hit an enemy only at point blank
range, because the gun is not elevated. The shell will carry but a short distance. In order to elevate the gun
so that the shell will travel the correct distance, GUN RANGE (see para. 302), which is sent to a RANGE
and DEFLECTION RECEIVER at the gun from the TRANSMITTING STATION, is set on the range dial
by the sight setter. When this is done, the
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136

137
telescopes are depressed. The gunlayer, who is looking through his telescope, no longer sees the enemy
ship, so he elevates the telescope again, by means of his ELEVATING HANDWHEEL. When he does
this he also elevates the gun and so gives the gun the correct elevation for that range. If the ship is rolling,
the gunlayer will, of course, have to move his handwheel the whole time to keep the enemy ship in his
field of view. By doing this he is automatically keeping the gun at the correct angle of elevation relative to
the horizontal plane.
377. In order now to get the gun aimed off, the correct amount of GUN DEFLECTION (see para. 302)
must also be applied. This deflection is also sent to the range and deflection receiver at the gun from the
transmitting station and is put on to the deflection dial by the sight setter. When this is being done the
telescopes are moved in the opposite direction, that is to say, if the deflection is right, the telescopes are
moved to the left and vice versa, the reason being that the trainer, who is keeping his telescope trained on
the enemy, finds it moved away as deflection is applied and, in bringing his telescope back again on to the
enemy ship, by means of his trainer's handwheel, he moves the gun through the correct angle to give the
right amount of aim-off.
378. To sum up the process of sighting a gun:-The gunlayer and trainer move their elevating and training
handwheels, until the enemy appears in the centre of their telescopes. The sight setter sets the range that is
shown in the range and deflection receiver on to the range dial. This depresses the telescopes through the
required angle for that range. The gunlayer then elevates the gun through this angle, so that he sees the
enemy once more in the centre of his telescope.
The sight setter also sets the deflection that is shown in the range and deflection receiver, on to the

deflection dial. This again moves the telescopes off the enemy ship and the trainer then trains the gun
back, so that the telescopes again come on to the target.
Trainer's Free Sight.
379. At some guns the trainer can move his telescope up or down with his shoulder. This is known as the
trainer's free sight and enables him to keep his telescope approximately on the enemy the whole time,
quite independently of the gunlayer. This allows the gun to be kept on the target for training, although the
application of range or movement of the ship may have moved the gunlayer's telescope off the target or
the gun may have been moved to a suitable elevation for re-loading.
PARTS OF A SIGHT. Diagram 26.
380.
(i) Sight Bracket is the part secured to the cradle of the gun and carries all the remaining parts
of the sight, so that the whole sight moves with the gun for elevation and training.
(ii) Elevation Pivot is a horizontal axis secured to the sight bracket.
(iii) Range Setting Handwheel and Range Dial are held in hearings secured to the sight
carrier. They are connected together by gearing, so that the dial is turned by movement of the
handwheel.
(iv) Sight Carrier is pivoted about the elevation pivot, so that it is free to move in elevation
independently of the sight bracket and gun by turning the range setting handwheel and range
dial. There are two methods by which this may be done, either by gearing or by a cam, and the
method employed decides the type of sight.
(v) Deflection Pivot is a vertical axis secured to the sight carrier.
(vi) Deflection Setting Handwheel and Deflection Dial are held by bearings secured to the
sight carrier. They are connected together by gearing, so that the dial is moved when the
handwheel is moved and at the same time this motion of the handwheel moves the Deflecting
Worm.
(vii) Telescope Carrier is pivoted about the deflection pivot and can move
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horizontally for deflection separately to the sight carrier or sight bracket and gun. The
telescope carrier must, however, move with the sight carrier for elevation. It has a toothed arc
which engages with the deflecting worm. Thus, as the deflection handwheel is turned, the
deflecting worm rotates and so trains the whole telescope carrier about the deflection pivot.
(viii) Telescope Holder is the actual frame into which the telescope is clamped, It is usually
solid with the telescope carrier but in certain guns it may be a separate piece, secured to the
telescope carrier by a horizontal pivot. In these cases, the telescope holder is fixed to the
telescope carrier by an eccentric bolt working in an elongated slot. The eccentric bolt allows
the telescope holder a very slight movement in elevation relative to the telescope carrier to
permit a small adjustment to be made for alignment. For all normal purposes, the telescope
holder and telescope carrier can be regarded as one solid article.
TYPES OF SIGHTS.
"381. There are three distinctive types of sights in use-the Geared sight, Differential sight and Cam sight.
Nearly all modern guns, up to and including 5.25-in., are fitted with geared or differential sights. Older
guns, such as the 15-in., are fitted with cam sights. Larger modern guns are fitted with local director sights
in the turrets. These will be discussed briefly later on."
Geared Sights.
382. In geared sights, the sight carrier has a toothed arc into which an elevating pinion engages; the
elevating pinion is held by bearings secured to the sight bracket and is driven by gearing from the range-
setting handwheel. Thus, as the range-setting handwheel is moved the range dial revolves and, at the same
time, the elevating pinion revolves and pushes the toothed arc up or down; the toothed arc being secured
to the sight carrier moves it in elevation or depression about the elevation pivot. In some forms the arc is
fixed to the cradle, and the pinion is on the sight carrier, but the relative motion between the sight and
cradle remains the same whatever form is used.
Cam Sights.
383. In cam sights the spindle of the range dial has secured to it a cam, which revolves to certain
positions, according to what range is set on the dial. Resting on the cam is a roller, which is attached to
the sight carrier. When the range setting handwheel is turned both the range dial and the cam are moved
the same amount and, according to the shape of the cam, the roller is raised or lowered and so works the
sight carrier, in elevation or depression about the elevation pivot.
Geared Sights are more practical, when the gun is in an exposed position, owing to the fact that their
maintenance is much more simple than a Cam Sights.
The Cam Sight was used extensively in older ships, where the advantages of having equally spaced
graduations round the range dial were very great. This no longer applies and the cam sight is now
becoming obsolete and will not be discussed further in this book.
"Differential Sights

383a. In differential sights the telescope carrier is attached to the carriage, instead of the sight being
mounted on the cradle. To make the telescope move to depression when range is applied and to elevate
with the gun, two drives are led into a differential. One drive is from the range setting handwheel and the
other drive from a toothed arc on the cradle. The output from the differential moves the telescope carrier
and thus moves the telescope in elevation or depression for the resultant movement of the two drives."
CORRECTIONS REQUIRED AT A SIGHT.
384. (i) The corrections required in elevation are:-
Change of muzzle velocity.

Temperature of charge.
Dip between the telescope and bore of the gun.
(ii) The correction required for training is applied as a correction to deflection and is Drift.
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The reasons for these corrections have been discussed in the earlier part of this chapter, where their effects
on the director system of firing were shown. When using the gunsights for laying and training the above
allowances have to be made in order to sight the gun as accurately as possible under all conditions.
385. The methods of making these corrections at a GEARED SIGHT are as follows:-
(i) Elevation.
Change in muzzle velocity and temperature. Change the RANGE DIAL every 25 feet per second change
of M.V. (The temperature effect is converted into change of M.V. and included.)
Dip between the telescope and bore of the gun. This is allowed for in the way the range graduations are
marked on the range dial.
(ii) Training.
Drift. As the RANGE SETTING HANDWHEEL is turned a movement is imparted to a DRIFT CAM,
which moves the DEFLECTION POINTER. Thus, when deflection is set, an extra amount is put on for
drift.
At some sights the pivot of the sight carrier is inclined. The correction is then made automatically, when
the sights are set.
MAINTENANCE OF GUNSIGHTS.
386.

(i) Never smother a sight in oil. It merely collects dirt.

(ii) Never use brick dust or polish, especially on cams.
(iii) The cam roller and surface should always be kept as dry as possible.
(iv) Never bump a sight on to the zero or maximum settings.
(v) Work the sight through its full limits frequently and see that it works freely.
(vi) Never tamper with any screws or nuts on a sight.
TELESCOPES.
387. The gunlayer and trainer must realise that knowledge and care of their telescopes is of vital
importance, if they are to be successfully used.
Shipping a Telescope.
388. A telescope is always used with its own particular sight. The user of the telescope is the only man
who may screw up the telescope holder and he must always tighten the screws to the same degree on
every occasion. The telescope holder must be wiped clean, before shipping the telescope. A particle of
grit or waste renders the sight inaccurate at once.
Tests for a Telescope.
389. There are two tests for a telescope.
(i) Parallax. When moving the eye from side to side of the eyepiece, the cross should not
appear to move.
(ii) Collimation. If the two lines of the cross do not intersect one another exactly in the centre
of the tube, on rotating the telescope in its holder and looking at a fairly distant object, the
cross is found to describe a circle.
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No error from the latter source can arise if the telescope is always shipped (both for sight testing and for
use) upon the same slew. It is therefore convenient to make a rule that all telescopes are to be shipped in a
certain position, as for example "with the lamp connections up and pointing inwards," say, at one o'clock
for the layer's and eleven o'clock for the trainer's telescopes.
These tests will be carried out periodically, as arranged by the Gunnery Officer of the ship.
Focusing a Telescope.
390. The best objects to focus on are fine and delicate ones.
Screw the eyepiece right out (generally anti-clockwise) until the object is completely out of focus; then
screw clockwise slowly, keeping both eyes open, until the object appears again. Fix your attention on

some small delicate part of the object in the centre of the field and get it sharp. Then screw the eyepiece
out again as far as possible without loss of definition of the object.
Choice of Power to Use.
391. The FIELD of a telescope is the angular view that can be seen through the telescope without moving
it.
The POWER means the number of times larger the image appears through the telescope than the image
seen by the naked eye. Most sighting telescopes are fitted with a variable power device, so that the power
in use can be made to suit the circumstances.
POWER and FIELD work in opposition to each other. If the power is large or high, the field is small, and
a low power gives a large field. To change the power of a telescope, turn the larger milled collar farthest
from the eyepiece.
Before adjusting the power, it is essential that the telescope is properly focused.
A change of power will not alter the focus.
Under the most favourable conditions, namely, bright light and ship and target both steady, the higher the
power, the greater the accuracy in laying.
392. In less favourable circumstances, high power has two disadvantages:-
(i) The field is smaller than with a lower power.

(ii) The image is darker and if there is any mist or haze about the object, it will appear even
less distinct.
The lowest power of the telescope should always be used under the following conditions:-
(i) On a rough day, with much motion on the ship.

(ii) On a misty day, with low visibility.
(iii) At night.
Sun and Spray Caps.
393. Sun caps are intended to be shipped, when the eye is dazzled by the reflected light of the sun, and to
prevent unwanted light from entering the telescope.
Spray caps are for protecting the front glass from rain or spray. In a dim light these seriously darken the
field and for that reason should never be used at night, as they render objects invisible, which could be
clearly seen, were the whole aperture of the glass exposed.

141
Light Filters.
394. These are supplied for use with telescopes as follows:-
(i) Neutral tint For use in bright sunlight.

(ii) Yellow For use in hazy weather.
(iii) Dense neutral For use at night against searchlights.
GUNLAYING AND TRAINING.
395. The art of gunlaying and training may be divided up into two parts:-
(i) When the guns are following the DIRECTOR.

(ii) When the gunlayer and trainer are using the GUNSIGHTS.
When Following Director.
396.
(i) Lining Up and Checking Receivers. The method of lining up elevation and training
receivers has already been discussed (see paras. 276 and 280). Accurate lining up is of
extreme importance when the receivers are driven by Step by Step Transmission. It is not
necessary when MAGSLIP TRANSMISSION is used.
Checking receivers should be done at dawn and dusk action stations and at Quarters Clean
Guns. If this is done, it will be found that receivers will seldom get out of step.
During these times, gunlayers and trainers should also test their telescopes, check their focus
and their night sights. If this is done regularly it will be found that when suddenly going into
action these things are always correct.
(ii) When following director pointers, gunlayers and trainers must endeavour to keep them
exactly in line the whole time that the gun is loaded. This needs constant practice and
concentration. It cannot be stressed too much that whatever happens, the gun has to be kept
pointed accurately at the enemy, and unless great care is taken the accuracy of pointer
following is apt to fall off when a man gets excited in an action.
(iii) When the guns are to be brought to the "Ready" the gunlayer and trainer must report
"On" as soon as their pointers are in line, to inform the breech worker that the interceptor can
be closed.

(iv) If at any time either the gunlayer or trainer cannot keep his pointers in line, he must give
the order "Half cock," so that the interceptor is opened.
(v) If either the gunlayer or the trainer suspects that his electrical pointers are behaving in an
unusual manner, he must report it at once.
When Using Gunsights.
397.
(i) If telescopes and night sights have been conscientiously tested every dawn and dusk, there
should be no trouble when their use is suddenly called for.
(ii) In time the eyes will get tired by looking continuously through any optical instrument. It is
essential of course that the telescope is focused correctly to reduce eyestrain. This can be
relieved temporarily by slightly altering the focus, although it must be put hack to the best
position after a short period.
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(iii) When using a telescope, eyestrain is delayed by keeping the disengaged eye open and
focusing it on a distant object. If no distant object is available a shield should be put over the
eye, so that it can he kept open. Constant practice will enable one to keep the disengaged eye
open unconsciously whilst concentrating one's vision in the other eye.
(iv) The gun should be laid on the target the whole time, unless it has temporarily to be laid to
a convenient angle for loading.
(v) The gun should be fired as soon as possible after the fire gong or the order "Fire" but
accuracy of laying must never be sacrificed for speed.
(vi) Do not fire if the sight setter reports "Sights moving," until he reports "Sights set."
(vii) Press the trigger firmly and then let go. Do not twitch and do not keep the trigger pressed
for longer than necessary.
(viii) If the ship is rolling downwards quickly, press the trigger when the cross wire is just
above the point of aim. If the ship is rolling upwards quickly, press the trigger just before the
cross wire rises to the point of aim. A minimum error will be obtained if the layer keeps his
cross wire just ahead of the target on the roll rather than trying to chase it.
(ix) The trigger must not be pressed unless the vertical cross wire is on or very nearly on.
Point of Aim.

398. The standard point of aim is the point where the vertical through the foremast cuts the horizontal on
the forecastle deck level. In the absence of the horizontal point of aim, gun flashes may be used instead.
In target practices, the point of aim to be used is the leading edge in line with the top.
Recognition of Targets.
399. On receiving the name and description of the target, all gunlayers and trainers should take the first
opportunity to look at the target, even if they are in director firing, so that if the director breaks down later
they will know at once when they are on the correct target. In action, smoke, enemy splashes and spray
may easily obscure the target and it is therefore essential that all gunlayers and trainers observe any easily
distinguishable feature of the target to ensure that they will get on to the correct target when it becomes
visible again.
FIRING ARRANGEMENTS.
400. A switch is provided at the gun, marked DIRECTOR and LOCAL. When at DIRECTOR the firing
circuit can only be completed by the director trigger being pressed; when at LOCAL the firing circuit can
only be completed by the gunlayer's trigger being pressed, in which case there are three combinations of
aiming and firing that may be used:-
(i) Local Firing. The gunlayer and trainer continue to follow their director pointers, and the
gunlayer fires the gun. This is used if the director firing circuits fail on 5.25-in. guns and
below.
(ii) Gunlayer's Firing. The gunlayer aims by looking through his telescope, and fires the gun;
the trainer continues to follow his director pointers. This is used if the director firing and
elevation circuits fail.
143
(iii) Quarters Firing. The gunlayer and trainer both look through their telescopes, and the
gunlayer fires the gun. This is used if the director elevation and training circuits fail.
Arrangements are also made at some guns for firing them by percussion.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING DRILL AT THE GUN.
401. The foundation of any gunnery system is the gun and without the gun's crew the gun cannot be
worked.
The gun's crew, therefore, is the foundation upon which the complicated modern gunnery system in a ship
is built up.
The gun's crew in action must work with the regularity and accuracy of a well adjusted machine, since if

damage or casualties occur, the crew must display a good knowledge of the gun and its capabilities in
order that it shall be kept in action if it is humanly possible. Since there is no point in firing the gun at all
unless it is correctly aimed, this under all conditions, must be the crew's next consideration.
It will be seen, therefore, that to be successful the crew must combine common sense and determination
with a good knowledge of the gun and an ability to carry out the action drill almost instinctively.
The very high standard of drill required of a gun's crew in action can be acquired only by continual
practice and no crew will be successful until it has acquired a very strong "team spirit."
402. The following four cardinal principles must continually be borne in mind:-
(i) To be efficient the crew must know how the gun works.
(ii) The crew must realise that, whatever happens, the gun must be kept in action to the last
man.
(iii) The crew must realise that whatever happens in action, the gun must always be accurately
aimed.
(iv) The crew must understand that the maintenance of the gun is the concern of the crew and
must always see that it is clean and efficient.
THE GUN'S CREW AT A DESTROYER'S GUN.
403. The mounting is manned by seven men each of whom is given a particular job when fighting the
gun, but it is important to note that:-
(i) The crew does not consist of seven men doing seven jobs but is a team doing one job.
(ii) Although each man is trained primarily to do one particular part of the job in the team, he
must be able to take over any other part of the work at the gun and if necessary to combine it
with his own.
Each of the members of the crew is given a number in the crew and a name which sums up his principal
task.
Composition of Crew.
404.

(i) The Gunlayer (G.L.) is an L.R. 3. He is responsible that the gun is accurately aimed for
elevation in all conditions. He is also responsible for firing the gun locally when ordered to do
so.
(ii) The Breechworker and Captain of the Gun (C.G.) is a Q.R.2. He is responsible to the O.O.
Q. for everything at his gun and, in the absence
144
of the O.O.Q. for everything at his Quarters. He is responsible for seeing that the gun is kept
in action if it is humanly possible, and in director firing if that is possible. He supervises the
work of the gun's crew and works the breech.
(iii) The Trayworker is responsible for loading the gun whenever so ordered.
(iv) The Trainer is an L.R. 3 and is responsible for the accurate aiming of the gun for line in
all conditions.
(v) Projectile Supply is responsible that shell of the type ordered are on the loading tray or
fuze setting position when required.
(vi) Cartridge Supply is responsible that a cartridge of the type ordered is on the tray when
required.
(vii) Sightsetter (S.S.) is responsible that all orders addressed to his gun are received by the C.
G. and that all reports from the gun to the T.S. are passed to, and acknowledged by, the T.S.
He is also responsible for seeing that the gunsights are accurately set when ordered or that
fuzes are accurately set when the drill requires this to be done.
The job of the whole team is to see that the gun is kept in action, correctly aimed, and, if possible, in
director firing.
ACTION DRILL.
405. The gun may be required to fire at surface targets, at aircraft, or to fire star shell during actions at
night.
(i) Action drill common to all forms of fire.
406. The order "Action stations" whether passed by pipe or the Alarm rattlers, is always obeyed at top
speed.
If the gun is not already in the " cleared away " state, it is brought to that state as quickly as possible.
If the gun is already manned by a Defence or Cruising watch crew, the action crew are to take over as

quickly as possible from their opposite numbers but care is to be taken that orders are not missed during
this period. If the gun is manned and in action when the action crew arrive, the changeover is to be
effected without missing a broadside and without loss of accuracy in pointer following.
(ii) Action drill for low angle fire.
407. The orders received by the gun's crew will depend on the circumstances in which the enemy is
sighted.
The "alarm" procedure may be used if it is necessary to bring the guns to the "Ready" in an emergency.
The normal method of firing is by director. Other methods of firing are used only when breakdowns of
one kind or another have occurred, though "Quarters firing" may be ordered when the gun is required to
engage a target other than that being fought by the director.
Remember always that it is better to miss a broadside than to fire a badly aimed shot.
A certain time is allowed for loading the gun between broadsides which is called " the loading interval."
After each round has been fired the fire gong may be rung again at any time after the loading interval.
When "Rapid broadsides" is ordered, the loading interval is the shortest possible and the fire gong is
rung regularly at the end of it.
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DEFENCE AND CRUISING STATIONS AT THE GUN.
408. The ship's company does not remain at action stations all the time that the ship is at sea but normally
mans a proportion of the armament by watches.
When at Defence Stations, the hands are in two watches and probably half the guns are manned. At
Cruising Stations a smaller proportion of the armament is manned and the hands work in three or four
watches, according to the ship's organization.
The object of having some guns manned is to ensure that if any target presents itself suddenly, it can be
engaged at once. The first requirement of a gun's crew on watch is, therefore, Preparedness.
409. The state of preparedness required depends on the circumstances and a gun's crew on watch may be
in one of three states, namely:-
" Stand to" state.

" Relax" state.
In the "Stand to" state the gun's crew are closed up as for action, following pointers, ammunition numbers
holding ammunition and so on.

In the "Relax" state the crew are allowed to fall out and sit about near the gun or in the gun shelter
provided. A communication number is closed up and a look-out posted.
The state of preparedness required will be ordered by the Control Officer and on the watch changing over,
is to be turned over to the new Captain of the gun.
"It must be realised that these states refer to personnel and not to any machines; for personnel only two
states are necessary but the complexity of modern machines is such that no set rules can be laid down to
cover all different pumps, gyros, radars, etc., and these are left to the internal organization of each ship."
410. If at any time during the watch the "Alarm" is passed, or any other order included in Action Drill is
received at the gun, the crew carry out the drill for that order as already detailed.
If at any time during the watch, "Action Stations" is ordered, the crew must remain at their cruising or
defence watch stations until they are properly relieved by their opposite numbers in the Action Gun's
crew.
The Captain of the gun is personally responsible for everything at his Quarters during his watch.
On closing up at the beginning of the watch, the Captain of the gun will muster his crew and when all are
present will order the Sight Setter to report to the T.S. "'A' gun's crew of the port watch closed up," or
as the case may be.
411. No man is to leave the gun deck on any pretext whatsoever, unless permission has been obtained
from the Control Officer, P.C.O. or Officer of the Watch. The ship's orders will make clear whose consent
is to be obtained before a man leaves the gun deck during his watch.
If the crew are ordered to leave the gun for any reason, such as manning the seaboat during their watch,
the T.S. is always to be informed by the S.S. before the gun is left. On returning to the gun the "Closed
up" report is to be made.
It is doubtful whether, at Defence and Cruising stations, enough hands will always be available to form a
complete gun's crew and from those that are allocated to the gun's crew, it may be necessary to take one or
more at a time to keep look-out tricks on the bridge.
146

412. The next requirement of a gun's crew on watch, therefore, is adaptability. Each man at the gun must
be able to do any job at the gun.
During the watch the armament may be exercised on a real or imaginary target and the ship's orders will
lay down what is required of the gun's crew during such exercises. All orders will be prefixed by the
words "For exercise" and in general the gun's crew should carry out the correct Action Drill for the orders
received except that the gun is not to be loaded.
413. A gun's crew on watch should always be employed as necessary round the gun, on cleaning and
maintenance work; the C.G. is responsible for seeing that his gun is ready for action at all times during his
watch and to report anything which detracts from this condition. Nothing is to be stripped at the gun nor
are leads to be disconnected without direct orders from the control.
At the end of the watch the crew is not to leave the gun deck until the order "Carry on" is given by the C.
G. This will not normally be given until the whole crew of the relieving watch is on the deck.
414.
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CHAPTER VIII.
HIGH ANGLE FIRING
OUTLINE OF THE CONTROL SYSTEM.
The Problem.
415. In high angle firing, the main general principle of pointing the guns at the enemy is exactly the same
as in low angle firing, inasmuch as the guns are kept aimed at the enemy, regardless of the ship rolling or
altering course, by the HIGH ANGLE DIRECTOR keeping on the aircraft and sending away electrical
movements to red pointers at the elevation and training receivers at the high angle guns.
Gravity also affects the high angle shell, in the same way as it does when firing on the surface, so that the
gun has to be elevated above the line of sight to the aircraft by an amount, which varies with the range and
the angle of sight. (Angle of sight is the angle between the horizontal plane and a line to the aircraft.)
Besides being originally aimed at the enemy aircraft, the guns have to be aimed off for deflection. In low
angle firing, when this was discussed (see paras. 300 and 301) we had to consider a ship which was
moving along the surface of the sea.
In high angle firing, we have to consider an enemy aircraft, which is not only moving very much faster
than a ship but is also free to move in any direction, i.e., diving, climbing, or flying on a steady course.
416. For an aircraft that is flying on a course at right angles to our line of sight, the aim-off, or deflection,
is nearly all LATERAL DEFLECTION. It is ahead of the aircraft and is calculated in the High Angle
Calculating Position, before being sent away electrically to the red pointers at the training receivers at the
guns.
For an aircraft that is coming directly towards us, the aim-off or deflection, is nearly all VERTICAL
DEFLECTION. Again it is ahead of the aircraft and it is calculated in the High Angle Calculating
Position, this time being sent to the red pointers at the elevation receivers at the guns.
If an aircraft is flying on a course between the two, both vertical and lateral deflection have to be sent
away to the guns.
Thus, we see that the High Angle Calculating Position in the first place calculates deflection. The method
of solving this part of the problem is dealt with later on.
417. The next part of the problem is to burst the shell when it reaches the aircraft. In low angle firing
broadsides were fired so that the shells would burst on impact with the enemy's hull.

In high angle firing this would be practically impossible, so high explosive shells, fitted with fuzes that
will burst after a certain time, are fired and if the shell is burst as close as possible to the enemy aircraft,
the fragments of shell will be sufficient to bring down the aircraft, or at least seriously damage it.
418. The fuze to be set on the nose of the shell has to be calculated an appreciable time before the shell
reaches the immediate vicinity of the aircraft, this time being known as the PREDICTION INTERVAL.
148
This interval consists of the time taken to pass the fuze to the guns from the calculating position, load the
gun and fire it, (this is known as DEAD TIME), and also the time of flight of the shell from the gun to the
aircraft.
PREDICTION INTERVAL DEAD TIME + TIME OF FLIGHT.
It will be seen from this, that timing is a very important factor in this problem, and the High Angle
Calculating Position besides sending out the fuze to be set, also puts on a light at the guns, which tells the
crew when to set that fuze and load the shell into the gun.
419. Now let us sum up the whole problem.
First of all, the high angle director elevates and trains on to the target, sending away both elevation and
training through the calculating position to the red pointers at the receivers at the guns. The director keeps
on the target the whole time as the ship rolls and alters course, and the guns follow.

149
When the director is on the enemy aircraft, the range is taken continually by Radar, and an optical
rangefinder in the H.A. director. At the same time the speed and course of the aircraft are sent to the
calculating position by the Control Officer, who is also in the H.A. director.
420. In the calculating position, the deflection, both lateral and vertical, is calculated, the result being an
added movement sent away to the same red pointers at the gun receivers. The guns are now "Aimed off"
from the H.A. director. In the C.P. a fuze number is calculated and sent to the guns. When the load lamp
at the fuze setting machine burns, the fuze that has been sent from the C.P. is set on the shell, and the shell
loaded into the gun.
From the C.P. a fire buzzer is rung at regular intervals; this tells the director layer when to fire.
In the director, the layer presses his trigger whilst the buzzer is ringing and all the guns are fired
electrically.
The shells now travel to the position which the C.P. has calculated as being the future position of the
aircraft, and burst at the same moment as the aircraft arrives .
Principles of Deflection. Diagram 27.

421. When calculating deflections in high angle firing, it is always assumed that the aircraft is flying at a
level height and constant speed.
Let us first consider that the enemy aircraft flying towards the ship is such that its future position, i.e.,
when the shell bursts, is directly above the gun (see Fig. I. Diagram 27).
From the Diagram, P is the present position of the aircraft.
F is the future position of the aircraft, directly above the gun, G.
422. The height of the aircraft can be measured and the time of flight (t) from G to F is also known, so
that we know the average speed of the shell as it travels from G to F.
This is called AVERAGE PROJECTILE VELOCITY (a.p.v.) and the distance G F is this velocity
multiplied by the time of flight (a.p.v. x t ).
The speed of the aircraft (u) is estimated by the Control Officer and if the aircraft is to travel from P to F
during the time of flight (t) of the shell, the distance P F must be u x t
The deflection or aim-off must therefore be the angle P G F, which can be calculated from the ratio (u X
t)/(a.p.v. X t) or u/(a.p.v.) and to hit the plane at F we must fire when it is at P, with the gun aimed off an
amount equal to this angle.
423. So far we have considered the case of one aircraft coming from a certain direction, and flying so that
its future position when the shell burst is directly over the gun.
If, however, we go further and imagine that the aircraft can come from any position, as long as its future
position is at F directly over the gun, we find that P, the present position of the aircraft can be anywhere
on a circle, whose centre is at F and whose radius is u t.
Now let us suppose that the aircraft is such that its future position F, instead of being directly overhead is
at 60° from the horizontal (see Fig. II, Diagram 27).
Once again this aircraft is flying at a constant height towards the ship and can come in from any position
on the circle with centre at F and radius u t.
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424. If, however, we look at this circle from the gun G we notice that it now appears to be an ellipse and
not a circle, as was the case when the future position F was directly overhead.
It can also be imagined that the circle becomes a thinner and thinner ellipse as F approaches the surface of
the sea. If the speed of the aircraft is greater, then the circle becomes larger because u x t, which is the
radius of the circle, becomes larger.
This principle, which is called the ellipse method of calculating deflection, is used in all existing long
range high angle control systems.
425. In Diagram 28 will be seen a picture showing the deflection screen of an H.A.C.S. IV table. An
optical system inside the table throws on to the screen the image of a circle, which is engraved on a plate.
This circle can be tilted by a mechanism, according to the angle of sight and will thus show on the screen
as an ellipse, whose shape will vary according to the angle of sight.
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The optical unit inside the table is moved according to u/(a.p.v.) so that any variations in these will show
on the screen as changes in the size of the ellipse.
The track of an aircraft is also shown on the deflection screen by means of a wire, which is pivoted at the
centre and rotated in agreement with an arrow in the Control Officer's binocular. The Control Officer, in
the H.A. director, keeps this arrow along the fuselage of the aircraft and thus the correct track is sent
down to the deflection screen.
426. The deflection screen operator sits facing the screen, looking at the ellipse. He has two handwheels,
one either side of the screen, marked Vertical Deflection and Lateral Deflection. These are connected to
wires, which can be moved across the face of the screen. The duty of the deflection screen operator is to
keep these deflection wires over the intersection of the wire marking the track of the aircraft and the
ellipse. By moving the deflection wires from the centre of the ellipse to the point of intersection, the
deflection screen operator measures the vertical and lateral deflection of the aircraft and sends these away
to the red pointers at the elevation and training receivers at the high angle guns and so gives the guns the
necessary "Aim-off," both for elevation and training.
H.A.C.S.-FUZE PREDICTION.
427. In the beginning of this chapter we saw that, besides allowing for "Aim-off," a fuze had to be set on
the shell, so that it would burst at the future position of the aircraft.
In order to do this, we must have some means of finding out what the range of the aircraft is going to be
when the shell arrives. In H.A.C.S. this is done by " Prediction," that is to say that we measure the present
range of the aircraft continually and by means of a range plot at the opposite end of the H.A. table to the
deflection screen, we note the way in which that present range is altering and from this we forecast what
the range will be in the future. This is done as follows:-
428. Mounted in the H.A. director is a High Angle Rangefinder. This works on the same principle as the
L.A. rangefinder, inasmuch as the deflecting prism inside the instrument is moved for range but the
operator moves his Working Head for height. The reason for this is fairly obvious, because if the working
head were connected directly to the prism of the rangefinder, the operator would have to move the
working head continually, owing to the fact that the rate of change of range of an aircraft is extremely
high, owing to its speed. The rangefinder is, therefore, designed so that the operator only has to move his
working head when the aircraft changes height and as long as the height is correct, the change in the angle
of sight to the aircraft, as the director layer keeps on, operates a mechanism in the table, which converts
this measured height into range. This moves the prism in the rangefinder and also goes to the range plot in
the H.A.C.S.
429. This observed range appears in the range plot as a series of short lines, which slope across the
moving paper of the plot. The "pricker" underneath the plot is operated when the rangetaker in the H.A.
director presses the "cut push" with his foot.
The observed plot is liable to be irregular, especially when the rangetaker throws off and re-cuts on the
aircraft or through any errors in aim on the part of the director layer, and this irregularity makes it difficult
to predict the future range from its slope.

In order, therefore, to get a plot with a smooth slope, another plot is introduced on the paper, called the
generated plot. This is produced by the operators on the table keeping pointers to the "mean" of the
observed readings, for both
152
angle of sight and height. The generated plot appears in the range plot as a series of lines about twice as
long as those of the observed plot.
430. A third pricker is also operated by the Radar set. The Radar aerials are mounted on the H.A. director
and are pointed at the aircraft, when the layer and trainer get on. Continual ranges are taken by Radar and
these appear on the range plot as a series of small holes.
The range plot operator, therefore, sees on his plot, three sloping plots (see Diagram 29).
(i) The observed plot.

(ii) The generated plot.
(iii) The Radar plot.
He then, by means of a handwheel at the end of the table, moves a cursor with a length of wire attached to
it, until the wire is placed in such a position that the knob on the end of the cursor is a continuation of the
slope of the plots.
431. The operator aligns his cursor parallel to the slope of the generated plot and over the latest readings
of the observed plot; if the Radar plot is working accurately, he uses this plot rather than the other two.

By moving his handwheel the plot operator sends away to the fuze setting receivers at the guns continual
fuze numbers for the predicted future range of the aircraft. At the guns these fuzes are set when the " load
" lamp lights at the receiver. The load lamp is worked automatically by the H.A. table at regular intervals,
as is also the fire buzzer, which tells the director layer when to fire the broadside, whose shell are fuzed
for the correct future range.
153
FUZE KEEPING CLOCK-FUZE PREDICTION. Diagram 30.
432. The fuze keeping clock is fitted in destroyers and small ships, to solve the long range high angle
problem. The deflections, both vertical and lateral, which provide the necessary "Aim-off" for the guns,
are produced on the same principle as in H.A.C.S., except that the deflection operator looks through a
hole at the end of the clock at the ellipse, instead of watching the ellipse on a screen.

154
433. The method of obtaining fuze-settings is, however, different and is as follows:-
In the director is a rangefinder. This rangefinder takes ranges of the aircraft continually, when the director
layer and trainer are on; in order that the rangetaker will not have to move his working head continually as
the range alters, the deflecting prism in the rangefinder is moved automatically by the F.K.C. This is done
by means of a "Rate Clock," which works on the same principle as the rate clock in the Admiralty Fire
Control Clock, which is used for low angle firing, that is to say, when the inclination and speed of the
aircraft is set on the F.K.C., the rate of change of range is calculated, which in turn, moves the deflecting
prism in the rangefinder. Thus, as long as the correct settings are passed down to the F.K.C. by the
Control Officer in the director, the rangetaker will find that his cut is being held the whole time.
434. Thus we get the present range of the aircraft being sent down continually to the F.K.C., the
rangetaker pressing a cut push with his foot when he has la cut. At the same time Radar aerials mounted
in the director are pointed at the aircraft.
Future range, however, is required in order to set the correct fuze at the gun and this is calculated by the
mechanism in the F.K.C., which works out the enemy's travel during the "Dead Time" and "Time of
Flight" of the shell and hence calculates the future range.
435. In the mechanism of the F.K.C. is an instrument similar to that in the H.A.C.S., called a FIRING
INTERVAL CLOCK, which burns the PREDICT LAMP on the F.K.C.
The fuze number is then read off from a rotating disc at the opposite end of the clock to the deflection
operator and the fuze sent to the guns via a fuze transmitter on the bulkhead in the T.S. Thus the correct
fuze for the future range is passed to the fuze setting receivers at the guns. The guns are then loaded with
the correctly fuzed shell; and a fire buzzer sounds in the director, telling the director layer when to fire.
THE HIGH ANGLE FIRE CONTROL TEAM. Diagram 31.
Composition of the Team and Air Defence of the Ship.
436. As in low angle firing so in high angle firing, the successful defence of the ship against hostile
aircraft is brought about only by good teamwork, backed up by constant practice and an understanding by
each member of the team of the difficulties and complexities of each other's jobs.
The high angle control team is as follows:-
(i) The Air Defence Officer.
437. He is the captain of the team and on him rests the responsibility of seeing that no enemy aircraft
approaches without being engaged. He chooses the targets to be engaged from the air defence position at
the rear end of the bridge and by means of the Air Defence Officer's Sight, indicates the approaching
enemy aircraft to whichever H.A. director he wishes.

(ii) The Assistant Air Defence Officer.
438. Assists the A.D.O. and operates the A.D.O.'s sight on the other side of the air defence position.
"(ii) a. The Target Indication Officer.
He is responsible for the Air Defence of the ship in Blind Fire. He is stationed in the Aircraft Direction
Room, which is part of the Action In formation Centre, and by means of the Target Indication Unit (see
paragraph 446) he passes ranges and bearings of Aircraft Targets, detected by Long Range Warning
Radar, to the appropriate H.A. Director and Transmitting Station."
(iii) The Long Range Warning Radar Set Operators.
439. This Radar set is designed to pick up aircraft flying either singly or in formation at long ranges. The
information that it receives is passed to the Action Information Centre, and thence to the A.D.O.
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(iv) The Air Look-outs.
440. These are very important members of the team. There are six air lookouts, three each side, who sit on
special air look-out seats, fitted with binoculars, in positions either side of the Air Defence Position. Each
look-out has an arc for which he is responsible. He sweeps that arc continually through his binoculars
reporting as soon as he sees an aircraft. Having seen an aircraft he must keep it in his binoculars, until he
receives further orders from the Air Defence Officer.
(v) The High Angle Control Officer.
441. He sits in the high angle director and having been put on to the aircraft to be engaged, by the Air
Defence Officer, he gives the necessary orders to the calculating position for opening fire and
subsequently spots the bursts on to the enemy aircraft.
(vi) The High Angle Director's Crew.
442. Consists first of all of the director layer and trainer, who keep on the enemy aircraft continually, the
layer operating the angle of sight cut push with his foot as soon as he is on. This burns a light in the
calculating position and in the air defence position and tells these positions that he is "On" the enemy
aircraft. The director layer also fires the guns electrically, by means of a trigger, during the time that the
fire buzzer is ringing.
The other member of the crew is the rangetaker. He gets a "cut " as soon as the director layer and trainer
are on and subsequently throws off and re-cuts continually, so as to get as accurate readings as possible.
(vii) The Radar Ranging Set Operators.

443. The aerials of this set are mounted on the director and are moved when the director is laid and
trained on to the target. Thus they are pointed continually at the enemy and Radar ranges are passed to the
H.A.C.S. Plot, from the Radar Ranging panel operator.
(viii) The Crew in the High Angle Calculating Position.
444. The operators of the H.A. table are given the estimated course and speed of the aircraft by the
Control Officer and from this information, together with the measured range and movements of the
director as it follows the target, are calculated the gun elevation, training and fuze number. These are
passed continually to the guns. The H.A. table also sounds the fire buzzer automatically at regular
intervals. This tells the director layer when to fire.
(ix) The High Angle Guns' Crews.
445. The gunlayers and trainers must follow the movement of electrical pointers in the elevation and
training receivers. It is also extremely important that the correct sequence of setting fuzes and loading the
fuzed shell into the guns is carried out by the guns' crews, because each shell carries a fuze that is only
correct for that particular moment. These points must never be sacrificed to achieve a higher rate of fire.
AIR DEFENCE OF THE SHIP.
446. It will then be seen that some of the members of the high angle control team are widely separated
from each other, so that very good co-operation is necessary if quick and accurate fire is to be opened,
especially against enemy attacks, which may come in from different directions at once and may give very
little warning of their approach. The Air Defence Officer receives all the available information from the
Action Information Centre, when hostile aircraft are reported, and he can then get the H.A. directors on to
the best possible look-out bearings. When a formation is sighted he immediately trains his sight on to it,
sending
156 and 157

158
away elevation and training by Evershed to whichever H.A. director he decides. As soon as the H.A.
director has picked up the aircraft, the angle of sight cut lamp in the air defence position lights. The Air
Defence Officer then closes the "open fire switch," situated in the air defence position, which burns a light
in the H.A. director. This gives the Control Officer permission to open fire.
"At night or in thick weather neither the Air Defence Officer or the H.A. Directors will be able to see the
enemy Aircraft, so the responsibility for the Air Defence of the Ship rests with the Target Indication
Officer. This officer is stationed in the Aircraft Direction Room situated below decks and part of the
Action Information Centre. He is assisted in his task. by an instrument called the Target Indication Unit
(T.I.U.), worked by four operators. This unit is linked with a Long Range Warning Radar and gives a
picture of all targets within range of the set. The T.I.U. has a number of handwheels (depending on the
type of ship) for transmitting Relative Bearing to the appropriate H.A. Director or Close Range Group and
can also transmit range by Range Transmission Units on either side of the Radar Display.

There are also switches for controlling Call-up Gongs in the Air Defence Position and H.A. Directors, and
the Check Fire Bells at the guns."
Barrage Firing.
447. So far we have only considered " predicted firing " against high level bombing attacks, when each
fuze is calculated to burst at the future position of the aircraft. When the enemy aircraft dive to attack, it is
necessary to fire a barrage ahead of the aircraft. This barrage is fired at a fixed range, and therefore with a
fixed fuze setting such that the aircraft must fly through the barrage to complete its attack.
A.B.U. Firing.
448. An instrument called the Auto Barrage Unit is fitted in the H.A. Calculating Position for firing the
guns. Its function is to measure the rate of change of range of the aircraft by Radar and, having previously
been set with a barrage range, it will fire the guns at the correct moment so that the shell and aircraft
arrive at the same instant.
The A.B.U. operator, by pressing a foot pedal on the instrument, will automatically fire the guns at the
correct time.
The change-over switch, which decides whether the A.B.U. or the director layer will fire the guns, is in
the H.A. director.
The great advantage of this form of barrage firing is that the shell is definitely fired to hit the enemy
aircraft and not only to deter him from pressing home his attack.
DRILL AT HIGH ANGLE GUNS.
449. The object of the H.A. control system is to burst a shell at the aircraft's future position at the moment
when the aircraft reaches it.
To achieve this, two things, apart from accurate pointer following, are necessary at the gun:-
(i) The shell must be fired with the correct fuze accurately set.
(ii) The shell must be fired at the right moment.
So far as (i) is concerned, a heavy responsibility for the accuracy of the gunfire against aircraft rests on
the fuze-setter (if setting fuzes by hand) or on the fuze follower when using a fuze-setting machine. In
either case the fuze must be set immediately the " load " lamp lights.
A round fired with a badly set fuze is a round wasted.
It will be appreciated that so far as the second condition is concerned, this can only be achieved by the
closest attention being paid to the time of the drill by the captain of the gun and the trayworker, who must
not allow the gun to be loaded with an out-of-date or "stale" fuze.

When the target gets within a certain range of the ship, "barrage" procedure may be used.
Rounds with a previously ordered "barrage" fuze setting are loaded as quickly as possible, whenever the
gun fires.
450. The gun may also be required to engage a target in "local barrage," in which case the gun is aimed by
the gunlayer and trainer, using eyeshooting sights
159
or their equivalent, and rounds set to the barrage fuze are loaded and fired, locally, as quickly as possible'.
In H.A. as well as L.A. fire it is important to realize that what has to be learnt by the gun's crew is the
action required of them on receiving any given order and not a set sequence of orders, which may vary in
action.
451-454.
"Director - T.S."
"T.S. - Director."
"Director Well."
"T.S. really remarkably well."
(Para 340)
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CHAPTER IX.
CLOSE RANGE A.A. GUNNERY.
NECESSITY FOR SIMPLE CONTROL.
455. Close range weapons are used against low flying or diving aircraft, moving at very high speeds at
close ranges (3,000 yards and below). The time during which the enemy is within range is very short, so
that it is important for the control of these weapons to be simple and if possible under the direction of one
man.

The guns are in all cases designed to fire very rapidly, with a high muzzle velocity, and are capable of
being swung quickly when following an aircraft or for picking up a fresh attacker.
CLOSE RANGE GUNS' CREWS.
456. The crews of the close range weapons are the "commando troops" of the ship. They have got to be
tough, well disciplined, and capable of withstanding hardship. They are not protected from the weather or
splinters and have got to be able to keep cool and collected, and shoot accurately in spite of all that is
going on around them.
Strict discipline at close range weapons is essential, otherwise, in action you may easily become
distracted, or be caught napping by a surprise attack.
457. The following are the usual faults apparent in air battles and must be guarded against:-
(i) When excited, men are apt to forget to aim accurately and usually miss astern.
(ii) In the excitement, men are apt to forget the fact that our own fighters are in the vicinity.
(iii) When excited, men are apt to look at events happening which have nothing to do with
them and, as a result, they are caught napping by an enemy aircraft which suddenly dives at
them from some other direction. You must always anticipate the next attack.
It is essential for all close range weapon- crews to keep a look-out. Do not rely on the Air Defence
Position to see the enemy or to communicate with you, or the bridge to tell you when to open fire. You
must be ready to open fire on your own at the correct target as soon as it is within range.
Close range weapons are usually to be found in the most exposed positions in the ship so that they can
have the best arcs of fire. This is all the more reason why they and their ammunition must be scrupulously
clean.
161
CLOSE RANGE GUNSIGHTS.
458. The latest method of sighting close range weapons is by using gyro gunsights. All that need be said
about them in this book is that steady aiming and constant practice are essential. The other method, which
is the "stand-by" method, is "Eyeshooting."
EYESHOOTING. Diagram 32.
459. "The Eyeshooting Pocket Book" (B.R. 254) contains full information regarding the principles and
application of eyeshooting sights on close range weapons and should be thoroughly understood by all
crews. You can buy a copy of it for a few pence, or borrow it from the Gunnery Office.

As applied to close range anti-aircraft weapons, the word " eyeshooting " simply means the method of
aiming in which the aimer judges by eye and without any calculating instruments where to point his gun,
in order to hit a moving target.
There is nothing difficult nor new in the principles of eyeshooting with A.A. weapons; the mode of
operation is similar say, to throwing a boot at a cat running along the top of a wall. To allow for the
movement of the target during the time of flight of the bullet, the gun has to be pointed ahead of the target
at some position along its future path.
Foresights.
460. Looking at the eyeshooting foresight in Diagram 32, you will see that it consists of a number of
equally spaced rings, one, two and sometimes three (see also Diagram 35).
In the case of all modern sights the inner ring is the 100 knot ring, the next one the 200 knot ring and the
third one, if fitted, the 300 knot ring.
Note. In the older type of sight there was also a very small ring around the centre of the sight.
There was no special use for this ring and it is no longer fitted.
162

461. The object of these rings is to provide you with a scale for applying the amount of aim-off speed you
have estimated. The 100 knot ring shows you the amount of aim-off to take for an aim-off speed of 100
knots, the 200 knot ring shows you how much to allow for 200 knots aim off and so on. In fact, the rings
are aim-off speed rings. For aim-off speeds other than the exact figures of 100, 200 or 300 knots, say, 30,
160, 250 or 330 knots, you have to gauge the distance between (or outside) the metal rings of the sight
which simply give you a scale of aim-off speeds.
462. The method of using the sight is very simple. Look at the aircraft, note its direction of flight and
estimate its aim-off speed. Point the gun so that the aircraft is flying towards the centre of the sight, with
its nose the distance from the centre corresponding to your estimate of its aim-off speed. As the attack
develops and the aim-off speed increases, bring the nose of the aircraft further and further out from the
centre, always adjusting direction of aim-off to keep the aircraft flying towards the centre of the sight.
To assist you in applying direction of aim-off correctly, when the amount of aim-off is large, some sights
have " radial wires " pointing towards the centre from the outer rim of the sight. These are valuable
because, although wrong estimation of aim-off speed is the most common cause of missing the target,
misses are due quite often to incorrectly gauging the direction of aim-off, particularly when the aim-off is
large.
At weapons which may have to be used against surface craft, you will find "ticks" fitted at 10 or 20-knot
intervals along the horizontal and vertical crosswires inside the 100 knot ring. These are to assist you in
holding the correct point of aim after you have found it by spotting.
Backsights.
463. Most backsights are of the aperture type with rubber eyepiece. Having placed your eye correctly in
the eyepiece, you can forget about the backsight and concentrate on pointing the foresight in the correct
direction. You must, however, be quite certain first that you have centred your eye correctly in the
eyepiece, otherwise you will introduce an error in your aim. In modern backsights there are crosswires or
crossed cards to assist you to centre your eye. A glance at them just before you take aim will enable you
to put your eye correctly on the line between centre of foresight and centre of backsight. Having got it
central, keep it central.
In the heat of action unless you guard against it, unbeknown to yourself, you will aim without putting
your eye to the backsight. This is fatal, so see that it does not happen.
464. At certain weapons "bead" backsights are fitted. The principles of eyeshooting with these sights are
the same as with aperture sights but you keep your head well to the rear, so that you can see the bead, the
foresight and the target all at the same time and instead of keeping your head in a fixed position, you have
to move it about as necessary to take aim.
To take the correct aim with a bead backsight, the bead must be covering the nose of the aircraft, when the
nose of the aircraft is where you want it in the foresight.
In the case of the Oerlikon gun, which vibrates greatly when firing, you will find that although there is a
fitting for a rubber eyepiece fitted to the backsight, you have to keep your head well to the rear and use it
like a bead backsight. The sight is designed to be used in this way; the rubber eyepiece should not be on

the sight.
163
AIRCRAFT RECOGNITION.
465. There are three things you must learn about enemy aircraft, viz.:-
To be able to recognise them.

To know their speeds.
To estimate their range.
Recognition.
466. You must be able to recognise aircraft for the following reasons: -
(i) So that you will know whether it is an enemy aircraft or a friendly one, since you may have
to decide for yourself whether or not to fire at it.
(ii) So that you will be able to judge its approach angle, especially if the approach angle is
small.
(iii) So that you can make a good guess at its speed.
You should take a pride in your ability to recognise aircraft and to judge approach angle. Get hold of any
cards, models, pamphlets, newspapers or magazines that you can and study them carefully. Do not try and
learn too many types at once but get to know the three or four types in general use really well; then you
can start adding to your collection as other types come into use. Some credence should be given to the
opinions of youths in this matter; some of them have surprisingly accurate knowledge.
Estimation of Speed.
467. As you have previously read, you must know the flying speed 'of an aircraft before you can estimate
the aim-off speed correctly. judging the speed of an aircraft depends almost entirely on knowing the
performance of the different types and you must learn this when you are studying how to recognise
aircraft.
Unless you have had very considerable experience, you will not get much assistance in judging speed
from the noise of the aircraft or from looking at it, except that it obviously goes faster when diving. You
can generally assume that, when attacking, your target is going at full speed but do not forget that, if
diving, it will probably be going much faster than its full level flight speed.
A good rule for judging aircraft speeds at the present time is given below, although new types coming into
service may not fit into this rule.

Type of Attack.
468. Fighter 450 knots

Dive-bomber 350 knots
Low level bombing 350 knots
Torpedo attack 250 knots."
Estimation of Range.
469. You should be able to estimate the range of an enemy aircraft by eye in order that you will know
when to open fire.
The estimation of range depends entirely on practice and experience, and you must get all you can. You
must remember that varying weather conditions and differences in the sizes of aircraft may produce
misleading effects. For example, if you are used to dealing with medium-sized aircraft, you will tend to
under-estimate the range of a larger aircraft and open fire too early. Therefore, when studying recognition,
you must note which are large machines and which are small ones. Very often recognition drawings and
silhouette cards do not make this point clear, but you can spot it at once with the models.
164

165

470. To check your estimate of range when you are learning, a simple instrument called the " A.A. Range
Indicator " can be used, preferably by an instructor or another person. There are two types of this
instrument but they both work on the same principle, namely, that you hold a plate at arm's length and
where the aircraft fills the aperture, you read off the range. You will not be able to use this instrument in
action if you are manning a gun, so you must learn to estimate the range by eye.
The "Maximum Effective Ranges" of close range weapons are as follows:-
2-pdr. multiple Pom-Pom and Bofors in local control 1,700 yards.

Oerlikon 20 mm. single gun 1,000 yards.
0.5 in. Machine gun. 800 yards.
0.303 in. and 0.30 in. weapons 400 yards.
Note. Against approaching targets, fire should be opened when the present range is some 200 or 300 yards
greater than the above figures.
Consider a fighter aircraft approaching at 300 knots. It covers a nautical mile (2,000 yards) in 12 seconds.
It is within effective range of a .303 machine gun for 400 yards coming towards, and 400 yards going
away, a total of 800 yards which it can travel in under five seconds. You haven't much time, have you?
THE POM-POM DIRECTOR MARK IV. Diagram 33.
471. In earlier types of Pom-Pom directors, the necessary "Aim-off" at the director and thus at the guns
was done by " eyeshooting."
In the Pom-Pom Director Mark IV (see Diagram 33), the eyeshooting principle is abandoned and the
target's vertical and lateral movement is measured by an instrument called the GYRO RATE UNIT. These
movements are combined with the time of flight of the shell and produce vertical and lateral deflections.
The transmission from the director to the Pom-Pom is by remote power control, whereby the Pom-Pom
mounting automatically follows the director.
472. The Pom-Pom director has a full crew of eight men, whose duties are as follows:-
The Control Officer.

The Gyro Rate Unit Operator.
The Director Layer.
The Director Trainer.
The Vertical Rate Follower.
The Lateral Rate Follower and Communication Number.
The Range Follower.
The Radar Operator (in Radar Office).
THE 2-PDR. MARK VIII GUN ON THE MARK VII MOUNTING. Diagram 34.

473. This Multiple Pom-Pom has four barrels and is found in destroyers and cruisers.
The mounting may be fitted with or without a Pom-Pom director, and in the former case, laying and
training is by remote power control. As a general rule, Pom-Pom directors are fitted in cruisers and not in
destroyers.
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167
The crew consists of eight men. The captain of the gun is in general charge and operates the firing clutch
lever. The remainder of the crew are gunlayer, trainer, ammunition feed numbers and loaders for right and
left guns.
Ammunition is supplied in belts; eight belts per gun, each belt consisting of 14 rounds, are loaded on to
the feed rails. The first and last round of each belt rests on the rails and are connected to the next belt by
connecting links. The remainder of the belt hangs in a bight.
Mounting fitted with Remote Power Control.
474. The motive power of mountings fitted with R.P. 50 remote power control is electric. An indicating
lamp is fitted at the mounting to show that this source of supply is flowing.
When in director control, a power change-over switch at the mounting is put to DIRECTOR and the

mounting will automatically follow the director and the director will fire the guns, when the firing clutch
lever is put to ELECTRIC.
Note. Any or all guns may be put to SAFE, by means of interrupter levers at each gun.
Normally these are to FIRE.
If it is necessary to bring the mounting back to a convenient position for loading, this is done by putting
the power change over switch to LOCAL from DIRECTOR and taking over the control of the mounting
with a joystick, fitted at the mounting. The mounting can also be fired by means of a local firing trigger
on the joystick, when being laid and trained by the joystick.
Mounting fitted Without a Director.
475. In this case, laying and training is by hand, the gunlayer and trainer using eyeshooting sights. The
guns can be fired either by "Hand" or "Electric" depending upon the position of the firing clutch lever. In
"Hand" the guns are fired by turning the hand firing gear, in "Electric," pressing the local firing pistol
energises a circuit, which clutches the firing motor to the firing cam and fires the guns.
The latest type of mounting fitted without a director is power-controlled by means of a joystick on the
mounting.
THE 20 m.m. OERLIKON GUN. Diagram 35.
Description of Gun and Mounting.
476. The Oerlikon is an automatic gun designed for close range anti-aircraft fire, with an effective range
of 1,000 yards. It is mounted on a single shoulder-controlled mounting, or on a twin power-operated
mounting.
Operation of Gun.
477. The gun is operated by the pressure set up by the explosion of the round. The empty case is blown
back against the breech, forcing it to the rear against the pressure of the barrel springs, which carry the
moving parts forward again.
The breech is not locked at the time of discharge and the round is fired a fraction of an inch before it is
fully home in the chamber, the neck of the case swelling to form a gas seal.
The barrel and casing do not recoil; the whole force of the explosion is utilised in propelling the projectile
and operating the moving parts.
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169
Loading.
478. The gun is cocked by means of the cocking lanyard.
The gunlayer presses the magazine catch lever as far forward as it will go, otherwise the interlock
mechanism will not be cocked. It is essential that the magazine catch lever be pushed fully forward, either
by the knuckles or finger tips, as few men have sufficient arm length to push the catch lever fully forward
with the palm of the hand, when behind the shoulder piece in the firing position. If the lever is not pushed
right forward, the catch will not be cocked, with the result that the magazine interlock will still render the
firing gear inoperative.
The loading number places a loaded magazine in position forward end first and swings the rear part of the

magazine down smartly to seat it; the lever is automatically released, locking the magazine in position.
The action of shipping the magazine presses down on the ends of the catch and releases the magazine
interlock from engagement with the trigger gear and the gun can then be fired.
It is possible to remove an empty magazine and ship a fresh one although the magazine catch lever has
not been pushed as far forward as it will go. In this event the magazine interlock gear will not have been
released and the gun will not fire.
Automatic Firing.
479. With the gun cocked and a loaded magazine in position, a full round is lying in front of the breech
face ready to be driven into the gun.
With the safety catch lever to FIRE, pressing the firing lever releases the breech mass, which flies forward
under the action of the barrel spring, driving the live round into the chamber.
The breech mass at the instant of firing is still travelling forward. The force of the explosion, as far as the
rearward direction is concerned, is then absorbed in checking this forward movement and reversing its
direction, against the action of the powerful barrel springs.
On firing, the empty case is blown back against the breech face piece, forcing the moving parts of the gun
to the rear, so compressing the barrel springs. (The moving parts consist of the breech, the bolt, cotter,
two breech bars, and barrel spring casing, and they, being held together by the cotter, move as one part.)
480. The force of the explosion has now been overcome and the barrel springs are fully compressed and
buffering of the extreme rearward movement has taken place.
As the barrel springs, assisted by the buffer springs, exert themselves, the run out commences. If the firing
lever is held to FIRE, the top of the breech face piece will pick up a fresh round from the magazine during
its run-out movement and the cycle of operations will be repeated until the magazine is empty.
Holding back the Breech Mass after the Last Round in the Magazine has been Fired.
481. A catch automatically holds the breech mass in its rear position after the last round in the magazine
has been fired, so that when the empty magazine has been exchanged for a full one, it is not necessary to
cock the gun as on the first occasion. The gun is held cocked and it is only necessary to cock the magazine
catch lever and ship a fresh magazine.
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The Double Shoulder Piece on Shoulder-controlled Mountings.
482. The double shoulder piece, which is adjustable for width and is fitted at the rear end of the casing by
a bayonet joint, together with the harness fastened round the body, gives adequate control of the mounting
enabling a rapidly moving target to be followed with precision. Accuracy of aiming is very largely
dependent on smooth footwork which requires constant practice.
Balance Spring.
483. To assist in easy elevation of the gun, a spiral counter-balance spring is provided at the left hand side
of the bracket. At the front end of the cradle the gun lies in a " shoe " in which it is held fast by a securing
bolt; this gun securing bolt takes the thrust of the gun when fired and care must be taken that the bolt
engages properly with the underside of the gun and that it is kept greased and functioning correctly. The
cradle can be secured in the horizontal or vertical position by the stops provided. If a gyro gunsight is
fitted, it should always be left horizontal.
The Drum Magazine.
484. With each gun are supplied six drum magazines, each capable of holding sixty rounds, one loading
stand and two ratchet levers for tensioning the magazine spring.
Every possible care must be taken to avoid damage to the magazine, otherwise failures will almost
certainly result.
Before loading a magazine it should be tested for freedom of its moving parts by first ensuring that the
tension indicator is showing zero, after which the ratchet collar should be lifted and the axis shaft rotated
through its full travel by means of the boss on the centre of the ratchet lever handle.
If the muzzle covers provided are in use, the following precautions must be taken.
The last two rounds to be loaded into magazines are to be either practice or practice tracer rounds, so that
the first round to be fired will carry away the muzzle cover and the second will do so in the event of the
first round missing fire. H.E. ammunition would give a premature on hitting the cover.
Grease on Ammunition.
485. Ammunition supplied in boxes is not greased.
For the gun to function it is essential that each round should be lightly greased with Grease No. 0 before
loading into the magazine. This should be done by hand and not with a brush. Oil is not to be used.
A little grease applied shortly before firing to the cartridge case visible in the mouth of the magazine
helps.
To Charge a Magazine.

486. Place the magazine upon its side on the loading stand, pulling up the ratchet collars. By applying the
ratchet lever with the boss on the centre of the ratchet lever engaged with the pin within the ratchet collar,
and turning the spring axis, wind the feeder block to the opening of the magazine.
Insert the rounds, pushing them in with the thumb and taking particular care that the feeder block remains
in contact with the first round inserted, and that none are allowed to fall forward after being inserted.
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If this should happen the magazine will require to be stripped. The feeder block should be moved inwards
slowly during charging, by operating the ratchet lever; in this manner the feeder block is controlled, so
that it cannot move a greater distance at one time than is required to insert one round.
When the magazine has been charged, the ratchet collar is allowed to go down, permitting tension to be
applied by the ratchet end of the lever.
Tensioning the Spring.
487. When the magazine is fully loaded with 60 rounds it should be fully tensioned by rotating the
magazine lever as far as possible.
Should the magazine be partly loaded, e.g., 30 rounds, it is to be tensioned until the indicator reads 30,
followed by two further clicks on the ratchet. To put tension on a magazine loaded with less than 60
rounds, it is necessary to hold the ratchet collar, while using the ratchet lever.
Care must be taken that the magazine interlock plunger is free, otherwise the breech block will not remain
in the rear, i.e., cocked, position when the last round is fired from the magazine. This plunger is spring
loaded and is situated at the rear of the magazine cartridge feeder.
If a magazine is loaded only to be stored, the spring is merely given a slight tensioning.
Make sure that the magazine is fully tensioned before placing it on the gun. If this is not done stoppages
will result.
Should the magazine be given no tensioning at all, the rounds would be liable to fall out or become
disarranged in the magazine when removing it from the loading stand.
To Release the Tension on the Spring.
488. If a magazine that has been charged and tensioned is not required for ready-use purposes, the tension
is to be released to that small amount which is necessary, as described above, to prevent the rounds from
becoming disarranged.
To do this:-

(i) Ship the ratchet lever and take the weight of the spring by the lever, while lifting the
ratchet collar.
(ii) Allow the lever to revolve under the action of the spring, until it approaches the lifting
handle.
(iii) Engage the ratchet collar, replace the ratchet lever in the former position and continue, for
as long as necessary, until the indicator show about 15.
To Unload a Magazine.
489. If it is desired to unload a charged and spring-loaded magazine, it should be placed on the loading
stand and the rounds pushed out one by one, by hand. This relieves the pressure of the spring at the same
time.
If the magazine is charged but not tensioned, it must be tensioned before unloading, so that the spring may
force the rounds forward to the opening.
Caution.
490. Ammunition is greased and care must be taken to see that the grease which is in sight in a loaded
magazine is not removed. This grease is necessary for the functioning of the loading arrangements.
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Maintenance.
491. The following are the routines which should be carried out with the Oerlikon gun:-
Daily.
Remove magazine. Sponge out bore, taking particular care to see that the chamber is left clean and greasy.
Lubricate breech and breech block guideways in magazine opening without easing the spring.
Weekly.
Remove magazine. Ease the barrel springs and lubricate the top of the breech. Remove the shoulder piece,
hand grips, the trigger cover plate and trigger casing, drain out any water in the gun body. Lubricate the
trigger mechanism and reassemble. Cock the gun, ease springs again and recock.
After Firing.
Carry out a daily and weekly routine. See that the gun securing bolt at the front end of the cradle is free
and grease it.
492-494.

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CHAPTER X.
LOOK-OUTS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS.
LOOK-OUTS.
495. The safety of the ship and its success in action, to a great extent depends on look-outs. Keeping a
good look-out for long periods at a time is apt to become extremely dull and tedious and will produce
eyestrain. It is for this reason that the length of a look-out's trick is reduced as much as possible and, if
sufficient men are available, this trick should be cut down to 20 minutes.
This period is not too long and if you are detailed as a look-out in your ship, you must realise the very
essential and important task that you are performing, and keep strictly to the routine that you are taught.
Before considering the actual look-out routines that are carried out, it is essential that the look-out should
have a thorough knowledge of how to use his binocular.
CARE OF BINOCULARS.
496.
(i) It is essential that binoculars should be correctly cleaned before use and that the glass of
both the eye lens and object glass should be kept clean and free from moisture.
(ii) Binoculars are easily damaged and must be treated carefully. They should be carried to the
position in which they are to be used in their leather case, and should be kept in the case when
not actually in use. The lens hoods are particularly fragile.
(iii) If binoculars or their cases get wet, they must be dried carefully before being stored away.
(iv) Each pair of binocular is fitted with a strap and lanyard. Unless a binocular holder is being
used, both strap and lanyard must be worn round the neck.
(v) If a leather cup piece is fitted, use it to protect the eye lenses from rain and spray, when not
actually looking through the binocular. If there is no cup piece, use your hand.

(vi) Use something soft for cleaning or drying the glass surfaces; such material should contain
neither grit nor grease.
(vii) Do not try to strip your binocular. If they get damaged or are dirty inside, report the fact
to the Petty Officer in charge.
HOW TO ADJUST BINOCULARS. Diagram 36.
497.
(i) Make sure that they are clean and undamaged. If light filters are fitted, see that they are
"OUT" in both eyepieces.
(ii) To Focus. Select a fine object at-a fair distance. Rigging of another ship is good for
focusing. Screw both eyepieces fully out and focus one eye at a time by screwing in on the
eyepiece until the object is most sharply defined. Then screw the eyepiece out again as far as
possible without loss of definition of the object.
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175
(iii) Next adjust the interocular distance, that is to say, adjust the binoculars so that the
eyepieces are the correct distance apart for your eyes. To do this, look through the binoculars
and bend the two eyepieces together, until only one image is seen and the eyes feel
comfortable. At night it is very essential to get this distance correct or much less light will get
through the binoculars to your eyes.
(iv) Having adjusted both the focus and the interocular distance, note the readings shown on
both the scales and remember them. Sometimes, particularly at night, it is not easy to find an
object on which to focus. Modern binoculars have " click " focusing, so remember the number
of " clicks " required to focus your binoculars; having first of all screwed both eyepieces fully
out, set them by the "clicks." The units engraved on the eyepieces are called dioptres and are
measured plus or minus. At night use a fixed focus of minus 1 unit (or 2 1/2 on those
binoculars which are marked from 0 to 7). The interocular distance should be adjusted the
same for night as for day.

HOW TO USE BINOCULARS.
498.
(i) The binoculars must be steadied on some convenient place. Binocular holders are usually
supplied; if not, rest your elbows on the top of the screen.
(ii) Wind shakes binoculars badly. Kneel down or get in the lee if you can.
(iii) Prevent light from coming in at the side of the eyepieces by using your thumbs or hands,
if you are employing a binocular holder.
(iv) Leave a gap between the eye lenses and your eyes. This will prevent the eye lenses
becoming fogged. This fogging of the eye lens is more likely to occur at night than by day and
is not so likely to be noticed, so beware of it.
(v) Use a light filter if you must, because of the glare, but never unless you have to.
TYPICAL LOOK-OUT ORGANISATION.
499. Look-outs may be divided into the following classes:-
(i) A.A. look-outs.
(ii) Surface look-outs:
(a) Far look-outs.

(b) Near look-outs.
(c) Fog look-outs.
(iii) Night look-outs.
DUTIES OF LOOK-OUTS.
(i) A.A. LOOK-OUTS. Diagram 37.
500. These are stationed near the AIR DEFENCE POSITION. They v in pairs, relieving each other every
20 minutes. Once an air look-out has sighted an aircraft, he must not take his eyes off it until the A.D.O.
has found the target. The rating not closed up at the seat reads off the bearing and angle of sight.
A.A. look-outs are given definite "sectors" of 60° to search.

176
501. There are two A.A. look-out routines, the STANDARD ROUTINE and the SHADOWER'S
ROUTINE. The shadower's routine gives the maximum rest to look-outs. The standard routine covers all
angles of sight at which aircraft may approach.
The STANDARD ROUTINE is as follows:-
1st period Sweep at the elevation ordered.

2nd period Sweep back 5° below the elevation ordered.
3rd period Sweep back 10° below the elevation ordered.
4th period Sweep back 15° below the elevation ordered.
5th period Sweep the horizon for low flying aircraft and ships.
6th period Scan the whole sector systematically from horizon to zenith using the naked eye.
Each period must take from 15 to 20 seconds.
The elevation of the 1st sweep is ordered by the Air Defence Officer, according to the conditions.
The SHADOWER'S ROUTINE is as follows:-
1st period Sweep at 5° elevation.

2nd period Sweep back along the horizon, keeping it in the centre of the binoculars.
Each of the above periods takes from 15 to 20 seconds.
3rd period Search the whole sector systematically from the horizon to zenith, with the naked
eye, a horizontal sweep taking about 30 seconds for the period.
Method of Reporting.
502. On sighting an aircraft, the look-out must report:-
"Aircraft."
"Far" (or "Near").
"Approaching" ("Crossing" or "Going Away").
"Type."

177
He must then keep on following it, until he is told to carry on sweeping.
The look-out off trick, as soon as he hears the report "Aircraft " reads off and reports:-
"Red four five."

"Angle of sight two zero"
He continues to do this until the A.D.O. has found the target.
(ii) SURFACE LOOKOUTS.
503.
(a) Far Look-outs.
Far look-outs are stationed aloft in clear weather. The sector for which each look-out is responsible must
be swept slowly and systematically keeping the centre of the binocular field just above the horizon. The
time taken for a 70 degree sector should be from half a minute to a minute, and on completion the look-
outs must sweep back slowly with the naked eye, and repeat the sequence. Whilst sweeping with the
naked eye, they should search for the tracks of approaching torpedoes.
(b) Near Look-outs.
Near look-outs are situated lower down usually on or near the bridge. The same procedure should be
carried out as for far look-outs, but in this case keeping the horizon in the top of the binocular field.
(c) Fog Look-outs.
In times of extremely bad visibility or fog, special look-outs are placed as far forward as possible. In these

circumstances it is sometimes better for the sector to be searched with the naked eye, binoculars being
used only to verify a suspected object.
(iii) NIGHT LOOK-OUTS.
504. At night the eye has to deal with intensities of light over a million times weaker than those of day.
Night vision requires an entirely different mechanism in the eye from that used in day vision and the
process by which the eye changes over from day vision to night vision is called DARK ADAPTATION.
After the eye has been adapted to the dark for about half an hour, it is many thousand times more sensitive
than it is in a well lit room. For this reason no night look-out should look at an instrument unless it has a
red light in it, or strike a match or enter a lighted compartment before going on watch. If he does so it will
take up to 30 minutes to get dark adapted again and he will be of no use as a look-out. This is a very
important point to remember, if you are detailed as a night look-out.
How to Use Your Eyes at Night.
505. At night you will have to learn a new way of using the eye. Few people realise that when they look
straight at an object on dark nights it will tend to disappear from view, whereas it will be clearly visible if
they look slightly to one side, or above or below it.
Without going into the complicated details of the eye's construction, it is worth noticing that the parts of
the eye that are most sensitive to dim lights, in fact, the only parts that enable you to see at night are all
situated off centre.
The very centre of the eye, which is the most sensitive part of all in day time, is almost useless at night.
Some people with exceptionally good eyesight can still see a little with it. But for the average person, it is
night blind.
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The secret of successful search at night, lies in the ability to use the off centre part of your eye. Train
yourself to look just to one side of suspected objects and a little above them. Never stare at a suspected
object; you will only lose it. If you think you have spotted an object, look away. Then look back a little
above the horizon and around the suspected bearing.
Method of Sweeping.
506. When sweeping as a night look-out, try to scan your sector by making small movements of the head
and binocular, each movement followed by a pause; at each pause move your eyes to cover the field of
view of your binocular. Your total sweep should be even slower than by day.
Quick movements and short pauses are better than long movements and long pauses. If you think you can
see an object, look well away from it with the head and binocular, count 10, and then look back. Take a
sharp look at the place where you thought you saw it, but a little to one side.

When you have completed your scan with the binocular which should take about a minute for a sector of
70 degrees, sweep back slowly over your sector with the naked eye, taking about half a minute. Pay
particular attention to any part of the horizon which appears to be broken or distorted.
REPORTING.
507. Remember that it is essential to report at once anything which you see or think you see. If in doubt,
report.
Reports should be made as follows:-
"Red six zero" "Near (or Far)", "Ship steaming left (or right)."
At night it is difficult to determine the distance, and " Near " or " Far " may be omitted from the report.
RECOGNITION.
508. It should hardly be necessary to stress the importance of look-outs being able to recognise an enemy
ship or aircraft. But what is also extremely important is that they should know what to look for at night,
such as a white bow wave, whether to expect to see a ship looking dark against a light sea, or light against
a dark sea.
This knowledge comes with constant practice and by noticing the appearance of ships in company, the
position of the moon and the state of the sea and sky.
A dull glow of light, apparently below the horizon may be reflected light on upper works or glow from a
funnel. In both cases these will mean a ship comparatively close to your ship, so act quickly.
On a dark night, with breaking seas, it is particularly difficult to see approaching small craft, but they may
be given away by an irregularity in the general line of waves and specially bright patches where the waves
are breaking over the ship's bows.
509.
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CHAPTER XI.
ORGANISATION OF A SHIP'S COMPANY.
510. Full particulars regarding the whole of the gunnery organisation of ships may be found in the BR 974
"Handbook of Gunnery Organisation," and should be consulted if it is desired to go deeper into the
question of organisation of any particular ship.
DEGREES OF READINESS IN WAR-TIME.
511. The general requirements to be met are as follows:-
(i) All aircraft, ships and submarines coming within visibility distance must be sighted and
reported.
(ii) All the above coming within range must be engaged immediately if they are hostile.
In order to fulfil these requirements four degrees of readiness are allowed for, both in low angle and high
angle armaments. The degree of readiness that is assumed by the ship depends upon the situation.
Anti-Ship Armament.
512. 1st degree of Low Angle readiness. Complete readiness for action against surface craft and
submarines.
2nd degree "Stand by" state for complete readiness for action.
3rd degree Action against surface craft or submarines based upon a two
watch organisation.
4th degree Anti-ship armament cleared away. Anti-submarine look-outs
stationed. One gun manned.
Anti-Aircraft Armament.
513. 1st degree of A.A. readiness. Complete readiness for action against aircraft.
2nd degree "Stand by" state for complete readiness for action against aircraft.
3rd degree Action against aircraft based upon a two watch organisation.
4th degree Action against aircraft based upon a four watch organisation.
514. Degrees of readiness are assumed as follows:-
1st degree of L.A. readiness If enemy movements show probability of the enemy being encountered at
1st degree of A.A. readiness any moment.

2nd degree of L.A. readiness If there is a possibility of the enemy being encountered at any moment, full
2nd degree of A.A. readiness action stations are manned, but a limited number of men may be fallen out
in turn as circumstances permit.
Arrangements must be made for officers and men to rest in their quarters.
180
3rd degree of L.A. readiness By day or night when contact with the enemy surface forces is possible but
not imminent. This is sometimes called DEFENCE STATIONS and is the
usual state of the armament at night.
3rd degree of A.A. readiness By day or night when considerable threat of air attack exists over
a long period. This is sometimes called A.A. DEFENCE STATIONS.
4th degree of L.A. readiness By day when the disposition of our forces affords the necessary security
from surprise encounter with enemy surface forces.
4th degree of A.A. readiness In harbour or when in 4th degree of L.A. readiness at sea, if the possibility
of air attack is remote.
515. It is, of course, possible to be in a different degree of readiness for L.A. and H.A. For instance, in 4th
degree of L.A. readiness and 3rd degree of A.A. readiness. Also if it is required to man the A.A.
armament fully whilst in 4th degree of L.A. readiness, the extra men to man the A.A. guns must be trained
from the L.A. armament.
Guard Ships.
516. The 1st and 2nd degrees of readiness will normally be required only when the fleet is at sea. If the
operation is prolonged men will not get sufficient sleep if closed up all the time, in which case "Guard
Ships" may be detailed, thus providing all ships in turn with a lower degree of readiness. The guard ship
remains in the 1st degree of readiness.
This applies to the A.A. armament in harbour as well as at sea.
ALARM SIGNALS.
517. In order to give immediate warning and to get every man to his action station as quickly as possible,
WARNING ALARM HOOTERS are fitted throughout the ship. These are usually worked from the
bridge and consist of a series of hoots followed by the appropriate bugle call for " Action Stations,"
"Night Action Stations" or "Repel Aircraft."
The hooters should never be used for exercising action.
On hearing these hooters, every man in the ship, no matter what he is doing, must immediately go to his

action station. If a man is already manning a gun other than his own, which is in action, he must not leave
that gun until he is relieved.
If when the armament is closed up a sudden alarm is given and it is necessary to open fire quickly, the
order "Alarm" is followed by a series of short rings on the fire gong. This means that the guns are to be
loaded, if not already loaded, and brought to the " Ready " as quickly as possible.
FOOD AND SANITATION.
518. When closed up for long periods, it is not always possible to allow men to leave their action stations
at all. For this reason, sanitary arrangements must always be available at all quarters, as well as mess
traps. When possible, certain cook ratings will be fallen out to prepare food and when this is ready, action
cooks, detailed from each quarter, go to the galley and fetch food for their particular gun or station. The
meal is then eaten whilst closed up.
In some cases it may be possible to allow a part of the armament at a time to fall out for a short period. In
this case certain mess decks will be used as action messes by each quarter in turn.
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SPARE GEAR.
519. Spare parts of guns that can be shipped quickly are normally stored in the vicinity of the gun. The
position of all spare parts must be known by the officer of quarters and the captain of the gun. "Action
Boards" should be placed in the various quarters showing the storage for various spare parts. The Gunner
of the ship knows the quantity and disposition of all armament stores on board.
CASUALTIES.
520. Whenever possible, when battle is imminent, men should wear clean underclothing to minimise
infection of wounds and should be fully protected against flash, by wearing anti-flash clothing and overall
suits. This is especially important in the tropics, where the tendency is to strip to the waist.
First aid posts are distributed about the ship and each quarter is provided with certain first aid facilities.
Guns' crews must be trained so that casualties can be rapidly replaced. The guns must always be kept in
action and casualties can only be taken to the first aid stations when a lull in the action allows.
521-524.

182
CHAPTER XII.
DAMAGE CONTROL.
Plate 21.
525. A ship must be seaworthy in order to fulfil her function as a fighting unit. Damage control has as its
object, the preservation of the maximum offensive power of the ship.
In order to achieve this, it is first of all necessary to keep the ship afloat, secondly to keep the ship
moving, thirdly to keep the ship upright, and fourthly to reduce the risk of fire and smoke to a minimum.
The damage control organisation in each ship is therefore built up with this object in view.
526. In this book no attempt is made to go deeply into the intricacies of the organisation or the operation
of the various fire fighting appliances but merely to discuss quite shortly the primary basic principle of
damage control, which is to keep the ship water-tight, and to touch on the ways in which you can assist in
keeping the ship an efficient fighting unit.
The best way to ensure that the ship can stand up to a large amount of damage is to divide up the
underwater structure into a large number of small water-tight compartments. This is, however, impossible
throughout the length of the ship, because this type of sub-division is limited by the size of essential
compartments, such as boiler rooms and magazines. It would also make living conditions in the ship quite
impossible and it would be very difficult to get from one place in a ship to another.
527. A compromise is, therefore, reached whereby the water-tight integrity of the ship is balanced with
the living conditions.
Nearly all water-tight compartments have water-tight openings in them and these openings are marked in
certain ways, so that it is possible to see at once how much that opening affects the water-tightness of the
ship (see Plate 21).
The risk involved by any opening being opened is shown by one of two colours, RED or BLUE. The
colour is painted across the corner of the door or hatch, and in the case of a valve or other opening, a red
or blue disc is painted where it can best be seen.
528. A RED opening, when open, constitutes an immediate risk to the watertight integrity, a BLUE
opening a less immediate risk. Openings which have no colour on them constitute no risk to the water-
tight integrity.
The obvious way then, to keep the ship as watertight as possible is to keep all the RED and BLUE
openings permanently closed, both at sea and in harbour. If this was done, however, it would not be

possible to get into certain compartments at all, so a letter is also put on to each door, which tells you at
once what action you must take before opening it. Valves, etc., are marked in a similar way and for the
same reason.
The letters are X, Y, Z or O.
There is a special marking-"ROUTINE".
529. An X on an opening means that it is very important to keep it closed as much as possible and
permission must first of all be obtained from the officer of the watch or the D.C.H.Q. before it is opened.
A Y on a door or hatch means that it may be opened without permission in order to go through it but it
must be closed again immediately and secured. If
183
you want to keep it open, you must get permission from the officer of the watch or D.C.H.Q. and a sentry
must be placed on it, to shut it immediately if necessary.
A Z on an opening means that it is usually open, except at action stations or in an emergency, but RED Z
doors, that is to say RED doors with a Z on them may be closed or opened by pipe, independently of other
Z openings.
An O on an opening means that it is always open and only closed by special order.
ROUTINE on an opening indicates that a special routine governs its operation. The routine is posted near
and must be read.
530. These colours and letters are most important and must be known thoroughly. The rules governing the
operation of water-tight openings must be strictly obeyed, otherwise the whole ship's safety is imperilled.
531. Besides the above, there are other symbols which may be found on doors. These are self explanatory
and are additional to the letter or "ROUTINE" marking. They are as follows:-
SYMBOL APPLICABLE TO MEANING

2 CLIPS Y or Z 2 clips only to be used except in "emergency," when all clips are
to be used.
A YELLOW DISC Y or Z GAS. Closed at GAS ALARM.
VENT. 2 CLIPS X, Y or Z When magazines are in a venting condition, the hatch is closed
and secured with only two clips.
VENT. NO CLIPS X, Y or Z When a magazine is in a venting condition, the hatch is closed
but not clipped.
ACTION X, Y or Z For action purposes the door may be opened. These doors and
hatches are usually covered by the ship's orders.

FIRST GUN Z When "Battle State" is assumed, left open until men are at
stations, then closed and secured.
CLOSING DOORS.
532. When you close a door, see that the clips are put on correctly. The clip should be put on from above
downwards, so that any pressure on the door will tend to jam the clip more tightly. If the clip is put on
from underneath upwards, it will tend to fall off and the door will no longer be water-tight.
ABANDONING COMPARTMENTS.
533. Remember that if you are the last man to abandon a compartment you must see that the water-tight
door or hatch is closed after you and that any valves into that compartment are also closed.
FIRE. 534. Fire is a menace that grows, that is to say from the smallest beginnings a fire will spread
rapidly, if allowed. Therefore, the first essential when fighting a fire is speed of attack. The duty of
anyone discovering a fire is to try and put it out. This can be done if the fire is small, or at least it will in
all probability be possible to keep it under control.
G1
184
The second thing to remember is that a fire can and often does re-ignite itself. Therefore, always continue
to attack a fire for long after it seems to be out.
PREVENTION OF FIRE IN A SHIP.
535. Various precautions can be taken in a ship to reduce the risk of fire. The obvious things such as
landing superfluous gear, draining petrol systems, etc., are done wherever possible in ships.
There are other precautions, perhaps not quite so obvious, which must also be taken. One of the chief
troubles in this category is the hiding away of paint, boxes and cartons. This must always be guarded
against, because it is the hidden "treasure" kept for convenience in some "caboose" which is the hardest to
locate and thus the greatest menace.
536. All gear that has special stowages must be stored properly and not left to smoulder in some forgotten
corner. Doors of kit lockers must be kept firmly secured. Loose clothing and paper are liable to choke
pump suction.
Personal gear must be reduced to a minimum and all unnecessary electric circuits must always be
switched off. Paint must not be allowed to accumulate on bulkheads. This will mean chipping the plates
before they are painted, but it will be worth the time and work involved if it prevents a serious fire.
MAGAZINES.-FLOODING AND SPRAYING.

537. Magazines which contain explosives are fitted with means of flooding the compartment and with
spraying the cordite charges. Full details of the rules regarding flooding and spraying may be found in the
N.M. and E.R.
Flooding.
538. Flooding is done from the sea, that is to say a seacock is fitted which, when opened, allows sea water
to enter. This flooding of the sea water is controlled by a FLOOD VALVE and each valve can usually be
operated from three positions. One position is just outside the magazine, the others are at special flooding
positions in the ship. The operating handwheels are inter-connected by shafting capable of being
uncoupled if necessary. Should the shafting from one position to the flood valve become damaged, that
from another can probably still be operated.
The order to flood the magazine is usually given only by the Captain or the Damage Control Officer,
because once a magazine has been flooded, the gun and turret which that magazine serves is put out of
action. Magazines are therefore flooded only in the case of a dangerous fire.
It takes some time to flood a magazine, about twenty minutes in a cruiser, and whenever a magazine is
flooded the spray system should be turned on fully.
Spraying.
539. Magazines are sprayed with water taken from the ship's fire-mains through pipes which run along the
deck head of the magazine. These pipes have a series of "roses," attached to them, which spray the water
over the cordite charges.
Spray valves are fitted to control the system and these also can be operated from three positions. One is in
the magazine itself, the others at the special magazine flooding positions in the ship.
540. Spraying a magazine is very effective when there is a fire in an adjacent compartment and it is
necessary to keep the magazines cool. It can also be used when there is a small fire. Spraying has the great
advantage that although it may be necessary to stop providing ammunition, whilst spraying is actually in
progress, it does not put the gun out of action.
The order to spray can be passed by the officer of quarters or the captain of the magazine.
185

A hose and branch pipe is fitted in every magazine, connected to the fire-main, which can be used in an
emergency or against a small fire when it is not necessary to spray.
541. The primary positions from which the flood and spray valves are operated are divided throughout the
ship into groups. That of each group comprises a locked cabinet containing the operating handwheels
which is unlocked and manned by an engine room rating in action. The handwheels in the cabinet are
normally pinned to prevent their being rotated. To work the valve from any of the secondary positions
whilst the primary position is pinned it is necessary first to unlock the cotter and remove it from just
above the wheel it is desired to operate; this enables the lower part of the shafting to be moved whilst the
upper part remains stationary.
CORRECTING HEEL AND TRIM-COUNTER-FLOODING.
542. When a ship sustains underwater damage she will often take up a list. If this list is excessive, it will
prevent the guns being fought effectively and, in the case of a carrier, will prevent aircraft being flown on
and off: it will also affect stability.
A list (or trim) is corrected by counter-flooding selected compartments or by transferring fuel and water,
or by jettisoning topweight. In cruisers and above, counter-flooding parties form part of the damage
control organisation and are controlled from the D.C.H.Q.
A ship may take up considerable list without risk of overturning.
DAMAGE CONTROL COMMUNICATIONS.
543. Every man in a ship should be able to recognise and be prepared to use a damage control telephone
should necessity arise. They are painted in three different colours:-
Red Fire and repair.

Green Electric.
Yellow Pumping and flooding.
They lead direct to the nearest damage control base or headquarters, who take reports and initiate any
action that may be necessary.
GENERAL. 544. Damage control is not only the business of the damage control parties but is very much
the concern of all sailors whatever their rank, rating or branch. Damage control requires common sense,
and, above all, a good knowledge of the ship. It is, in effect, modern seamanship.

. . . nothing to do with them. (Para 457)
186
CHAPTER XIII.
GENERAL MAINTENANCE OF THE ARMAMENT IN WAR.
COLD WEATHER.
545. When ships are required to operate in very cold weather, special precautions have to be taken to keep
the armament in an efficient condition. In nearly all modern ships a special steam heating system is put in,
which heats all essential machinery that would otherwise become "iced up." In addition to this electric
radiators are installed whenever possible.
546. If the temperature does not fall below 28° F., at which temperature sea water freezes, no great
difficulties need be expected, but at temperatures lower than this certain additional precautions must be
taken:-
(i) Regular working of all moving parts must be carried out. All guns must be moved in
elevation and training; breech mechanisms must be opened and closed and sights must be
worked.
(ii) All water must have glycerine added to it; bores of guns should be sponged out with
glycerine and water; ice and snow must be removed from all mountings.
(iii) Electric and percussion firing arrangements must be tested regularly, so as to discover any
failure of electrical contacts due to ice or congealed oil or the reduced weight of blow of the
percussion strikers.
(iv) All general service mineral oil should be replaced by non-freezing mineral oil.
(v) Ammunition must always be kept free from ice and ready use ammunition lightly coated
with Low Temperature Grease No. 0.

(vi) The outsides of all guns and mountings should be coated with G.S. grease, because snow
and ice which form on this can easily be removed.
(vii) All openings into mountings or breech mechanisms should be kept covered with canvas
covers that can be quickly removed.
(viii) All guns whether loaded or unloaded should be kept at full depression whenever
possible, to avoid ice formation, as a result of water collecting in the bores.
(ix) Obturator pads should be soaked in warm water or warmed with hot cloths before use and
where possible, locks should be kept in a warm dry place until they are required for firing.
(x) Voice pipes should always be kept covered when they are not being used.
(xi) It may be practicable to use braziers at guns during daylight, because the heat from oil
lamps or electric lights is of very little value
(xii) In some ships, steam cock connections and flexible hoses are provided in order to free
the mounting from accumulations of ice and frozen spray, so that they can be trained. They
may also be freed by blow lamps or by pouring hot water in them.
(xiii) In magazines, the spraying and flooding systems should be tested more frequently than
is normally provided for in the regulations.
187
MUZZLE COVERS.
547. Muzzle covers should normally be kept shipped over muzzles, whenever there is a possibility of the
ship encountering heavy weather. Under such conditions ice might form in the bore of the gun or the
constant accumulation of water in the bore might make it dangerous to fire the guns.
Muzzle covers should be removed before firing but trials have shown that no damage is likely to be
caused, if a practice shell or a shell fitted with a base fuze is fired with the muzzle cover on.
Shells fitted with nose fuzes, however, will probably be " blind," i.e., they will not burst or they may even
burst prematurely if they are fired through muzzle covers. This may cause serious accidents and nose
fuzed shell should not be fired through muzzle covers.
548. Every endeavour should be made to keep the muzzle covers free from ice formations by applying G.
S. grease liberally to both sides of the cover.
549-554.

188
CHAPTER XIV.
NOTES ON BOARDING PARTIES.
555. In all ships a Boarding Party is detailed, whose duties are to board any suspicious Merchant Vessels
when required.
It is not possible to lay down any hard and fast rules regarding the size of the boarding party, or the
equipment that they carry. These depend upon the situation at the time, but a typical boarding party in a
cruiser might consist of the following:-
ARMED WITH
Boarding Officer Lieutenant Pistol.
Witnessing Officer Warrant Officer or Sub-Lieutenant. Pistol.
Petty Officer Pistol.
4 Able Seamen Lanchester Carbines.
Signalman Pistol.
Telegraphist Pistol.
E.R.A. Pistol.
Stoker P.O. Pistol.
2 Stokers Pistols.
The remainder of the party consists of a reduced seaboat's crew.
556. In addition to the above, it may be necessary to send a Prize Crew on board the Merchant Vessel, to
take her into the nearest British Port.
The Prize Crew might consist of the following:-

1 Lieutenant Commander. 1 Leading Seaman.

2 Sub-Lieutenants or Warrant Officers. 6 Able Seamen.
1 Engineer Officer. 1 Corporal R.M.
1 Signalman. 8 Royal Marines.
1 Telegraphist. 2 E.R.A's.
1 Petty Officer. 2 Stoker P.O's.
7 Stokers.
All Seamen, Stokers, and Royal Marines, comprising the Prize Crew would be armed with rifles, the
remainder with pistols.
Normally, Ammunition, Equipment and Rifles for the Boarding Party and Prize Crew are kept in a
separate store, so that they are readily accessible should they be required.
557. Whenever a suspicious ship is boarded, the armament is closed up and ready to open fire
immediately. If the Merchant Ship attempts to scuttle herself, ". . . fire should be opened with the Close
Range Armament on the boats to prevent them being lowered, and to render them unserviceable ".
W/T watch is always kept to listen for any transmission from the Merchant Ship, and look-outs should
keep a careful look-out for any submarines.
558-559.
189
CHAPTER XV.
GUNNERY PRACTICES.
TYPES OF PRACTICE FIRINGS.
560. When a ship is newly commissioned her practices are simple, but they gradually become more
difficult, as her efficiency and experience improve. Firings are always arranged with some definite object.
It may be, as in the case of a simple firing, merely to accustom the personnel to carrying out their duties
correctly while the guns are making interference by smoke and noise. In later stages some definite
problem of fire control may have to be solved or investigated. The practices become much more
interesting to the men taking part in them if the object is fully understood.
Sub-Calibre Firings.
561. The number of full calibre rounds available for firing from each gun during the year for practice
purposes is limited. To make up for this deficiency sub-calibre guns are used. Practices with these guns
give excellent experience and form a fair test for the control system and for layers and trainers.
Unfortunately the loading numbers obtain very little value from them and only a few of the men are
required to take part. As regards the control system, the sub-calibre practices can have the same objects as

full calibre firings.
When using sub-calibre guns it is important that the guns are not brought to the "Ready", until a definite
loading interval has expired after firing the previous round. These guns can be loaded very quickly and if
a loading interval is not used, a false impression of the rate of fire of the parent guns will be gained.
Low Angle Full Calibre Practices.
562. There are various types of Low Angle full calibre practices, which may be carried out by ships. Each
type is best suited to certain conditions only and nearly all practices have certain disadvantages when
compared with firing under action conditions.
563. The main types of low angle full calibre practices that may be carried out are as follows:-
(i) Towed battle practice target. This has the disadvantage that it is very slow and spotting the
fall of shot is very unrealistic. It is impossible to simulate a quick alteration of course.
(ii) Controlled target ship. In this form of practice the target is remotely controlled by W/T. It
has the great advantage that both ships have complete mobility but is restricted by the fact that
only shells below a certain calibre may be used.
(iii) Towed C.M.B. target. The target may be towed at a much higher speed than a battle
practice target but it is not free to manoeuvre in the same way as when controlled by W/T.
190
(iv) Throw-off firing. In this type of practice two ships, preferably of about the same type, are
used. The firing ship throws her guns six degrees off from her director, so that, whereas the
director is pointing at the target ship, the guns are six degrees off and the shells will, therefore,
fall a definite amount ahead or astern of the other ship. Both ships have full mobility but
spotting the fall of shot is completely unrealistic.
(v) Throw-short firing. In this type of practice the fire control system is so adjusted, that the
shells from the firing ship will always fall well short of the target ship. It has the very great
advantage that ships can practice keeping broadsides in line in difficult circumstances. The
disadvantage is, of course, that spotting for range is difficult and artificial.
Range and Inclination Exercise.
564. These exercises are done without firing the guns and are used for practising the control team fully in
Radar, rangefinding and inclinating. Ranges and courses steered are signalled during the practice between
the ships taking part.
These exercises are of very great value and should be carried out as often as possible.

Long Range High Angle Practices.
565. As in low angle, so long range high angle practices have certain disadvantages. The main types of
high angle full calibre firings that can be carried out are as follows:-
(i) Controlled target. In this type of practice the target is controlled by W/T. It has the
disadvantage of being very expensive and the speed of the target is slow.
(ii) Sleeve towed by aircraft. Again the speed is reduced and the aircraft has little freedom to
manoeuvre.
(iii) Flares towed by aircraft. These may be towed at greater speeds but safety restrictions
again limit the realism.
(iv) Throw-off firings. These give the aircraft greater freedom of manoeuvre but accurate
spotting is difficult. The guns are thrown off, either to the right or left of the director or below
it.
(v) Target smoke. A smoke shell is fired to burst in the sky and a practice is carried out against
it. This form of firing is very unrealistic and is really only useful when first working up guns'
crews.
Dummy Aircraft Attacks.
566. If sufficient aircraft are available, realistic dummy attacks are of great value in working up the air
defence organization of the ship.
Close Range Practices.
567. Close range weapons may be used against all the above Long Range targets, except throw off
practices.
Balloons may be used as targets for close range weapons but are unrealistic from the point of view of
speed and should only be used to work up the guns' crews.
191

TRAINING CLOSE RANGE GUNS' CREWS.
568. There are numerous methods of training close range guns' crews. At all anti-aircraft schools, non
firing practices are carried out against aircraft. These can then be analysed, immediately, so that the
gunlayers and trainers can at once see the mistakes that they have made in their aim.
Dome teachers are also used for exercising close range guns' crews. In these, realistic photographs of
attacking aircraft are thrown on to the inside of the roof of a dome-shaped building. The gunlayer aims a
sight at the aircraft and the instructor can at once tell whether he is aiming correctly or not.
Films. Various films are distributed to all ships to instruct the close range crews in eyeshooting and tracer
observation.
Portable aiming teachers. These are also distributed to ships and are very useful for elementary aiming
practice.
Precautions During Firing Practices.
569. In all practice firings, when director firing is in use, a safety number is to be employed at each gun to
ensure the safety of the towing ship or aircraft, or in the case of a throw-off firing, of the target ship. This
rating is stationed in a position where he can observe the bearing or elevation on which the gun is trained
or laid. He may be at the trainer's or the layer's telescope or have a special set of open sights, according to
the mounting in use. He must also have a whistle.
Should the safety number observe that the gun is trained or laid so as to endanger the towing ship or
aircraft he must blow his whistle immediately and order "Half cock" and then give orders as necessary for
pointing the gun in a safe direction.
When the bearing or elevation is again safe, the safety number is to report either "Target visible" or in the
case of a throw-off firing "Safe bearing." On hearing this report the O.O.Q. or Captain of the gun is
personally to inspect the director receivers and then give orders as to the method of training and laying to
be employed.
RECORDS AND RECORDERS.
570. In order to find out any mistakes that have been made, so that these can be put right, records are
taken of all the events during the practice. These, when put together, form an analysis of the practice.
Records to be of any value must be absolutely truthful and accurate. Recording, like any other art,
requires constant practice. There are various forms of records that have to be taken and these may vary for
each type of practice.
Stop Watches.
571. In nearly every record that has to be kept, the time of occurrence has to be logged alongside the
record of each event. It is, therefore, essential that every recorder should know how to use the stop watch

issued to him for keeping the record.
All stop watches must be worn on a lanyard unless a special holder on a wrist strap is issued. There are
two types of watches in general use in the Service.
572. Pattern 3. This type has a single second hand which is started and stopped by a small sliding lever on
the left hand side of the winding crown. The minute and second hands are both replaced to zero by
pressing down on the winding crown but this will not stop the watch.
192
To use the Pattern 3 watch, wind the watch fully by keeping the watch still and turning the winding
crown. Care must be taken that the watch is not over wound; if the watch is turned as well as the winding
crown an unfair strain is put on the mechanism when fully wound. After winding, slide the lever towards
the crown to the position marked GO ON and the hands should begin to move. To stop the watch, move
the lever away from the crown to the position marked STOP. While the watch is running care must always
be taken not to press down on the winding crown, as otherwise the hands may flash back to zero and start
again, giving false times.
573. Pattern 4. This type has two second hands which can be started, stopped and brought back to the zero
position by pressing down on the winding crown. The lower or split second hand is also controlled by a
small press button to the left of the winding crown. This button is pressed when it is required to stop the
split second hand.
To use the Pattern 4 watch, fully wind with the winding crown, taking the same care and precautions as
with Pattern 3. To start the watch, press down on the winding crown. To record a time, press down on the
small button; this will stop the split second hand and the time can be read off. After recording the time,
press on the same small button and this will cause the split second hand to flick on into line with the
ordinary second hand. To stop the watch press down on the winding crown, when both hands will stop.
To replace the hands to zero, press down once more on the winding crown.
Notes for Recorders.
574.

(i) When getting your record from the Gunnery Office, make certain that you understand
exactly what you are required to do.
(ii) Before leaving the Gunnery Office, see that your stop watch is going correctly and that the
minute hand is easy to read.
(iii) Always take great care of the stop watch. Having wound and tested the watch,
(a) Stop it. (b) Bring the hands to zero. (c) Put it in your pocket and leave it alone
until required for use.
(iv) Nearly all damage to watches is caused by recorders continually testing and playing with
them.
(v) Have a stand-by pencil ready.
(vi) Pay strict attention to the orders given to you about starting and stopping the watch.
Watches are usually stopped and started by order from the transmitting station.
(vii) Always write in the space provided on the record, the time shown by your watch when
you stopped it.
(viii) If, when the order "Stop the watches" is passed, a correct time is also passed, this correct
time should be entered on the form in addition to the time shown by your watch.
(ix) If, by some misfortune, your watch stops during a firing, either start it again by some
other recorder's watch or with the firing of a salvo. In either case, put down on your record the
number of the salvo or the time when yours was restarted, and the name of the owner of the
other watch.
193
(x) Record everything you are told to do and if in doubt, record too much. It is better to record
even personal remarks or opinions, should such occur, than to miss an important order or
correction. Items not required can easily be crossed out after the practice.
(xi) Do not think that your record is designed so that blame can be put on to one definite
person, if anything is wrong. It is really required so that every possible lesson can be learned
from the firing and improvements in material and methods thought out.
(xii) Never rub anything out on your record. If you have written down something wrong, cross
it out neatly once (so that it can still be read if required) and write down the correct remark
alongside.
(xiii) Immediately after the firing, discuss your record with the person you were recording for

and clear up any doubtful points at once.
(xiv) Before handing in your record to the Gunnery Office, write your name on it; this saves
time later if the officer doing the analysis requires your opinion on any matter.
(xv) Do not use single letters for abbreviations, as they can easily be misread. Write as clearly
as possible and do not use indelible pencil.
575-579.
.. no matter what he is doing .. (para 517)
194
CHAPTER XVI.
SALUTING GUNS.
NATURE AND NUMBER OF GUNS USED.
580. The nature and minimum number of guns with which a salute may be fired is laid down in the King's
Regulations and Admiralty Instructions.
It is clearly to be understood that no less number of guns than therein stated is ever to be employed unless
dispensation is allowed by Admiralty.
The interval of time between successive rounds of a salute is to be 5 seconds, the interval being regulated
by the hands of a watch.
A useful device in keeping count of the correct number of guns is to paste a small piece of paper under the
glass of a centre seconds stop watch, with the numbers 1 to 21 marked on it at the appropriate positions
for the second hand. It should be observed that the ordinary numbers denoting the hour on the face of a
watch cannot be used as the first gun fires at zero time. The extra figures 1 and 13 will therefore be

written in line with XII hours on the watch face, the starting point of the seconds hand.
581. An equal number of guns each side of the ship is to be employed. Numbers 1 and 3 the Starboard
side, Numbers 2 and 4 the Port side.
Either 1 and 2 should be used to fire the salute with 3 and 4 as "Stand by" guns or vice versa, unless the
ship is lying alongside a jetty when those guns on the seaward side only should be used, keeping those to
landward as "Stand by" guns.
There is some degree of risk from the debris of the discharge of an unshotted round if one is unreasonably
close to, and in line with, the muzzle of the gun.
582. In addition to the gun about to fire, a "Stand by" gun, ordinarily on the same side, is to be ready to
fire in case the other fails to fire. The gunlayer of the "Stand by" gun will fire without order should this
occur. He is to be drilled to watch the firing gun on his own side closely, and fire his own gun the instant
the failure of the other gun becomes evident.
Each saluting gun's crew consists of three men, a gunlayer, a breech worker and a loading number. The
saluting battery will be in the charge of the Gunner of the ship carrying out the salute. In giving an order
to a gun to fire he will be in easy distance and in sight of the gun. He will regulate the time interval and
count the guns.
SINGLE SHIP PROCEDURE.
583. The normal procedure in firing a salute from a single ship is to be as follows:-
(i) Bugle "'Saluting guns' crews" is sounded, when the guns' crews place their guns in the
"Cleared away" position as quickly as possible, leaving the breech open and telescopes not
shipped.
Note. It is of utmost importance to train the saluting guns' crews to clear away and provide
ammunition in the shortest possible time.
195

(ii) The Commanding Officer will name the number of guns to be fired.
(iii) The Gunner will then order "Load," when all guns are brought to the " Half-cock "
position.
(iv) The Commanding Officer will direct the "Alert" to be sounded when the Gunner will
order the guns to be brought to the "Ready."
(v) When the Commanding Officer wishes the salute to be fired he will order the "
Commence" to be sounded. At the last sound of the bugle the guns will fire in succession by
order of the Gunner, who will give his orders-"17-Fire," "18-Fire."
(vi) After firing, each gun will reload and come to the "Ready," observing, however, that not
more than two guns beyond the number to be fired in the salute should be loaded, unless many
missfires have occurred.
On completing the required number of guns the Gunner will order the guns to cease fire and the bugle
"Cease Firing" will be sounded, followed by the "Carry on." In all cases the Gunner is to report to the
Commanding Officer the number of guns fired.
Note. When using 6-pdr. or 3-pdr. guns, if a missfire occurs after re-cocking the breech is not to be
opened for 15 minutes; a gun at which this happens is therefore thrown out of the salute.
FLEET PROCEDURE.
584. When firing a salute with the Fleet, the executive for the Flagship to commence the salute is given by
signal, but her guns are not to be brought to the "Ready " until the executive has been received.
The first gun of each of the remaining ships is not to be brought to the "Ready" until the first gun of the
Flagship has fired. They will open fire with the second gun of the Flagship, and will then fire the full
salute as for a single ship.
A "Royal Salute" of 21 guns will therefore terminate in the Fleet, 1 minute and 45 seconds after the
Flagship has fired her first gun.
196

APPENDIX I.
PARTICULARS OF ARMAMENTS AND FITTINGS SUPPLIED FOR SERVICE BOATS.
1. It may be required to man and arm boats for services, such as the following:-
(i) To form an anti-submarine patrol at the entrance of a harbour used as a base.
(ii) To act in support of a landing party where the armaments of the boats are required to form
part of the armed force.
(iii) To operate for extended periods away from the ship, e.g., preventing slave traffic or gun
running.
(iv) To carry out a "cutting-out " expedition on an enemy or to board a prize or a suspicious
vessel.
It is probable that no two situations will be alike and for this reason it is undesirable to lay down rigid
instructions as to the manning and arming of boats.
The more recent introduction of the "Combined Operations" arm of the Services, with its many
innovations, has tended greatly to specialise and enlarge the form of work as hitherto specified in (ii)
above. No attempt can be made to deal with the aspect of "Combined Operations" which is outside the
scope of this book. Nevertheless, the sporadic occasions when the administration of "Combined
Operations" is not available may still arise.
2. The personnel, stores and alternative armaments shown in the following paragraphs give a guide as to
how boats may be equipped. All boats built prior to 1929 are fitted and strengthened to take any of the
alternative armaments shown, but those built after this date can take only the Lewis gun armament.
The Lewis gun mountings in boats should be constructed and arranged in such a manner as to facilitate
the use of the weapon against close range enemy aircraft.
LAUNCHES, 45 FEET.
3. Armament .. .. 1 3-pdr. Q.F. Mark I Gun or 4 pair Lewis guns on 4 double mountings.
TOTAL CREW ARMS DUTY AND STATIONS

Coxswain Pistol To steer.
1 Gunner's Mate Pistol In charge of armament.
4 3rd class Ratings Rifles No. 1's of guns (2 only if 3-pdr. is mounted).
Other Seamen Rifles No. 2's of guns, ammunition supply, etc.
1 Ordnance Artificer Pistol As required.

1 Shipwright Pistol As required.

1 Signalman Pistol As required.
Engine-room Ratings Pistols As required.
197
Guns and Stores.

1 3-pdr. Q.F. gun.
4 boxes, 3-pdr. ammunition.
With 3-pdr
1 box of spare parts.
1 cleaning rod with brush.
8 Lewis Guns.
4 double mountings.
With Lewis 12 boxes, carrier, magazine, steel.
Gun 40 half-naval boxes, Lewis gun ammunition.
Bags of spare parts as necessary.
Cleaning rods.
1 quarter M.L. case, rifle ammunition.

1 boat's magazine.
2 hand axes.
6 9-gallon water carriers.
2 30-1b. biscuit boxes.
Boats', boatswains', carpenters' and surgical bags.
1 lantern and candles.
1 boat compass.
1 signal pistol, 1 inch, and cartridges.
ALL MOTOR AND STEAMBOATS, 40 FEET AND ABOVE.
4. Armament .. 1 3-pdr. Q.F. Mark I gun or 1 Maxim or 1 pair of Lewis Guns on double mounting.

Coxswain Pistol To steer
1 Gunner's Mate Pistol No. 1 of gun.
2 3rd class Ratings Rifles Nos. 2 and 3 of gun.
1 Other Seaman Rifle Assist ammunition supply.
1 Ordnance Artificer Pistol Assist ammunition supply.
1 Shipwright Pistol -
1 Signalman Pistol Look-out for signals.

Engine-room Ratings Pistols Engine room and stokehold.
Guns and Stores.
1 3-pdr. Q.F. Gun.

With 3- 4 boxes 3-pdr. ammunition.
pdr. 1 box of spare parts.
1 Maxim Gun.
4 boxes filled belts.
1 box spare parts.
With Maxim
1 cleaning rod.
10 half-naval boxes of Maxim
ammunition.
2 Lewis guns.
1 double mounting.
3 boxes, carrier, magazine, steel.
With Lewis
10 half-naval boxes of Lewis ammunition.
Bag of spare parts.
Cleaning rod.
198
1 quarter M.L. case rifle ammunition.

1 boat's magazine.
1 hand axe.
4 7-gallon water barricoes.
1 boat's compass.
MOTOR BOATS, 35 FEET AND 30 FEET: STEAM CUTTERS, 35 FEET AND BELOW.
5. Armament .. 1 Maxim gun or 1 pair of Lewis guns on double mounting.

2 3rd class Ratings Rifles Machine Gun's crew.
1 Ordnance Artificer Pistol -


Engine-room Ratings Pistols Engine room and stokehold.
Guns and Stores.
1 Maxim gun.
With
Maxim
1 cleaning rod.
10 half-naval boxes of Maxim ammunition.
2 Lewis guns.
1 double mounting.
3 boxes carrier, magazine, steel.
With Lewis
10 half-naval boxes of Lewis gun ammunition.
Bag of spare parts.
Cleaning rod.
1 quarter M.L. case rifle ammunition.

1 boat's magazine.
2 30-lb. biscuit boxes.
1 boat's compass.
1 hand-axe.
199
LAUNCHES, 42 TO 36 FEET: PINNACES, 32 TO 28 FEET.
6. Armament .. 1 3-pdr. Q.F. Mark I gun or 1 Maxim or 2 pairs of Lewis guns on double mountings.

1 Gunner's Mate Pistol No. 1 of gun.
2 3rd class Ratings Rifles Bow oars, Nos. 2 and 3 of gun.
Other Seamen Rifles Oars.
1 Ordnance Artificer Pistol Assist supply of ammunition.

Guns and Stores.
1 3-pdr. Q.F. Gun.

4 boxes 3-pdr. ammunition.
With 3-pdr.
1 Maxim gun.
With
Maxim
1 cleaning rod.
4 Lewis guns.
2 double mountings.
6 boxes, carrier, magazine, steel.
With Lewis
Bag of spare parts.
Cleaning rod.

1 boat's magazine.
2 hand-axes.
2 30-lb. biscuit boxes.
1 boat's compass.
PULLING CUTTERS, 30 FEET AND ABOVE.
7. Armament .. 1 Maxim or 1 pair of Lewis guns on double mounting.

2 3rd class Ratings Rifles Bow oars, machine gun's crew.
Other seamen. Rifles Oars.
200

Guns and Stores.
1 Maxim gun.
4 boxes of filled belts.
With
Maxim
1 cleaning rod.
2 Lewis guns.
1 double mounting.
3 boxes carrier, magazine, steel.
With Lewis
Bag of spare parts.
Cleaning rod.

1 boat's magazine.
2 hand-axes.
1 boat's compass.
GIGS AND WHALERS.
8. Coxswain .. Pistol.
Crew .. Rifles.
Ammunition and Stores.

1 boat's magazine (gig's).
1 hand-axe.
1 30-1b. biscuit box.
1 boat's compass.
Boat's Magazine.
9. For Boats armed with 3-pdr. Q.F., Maxim, or Lewis Guns.

204 rounds of pistol ammunition in a leather pouch.

1 lb. of slow match.
2 signal rockets.
2 common port-fires.
2 short lights.
Note. Rocket sticks and boat's rocket firing upright must be taken separately.
201
Gig's Magazine.
10. For Boats armed with rifles only.
1 signal rocket.
1 common port-fire.
1 short light.
96 rounds of pistol ammunition in a leather pouch 1 key for metal-lined case.
1 strap for pouch.
1 lb. of slow match.
Note. Rocket stick and boat's rocket firing upright must be taken separately.
202

APPENDIX II.
LIST OF BUGLE CALLS.
1. Action. 31. Clean Guns.

2. Alarm to Arms. 32. Secure.
3. Cruising Stations. 33. Disperse.
4. Flying Stations. 34. Officers.
5. Fleet Air Arm Fall In. 35. Officers Dress for Dinner
6. Flight Deck Division Fall In. 36. Officers' Dinner.
7. Reveille. 37. Cooks.
8. Rouse. 38. Grog.
9. Sunset. 39. Mail.
10. First Post. 40. Landing Party.
11. Last Post. 41. Markers.
12. Guard. 42. Quick March
13. Band. 43. Double.
14. Alert. 44. March at Ease.
15. General Salute. 45. Halt.
16. Commodore's Salute. 46. Attention.
17. Divisions. 47. Extend.
18. One "G." 48. Close.
19. Saluting Guns' Crews. 49. Incline.
20. Clear Lower Deck. 50. Lie Down.
21. Watches for Exercise. 51. Rise Up.
22. Watch of the Hands. 52. Still.
23. Duty Hands. 53. Carry on.
24. Cable Party. 54. Advance.
25. Special Duty Men. 55. Retire.
26. Close Water-tight Doors. 56. Commence.
27. Look-outs. 57. Cease Firing.
27a. Extra Look-outs. 58. Liberty Men.
28. Emergency Party. 59. Royal Marines.
29. Darken Ship. 60. Drummers or Buglers.
30. Fire Alarm. 61. Defaulters.
203

BUGLE CALLS
1. ACTION
Preceded and followed by one "G"- "Exercise Action."

Followed by two "G's"- "Night Action."
Preceded and followed by two "G's"- "Exercise Night
Action."
2. ALARM TO ARMS
Also used for "Repel Aircraft."
3. CRUISING STATIONS
With one or more "G's" to indicate watch required.
4. FLYING STATIONS
5. FLEET AIR ARM FALL IN
204

6. FLIGHT DECK DIVISION FALL IN
7. REVEILLE
Used for calling the HANDS.

Follows last post at naval
funerals
8. ROUSE
Used for "Guard and Steerage"
9. Sunset
Complete call not used when under way

First part, up to *, used for "Control parties" as follows:-
Followed by one "G"- "Main Armament"
Followed by two "G's"- "Secondary Armament"
Followed by three "G's"- "A.A. Armament"
Preceded by one "G"- "Searchlight"
Preceded by two "G's"- "Torpedo"

205
10. FIRST POST
Not used when under way
11. LAST POST
At sea, used only for burial
12. GUARD
206

13. BAND
14. ALERT
Precedes all salutes
15. GENERAL SALUTE
16. COMMODORE'S SALUTE
17. DIVISIONS
Used for "Hands fall in by Divisions" at any time.
18. ONE "G" 19. SALUTING GUNS' CREWS
Used as an 'executive' e.g. for

"Out lower Boom," etc., as a
warning of approach of
"Rounds," and also within a
few minutes of "Watches for
Exercise," "Divisions,"
"Evening Quarters," etc.
207

20. CLEAR LOWER DECK
21. WATCHES FOR EXERCISE
Followed by one or more "G's" to indicate watch required.

Preceded by one or more "G's" to indicate the part of the watch
required.
22. WATCH OF THE HANDS
Followed by one or more "G's" to indicate the watch required.
23. DUTY HANDS
Followed by "G's" to indicate first or second duty hands.
24. CABLE PARTY 25. SPECIAL DUTY MEN
Followed by one or more "G's"

to indicate watch required.
26. CLOSE WATERTIGHT DOORS
208

27. LOOKOUTS
27a. EXTRA LOOKOUTS
To follow "LOOKOUTS" when "Fog" or

"Night" lookouts are required.
28. EMERGENCY PARTY
29. DARKEN SHIP
Followed by "Halt,"- "Undarken Ship."
30. FIRE ALARM
31. CLEAN GUNS
Followed by one "G"- "Clean Arms."

One long "G" at "CLEAN GUNS"- "Return Rags."
One long "G" at "CLEAN ARMS"- "On Bells."
First part only to * - "Cover Guns."
First part to *, followed by one "G" - "Uncover
Guns."
209

32. SECURE
Followed by one "G"-"Return Arms"
33. DISPERSE
34. OFFICERS
Followed by one "G"- "Officers Warned."

Followed by two "G's"- "Cable Officers."
Followed by three "G's"- "Executive Officers."
Followed by four "G's"- "All Officers."
35. OFFICERS DRESS FOR DINNER
36. OFFICERS' DINNER
37. COOKS
210

38. GROG
Followed by one "G"- "Limejuice"
39. MAIL
40. LANDING PARTY
This applies to seamen landing parties only, to "Fall In."

Followed by one "G"- "A company" or "1st organisation."
Followed by two "G's"- "B company" or "2nd organisation."
Followed by three "G's"- "C company" or "3rd
organisation."
41. MARKERS
Followed by one "G"- "Right markers."

Followed by two "G's"- "Left markers."
Also used for "Recording parties."
42. QUICK MARCH
43. DOUBLE
211

44. MARCH AT EASE 45. HALT
Also used for "Stand Easy" Also used to annul the immediately
preceding call or pipe.
46. ATTENTION
Followed by one "G"-"Gas Alarm."
47. EXTEND
Used at any time to extend men, such as in "Man Ship"

Also to indicate "Lull in Action;' "Collect Wounded!'
etc.
48. CLOSE
Used to close men at any time, such as "Man Ship."

At Divisions- "Everybody Aft."
Followed by one "G"- "Close to Starboard."
Followed by two "G's"- "Close to Port."
Also used to indicate "Action about to commence."
49. INCLINE
Also used for "Paravane party."
50. LIE DOW 51. RISE UP
212

52. STILL 53. CARRY ON
54. ADVANCE
Used also for "Bathers to enter the water"

and "Stations for anchoring."
55. RETIRE
Used also for "Bathers to leave the water."

and "Light guns' crews take cover."
56. COMMENCE.
57. CEASE FIRING
Used also for "Out pipes"

and "Stop pumps"
58. LIBERTY MEN
213

59. ROYAL MARINES

Calls preceded by any of these refer to Royal Marines only
Portsmouth Division
Chatham Division
Plymouth Division
60. DRUMMERS OR BUGLERS
61. DEFAULTERS
Followed by one "G"- "Captain's Defaulters."

Followed by two "G's"- "Commander's
Defaulters."
(58402) Wt 53357/D8707 26.961.8 60M 3/44 L&B
Plate 1. Typical Gunnery Layout of a "Mauritius" Class Cruiser
Plate 2. Typical Gunnery Layout of a "Dido" Class Cruiser
Plate 3. Typical Gunnery Layout of a Modern Destroyer
Plate 4. Sections of 6-inch and 4-inch guns
Plate 5. Breech Mechanism 6-inch Mark XXIII gun, open and closed
Plate 6. Typical Q.F. Breech Mechanism with S.A. gear, Diagrammatic Arrangement

Plate 7. Typical Pedestal Mounting-6-Inch Mark IX - Cancelled
Plate 8. Typical Central Pivot Mounting-4.7-inch Mark XVIII
Plate 9. Typical H.A. Mounting-4-inch Mark IV
Plate 10. Recoil Cylinder and Run-Out Springs-6-Inch Mark IX Mounting - Cancelled
Plate 11. Recoil Cylinder, Recuperator and Intensifier-4.7-inch Mark XVIII Mounting
Plate 12. Typical Elevating Gear-4.7-inch Mark XVIII Mounting
Plate 13. Typical Training Gear-4.7-inch Mark XVIII Mounting
Plate 14. Loading Tray-4.7-inch Mark XVIII Mounting
Plate 15. Typical Reciprocating Hydraulic Mechanisms
Plate 16. Methods of carrying pressure into Revolving Structure
Plate 17. General Arrangement of 6-inch Mark XXIII Mounting
Plate 18. General Arrangement of 5.25-inch Mark II Mounting
Plate 19. Colour Markings on Shells
Plate 20. Colour Markings on Bombs
Plate 21. Markings on Watertight openings
Previous Part Gunnery Home

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The Gunnery Pocket Book - Plate 1 - Typical Gunnery Layout of a <i>Mauritius</i> Class Cruiser
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The Gunnery Pocket Book - Plate 5. Breech Mechanism 6-inch Mark XXIII gun, open and closed
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The Gunnery Pocket Book - Plate 6. Typical Q.F. Breech Mechanism with S.A. gear, Diagrammatic Arrangement
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The Gunnery Pocket Book - Plate 8. Typical Central Pivot Mounting-4.7-inch Mark XVIII
Plate 8. Typical Central Pivot Mounting-4.7-inch Mark XVIII Gunnery Home

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The Gunnery Pocket Book - Plate 9. Typical H.A. Mounting-4-inch Mark IV
Plate 9. Typical H.A. Mounting-4-inch Mark IV Gunnery Home

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The Gunnery Pocket Book - Plate 10. Recoil Cylinder and Run-Out Springs-6-Inch Mark IX Mounting - Cancelled
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The Gunnery Pocket Book - Plate 11. Recoil Cylinder, Recuperator and Intensifier-4.7-inch Mark XVIII Mounting
Plate 11. Recoil Cylinder, Recuperator and Intensifier-4.7-inch Mark XVIII Mounting Gunnery Home
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The Gunnery Pocket Book - Plate 12. Typical Elevating Gear-4.7-inch Mark XVIII Mounting
Plate 12. Typical Elevating Gear-4.7-inch Mark XVIII Mounting Gunnery Home
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The Gunnery Pocket Book - Plate 13. Typical Training Gear-4.7-inch Mark XVIII Mounting
Plate 13. Typical Training Gear-4.7-inch Mark XVIII Mounting Gunnery Home
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The Gunnery Pocket Book - Plate 13. Typical Training Gear-4.7-inch Mark XVIII Mounting

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The Gunnery Pocket Book - Plate 14. Loading Tray-4.7-inch Mark XVIII Mounting
Plate 14. Loading Tray-4.7-inch Mark XVIII Mounting Gunnery Home

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The Gunnery Pocket Book - Plate 14. Loading Tray-4.7-inch Mark XVIII Mounting

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The Gunnery Pocket Book - Plate 15. Typical Reciprocating Hydraulic Mechanisms
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The Gunnery Pocket Book - Plate 16. Methods of carrying pressure into Revolving Structure
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The Gunnery Pocket Book - Plate 17. General Arrangement of 6-inch Mark XXIII Mounting
Plate 17. General Arrangement of 6-inch Mark XXIII

Mounting Gunnery Home
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The Gunnery Pocket Book - Plate 18. General Arrangement of 5.25-inch Mark II Mounting
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Mounting Gunnery Home
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The Gunnery Pocket Book - Plate 19. Colour Markings on Shells
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Historic Naval Ships by Location:
AUSTRALIA
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CANADA
RV Ben Franklin, Vancouver, British Columbia
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HMCS Sackville, Halifax, Nova Scotia
HMCS Haida, Hamilton, Ontario
ENGLAND
HMS Belfast, London
HMS Cavalier, Chatham
FRANCE
FS Colbert, Bordeaux
GREECE
B/S Georgios Averoff, Athens
ISRAEL
INS Af Al Pi Chen, Haifa
INS Mivtach, Haifa
NETHERLANDS
HNLMS Tonijn, Den Helder
HNLMS Abraham Crijnssen, Den Helder
HNLMS Schorpioen, Den Helder
Hr. Ms. Buffel, Rotterdam
Hr. Ms. Mercuur, Scheveningen
NORWAY
M314 Alta, Oslo
PERU
BAP Abtao, Callao
RUSSIA
Cruiser Aurora, St. Petersburg
Soviet B-413, Kaliningrad
Icebreaker Krasin, St. Petersburg
SWEDEN

T121 Spica, Stockholm
TURKEY
TCG Uluçalireis, Istanbul
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
[AL] [AR] [CA] [CT] [DC] [DE] [FL] [GA] [HI] [IL] [IN] [IA] [LA] [MD] [MA] [MI] [MS]
[MO] [NE] [NH] [NJ] [NY] [NC] [OH] [OK] [OR] [PA] [RI] [SC] [TX] [VA] [WA] [WI]
Alabama
USS Alabama, Mobile, Alabama
USS Drum, Mobile, Alabama
PBR Mark II, Mobile, Alabama
Arkansas
USS Razorback, North Little Rock, Arkansas
California
USS Hornet, Alameda, California

USS Potomac, Oakland, California

Lightship Relief, Oakland, California
SS Red Oak Victory, Richmond, California
USCGC Fir, Rio Vista, California
PTF 26, Rio Vista, California
USAT LT-1967, San Diego, California
Steam Yacht Medea, San Diego, California
USS Midway, San Diego, California
SS Jeremiah O'Brien, San Francisco, California
USS Pampanito, San Francisco, California
SS Lane Victory, San Pedro, California
PBR Mark II, Vallejo, California
Connecticut
USCG Boat Icebucket, Bridgeport, Connecticut
Japanese HA-8, Groton, Connecticut
USS Nautilus, Groton, Connecticut
Italian Siluro a Lenta Corsa, Groton, Connecticut, USA
USS X-1, Groton, Connecticut
Auxilliary Schooner Brilliant, Mystic, Connecticut
USCGC Eagle, New London, Connecticut
Delaware
Lightship Overfalls, Lewes, Delaware
District Of Columbia
USS Barry, Washington, District of Columbia
LCVP, Washington, District of Columbia
Motor Whaleboat, Washington, District of Columbia
PCF-1, Washington, District of Columbia
RV Trieste, Washington, District of Columbia
Continental Gunboat Philadelphia, Washington, District of Columbia
Florida
PTF 3, Deland, Florida, USA
PBR Mark II, Orlando, Florida, USA
SS American Victory, Tampa, Florida
Georgia
CSS Chattahoochee, Columbus, Georgia
CSS Jackson, Columbus, Georgia

Hawaii
USS Arizona, Honolulu, Hawaii
USS Bowfin, Honolulu, Hawaii
Japanese Kaiten, Honolulu, Hawaii
USS Missouri, Honolulu, Hawaii
USS Utah, Honolulu, Hawaii
Illinois
German U-505, Chicago, Illinois
Indiana
USS LST-325, Evansville, Indiana
Iowa
USACOE Dredge William M. Black, Dubuque, Iowa
Louisiana
USS Kidd, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Maryland
Lightship Chesapeake, Baltimore, Maryland
USS Constellation, Baltimore, Maryland
SS John W. Brown, Baltimore, Maryland
USCGC Taney, Baltimore, Maryland
USS Torsk, Baltimore, Maryland
Massachusetts
USS Cassin Young, Boston, Massachusetts
USS Constitution, Boston, Massachusetts
Tug Luna, Boston, Massachusetts
Demolition Boat, Fall River, Massachusetts
Hiddensee, Fall River, Massachusetts
USS Joseph P. Kennedy, Jr, Fall River, Massachusetts
LCM 56, Fall River, Massachusetts
USS Lionfish, Fall River, Massachusetts
USS Massachusetts, Fall River, Massachusetts
PT 617, Fall River, Massachusetts
PT 796, Fall River, Massachusetts
USS Salem, Quincy, Massachusetts
German Seehund, Quincy, Massachusetts

Michigan
USCGC Bramble, Port Huron, Michigan
SS City Of Milwaukee, Manistee, Michigan
USCGC McLane, Muskegon, Michigan
SS Milwaukee Clipper, Muskegon, Michigan
USS Silversides, Muskegon, Michigan
Mississippi
USS Cairo, Vicksburg, Mississippi
Missouri
USS Aries, Brunswick, Missouri
Nebraska
USS Hazard, Omaha, Nebraska
USS Marlin, Omaha, Nebraska
New Hampshire
USS Albacore, Portsmouth, New Hampshire
New Jersey
USS New Jersey, Camden, New Jersey
Japanese Kaiten, Hackensack, New Jersey
USS Ling, Hackensack, New Jersey
PBR Mark II, Hackensack, New Jersey
German Seehund, Hackensack, New Jersey
Fenian Ram, Paterson, New Jersey
Holland Boat #1, Paterson, New Jersey
Intelligent Whale, Sea Girt, New Jersey
New York
USS Slater, Albany, New York
USS Croaker, Buffalo, New York
USS Little Rock, Buffalo, New York
PTF 17, Buffalo, New York
USS The Sullivans, Buffalo, New York
MV Commander, Cornwall-on-Hudson, New York
USS Growler, New York, New York
USS Intrepid, New York, New York
USAT LT-5, Oswego, New York

Admiral's Barge, Romulus, New York
North Carolina
USS North Carolina, Wilmington, North Carolina
Ohio
USS Cod, Cleveland, Ohio
SS William G. Mather, Cleveland, Ohio
Oklahoma
USS Batfish, Muskogee, Oklahoma
Oregon
USS Blueback, Portland, Oregon
PT-658, Portland, Oregon
Pennsylvania
U.S. Brig Niagara, Erie, Pennsylvania
USS Becuna, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
USS Olympia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
USS Requin, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
Soviet Juliett 484, Providence, Rhode Island
South Carolina
USCGC Ingham, Mount Pleasant, South Carolina
USS Laffey Mount Pleasant, South Carolina
USS Yorktown, Mount Pleasant, South Carolina
USS Clamagore, Mount Pleasant, South Carolina
CSS H. L. Hunley, North Charleston, South Carolina
Texas
USS Lexington, Corpus Christi, Texas
Admiral's Barge, Fredericksburg, Texas
Japanese HA-19, Fredericksburg, Texas
PT 309, Fredericksburg, Texas
USS Cavalla, Galveston, Texas
USS Stewart, Galveston, Texas
USS Texas, LaPorte, Texas
USS Orleck, Orange, Texas

Virginia
USS Monitor, Newport News, Virginia
USS Wisconsin, Norfolk, Virginia
RV Aluminaut, Richmond, Virginia
Washington
USS Turner Joy, Bremerton, Washington
RV Deep Quest, Keyport, Washington
RV Trieste II, Keyport, Washington
Tug Arthur Foss, Seattle, Washington
Lightship Swiftsure, Seattle, Washington
Schooner Wawona, Seattle, Washington
Wisconsin
USS Cobia, Manitowoc, Wisconsin
USCG Boat Icelander, Manitowoc, Wisconsin
Copyright (C) 1998-2006 Historic Naval Ships Association.

Version 2.24, 28 Mar 06

Historic Naval Ships Visitors Guide - Legal Notices
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this website. In the case of a dispute, you and HNSA agree to submit to the exclusive personal jurisdiction
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Tel: (757) 356-9422
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Email: info@hnsa.org
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Copyright (C) 2004-2006, Historic Naval Ships Association.


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The Gunnery Pocket Book

Search The Gunnery Pocket Book

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By Command of Their Lordships,

To Flag Officers and Commanding

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SECTION 3-THE PRINCIPLES OF RADAR, OPTICAL RANGEFINDERS AND

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Gunlaying and training-when following director-when using gunsights-point of aim-recognition

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Magazines-Flooding and spraying-Correcting heel and trim-Counter flooding-Damage control

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10. Fig. I Elevation Receiver Type " E.M." Mark I 276-8

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ABBREVIATIONS USED IN GUNNERY.

A. Letter usually denoting foremost Bg. Bearing.

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A. S .0. Armament Supply Officer. C.R.1 Control Rating First Class.

D.C. Damage Control. Depth Charge. G.M. Gunner's Mate.

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F.K.C. Fuze Keeping Clock. H.O. Hostilities Only.

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M.G. Machine Gun. all Armament Depots. A complete list

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P. Letter signifying Pedestal type REPD. Repaired.

R.L. Royal Laboratory. T.I.U. Target Indication Unit.

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Sub. Cal. Sub. Calibre. W/T. Wireless Telegraphy.

Copyright (C) 2006 Historic Naval Ships Association

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OBJECTS OF THE BOOK.

POSSIBILITIES OF THE GUNNERY CAREER.

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Steps in the Gunnery Career

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Diver Open to seamen (holding any non-substantive rating), stokers, artificer,

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. . . . a complex subject ... (para 1)

(i) A six-inch cruiser of the "Mauritius" class.

A SIX-INCH CRUISER "Mauritius" CLASS. Plate 1.

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A "Dido" CLASS CRUISER. Plate 2.

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A TYPICAL DESTROYER. Plate 3.

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Note. Later types of 4.7-in. guns have a spring-operated rammer.

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THE SHIP'S COMPANY.

THE PART THE SHIP'S COMPANY PLAYS IN FIGHTING THE SHIP.

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The Ship's company is a team .. . (para 41)

HOW A GUN IS FIRED.

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