Emirates Journal for Engineering Research, 11(2), 19-36 (2006)

(Review Paper)

SOLID AND LIQUID WASTE MANAGEMENT

S. SYED
Atomic Energy Research Institute, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology,
P.O Box 6086, Riyadh-11442, Saudi Arabia. E-mail address: sabirsyed2k@yahoo.com

(Received March 2006 and accepted November 2006)

‫ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻟﻠﻤﺨﻠﻔﺎت اﻟﺴﺎﺋﻠﺔ واﻟﺼﻠﺒﺔ أن ﺗﻠﻮث ﻣﻴﺎﻩ اﻟﺸﺮب واﻟﺰراﻋﺔ واﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﺔ ﻓﻲ أﻏﺮاض اﻟﺘﺮﻓﻴﺔ وذﻟﻚ ﻓﻲ‬
‫ وﻗﺪ أدى ﻃﺮح‬.‫ وﻗﺪ ﻋﺮﻓﺖ إدارة اﻟﻤﺨﻠﻔﺎت وﻃﺒﻘﺖ ﺧﻼل اﻷرﺑﻌﺔ ﺁﻻف ﺳﻨﺔ اﻟﻤﺎﺿﻴﺔ‬.‫اﻟﻤﻨﺎﻃﻖ اﻟﺮﻳﻔﻴﺔ واﻟﺤﻀﺮﻳﺔ‬
‫ ﺗﻘﺪم هﺬﻩ اﻟﻮرﻗﺔ ﻣﺮاﺟﻌﺔ ﻟﻠﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎت‬.‫اﻟﻤﺨﻠﻔﺎت ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺤﻴﻂ اﻟﺤﻴﻮي إﻟﻰ اﻻﺗﺠﺎﻩ إﻟﻰ اﻹدارة اﻟﻤﺘﻜﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺨﻠﻔﺎت‬
‫ آﻤﺎ ﺗﻘﺪم‬.‫اﻟﻤﺘﻌﻠﻘﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺨﻠﻔﺎت اﻟﺴﺎﺋﻠﺔ واﻟﺼﻠﺒﺔ وﺗﻠﺨﺺ اﻟﻮﺿﻊ اﻟﺤﺎﻟﻲ ﻟﻠﻤﺮاﻗﺒﺔ اﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ واﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ اﻟﻬﺎﻣﺔ اﻟﻤﺘﻌﻠﻘﺔ ﺑﻬﺎ‬
‫اﻟﻮرﻗﺔ ﻣﺸﺎآﻞ اﻟﻤﺨﻠﻔﺎت ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ واﻟﺤﺎﺿﺮ واﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ اﻟﺤﻴﻮﻳﺔ وآﺬﻟﻚ ﺗﺘﻌﺮض ﻟﻸﻣﻮر اﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ اﻟﻤﺘﻌﻠﻘﺔ ﺑﺘﺪوﻳﺮ‬
.‫اﻟﻤﺨﻠﻔﺎت واﺳﺘﻌﺎدة اﻟﻤﻮاد‬
Solid and liquid wastes generated from both animal and domestic sources can significantly impair
drinking, irrigation, recreational water and other water sources in rural and urban areas. Waste as
a management issue has been evident for over four millennia. Disposal of waste to the biosphere
has given way to thinking about, and trying to implement, an integrated waste management
approach. This paper reviews the history of solid and liquid waste operations and summarizes the
current environmental monitoring program and its major findings. Various problems of wastes in
past and present, environmental ecology, general aspect of recycling and materials recovery are
defined.
Keywords: Waste management, Waste problem, Environmental ecology, Materials recovery

1. INTRODUCTION 2. THE "WASTE" PROBLEM: PAST AND

Environmental degradation-with accompanying
threats to health and disruption of ecosystem is not a
new phenomenon. Nevertheless, with the advent of
industrial revolution and large scale adoption of
technology, man now diverts vast amount of energy
and materials flowing through the natural ecosystems
to his own use.
Industries constitute a formidable source of
pollution with large quantities of waste products in
the form of solids, liquids, gases, heat, noise etc.
Which are discharged into the environment? Many of
these pollution problems are inherent in the
technology and a considerable amount of research
and developmental efforts are needed to overcome
these drawbacks [1-4].
Industrial research should not be limited only to
the development of materials, methodologies and
their management but it should also include
investigation on the effective methods of waste
disposal, more so, recycling of waste for productive
purposes. The reasoning is quite simple – recycling
will not only be cost effective, but, also will reduce to
a considerable extent contamination to our
environment-pollution of air, water and land, three
modern aspects with which every one is most
concern.
PRESENT
Man has always generated waste materials which are
either bye-product of his activities, for which he
could not find any use, or products which have
reached the end of useful life. Although this was
going on throughout the ages, it was not a problem
until recent times because natures own waste
treatment processes like dispersion, dilution and
degradation, which took care of these problems.
From the smoke of the caveman's fire till the
'smog' (the word 'smog' is coined in the 20th century)
of the last century, the problem, went unnoticed.
Wastes dumped into the rivers were washed away
quickly and diluted to the point where no effect on
water purity could have been observed. Wastes left
on land, decayed by spontaneous chemical and
degradation process thereby: the balance of nature
was maintained.
The situation today is not so simple. The problem
is due to both quantitative and qualitative nature of
the wastes we are producing. The natural degradation
processes are slow and can take care of only a limited
amounts and specific kinds of wastes. The obnoxious
fumes produced today by the so called civilized
society are too much for the atmosphere to get
dispersed, especially in urban environment. The
rivers are not able to dilute and degrade sufficiently
the vast amount of industrial effluents dumped every

19
S. Syed
day into them. And one would have to wait a long
time for heaps of junk metallic material dumped to
blend in with the earth's crust again as ores. This will
not happen because we are dumping wastes faster
than nature can degrade and absorb them. Further,
many of the modern waste materials like plastics and
detergents are non biodegradable. All these are going
to cause serious threat to our ecosystem.
3. ENVIRONMENT AND ECOLOGY
Environment is the sum total of everything that
directly influences the animal's chances of survival or
reproduction. The intimately close and immediate
surroundings of the organism are known as micro-
environment. The sum total of the physical and biotic
condition existing external to the organism and its
micro environment is called macro-environment.
Ecology by itself is a multi discipline in nature which
includes subjects like physical and chemical sciences,
engineering, law, medicine, demography, energy
conversion, automation, chemical technology and
environmental analysis. It is through the blending of
chemical technology and environmental analysis that
a new area called environmental analytical chemistry
has arisen as a core subject area for the ecologist.
Ecology is the science of interactions among
individuals, populations, and communities and it also
involves the interrelations between living (biotic)
components with their non-living (abiotic)
counterparts or environment. Thus, ecology may be
defined as "A multi disciplinary science which deals
with organism and its place to live and which focuses
on ecosystem". In the present context the term
organism refers to an individual unit constituted to
carry on the activities of life.
4. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT: A
MULTIDISCIPLINARY CHALLENGE
Environmental management is the technology that
aims at eliminating or reducing the harmful effects of
the emissions generated by human activities.
Environmental management has three ‘legs' on which
to stand. Firstly, it must take into consideration the
environment – that is, the ecosystem – and attempt to
provide management which will maintain a
reasonably, close to the natural balance for this
system; secondly, it most reflect on the best attainable
long term conditions for human society, including its
socio-economic conditions; and finally, it must
determine which solutions are technically and
economically feasible and which are not.
The problems of environmental management are
related to the emissions of energy and mass from
human systems. Such emissions have been taking
place ever since the time of the earliest human
settlements. Now, however, they have reached such
20
proportions that not only our natural environment is
affected but its vital processes, including the very
existence of life on this earth surface is endangered.
This is the reason we refer these emissions as
pollution, and we are most concerned about their
effects on nature, it we cannot completely eliminate
pollution, it is our concern to see how can we at least
reduce it, and how can we support nature in
absorbing the part that is unavoidable?.
Environmental management must draw upon
many disciplines and professions. For the
consideration of natural balance of our ecosystem it
requires a good knowledge of ecology, particularly of
systems ecology where the properties of the entire
ecosystem are in focus. The knowledge of zoology
and botany including that of general microbiology are
of essential prerequisites.
As the emission from human society consists,
besides energy, of various complex chemical
compounds, chemistry becomes vital for a complete
understanding of environmental management. This
has given rise to a separate sub discipline called
Environmental Chemistry. In this context, we are
particularly more concerned in what may be called, to
use a self explanatory term, biogeochemical
reactions. In addition, various physical processes, the
transport of energy and pollutants in the ecosystem
also demand the application of physics in our study.
The pollution problems have originated from the
human societies, and if this dominant species, Homo
sapiens, were to disappear from the earth, then all
pollution problems would also disappear. It is our
prime necessity to see that human societies are
maintained on this earth and, to a reasonable extent,
keep them an integrated part of nature. These
societies must therefore be properly understood and
must be taken into account in the context of any
environmental management strategies. This implies
that socio-economic factors and legislation will also
have to be included in environmental management.
When we turn to find solutions to environmental
problems, we may come across still further
disciplines which have to be drawn up and include.
4.1 Principles of Ecology and Environmental
Science
The principles underlying ecology and environmental
science have been developed during the twentieth
century, particularly in the last two decades and the
time is now ripe for the application of these
principles. Furthermore, tools such as ecological
modeling have also been developed and with the
advent of high speed computers, such modeling have
been refined and may offer the possibility of
quantifying even complex ecosystems, and showing
how they operate as a whole.
Emirates Journal for Engineering Research, Vol. 11, No.2, 2006

4.2 Environmental Engineering
The most important tasks of environmental
engineering are how to quantity emissions and their
effects, and how to select appropriate environmental
technology to overcome the problems caused thereby.
Environmental engineering must not be confounded
with sanitary engineering, which exists as an
autonomous technical discipline for the last 60 years
or so. Sanitary engineering mainly focuses on sewage
systems, water supplies and sewage treatment. On the
other hand, environmental engineering encompasses
such areas as the treatment of solid wastes and
various other associated air pollution problems.
Moreover, it also considers sewage water and water
supplies, along with industrial waste water, but on the
other hand the construction and maintenance of
sewage systems are not under the purview of
environmental engineering.
4.3 Eco-Technology
Eco-technology has emerged as a new discipline
during the 1980s. It had been indeed applied even
earlier, but only now, it has become acknowledged
and accepted as a separate discipline by its own right,
with a full-fledged scientific explanation for its
fundamental concepts and principles. Eco-technology
is defined as the design of human society within its
natural environment, for the benefit of both. As is the
case with the older technological disciplines;
ecological engineering and eco-technology have been
supplied with a basis within the Theory of science.
4.4 Environmental Technology
Environmental technology is concerned with
technical approach for overcoming or reducing the
various harmful effects of emissions. Although it is
mainly based on chemical engineering, but still also
requires as do almost all technological disciplines –
assistance from process regulation, mechanical and
electrical engineering and, of late from computer
engineering also. While striving towards pollution
abatement during the 'Seventies and 'Eighties it has
clearly shown that environmental technology and
legislation, even when they are at their best alone
cannot by themselves solve the pollution problems. It
is necessary to integrate what is termed eco-
technology in the management strategy.
4.5 Relation to Other Fields
The relation between environmental management and
the various areas (Fig.1)[5]. Environmental legislation
(2) may primarily assist environmental technology
(3) to regulate emissions (1), or with eco-technology
to reduce the impact (5). Combinations results from
environmental management, (4) and (6). Impact is
assessed by means of environmental impact
assessment (EIA) and/or modeling, see (7) and (8) in
Fig. 1.
Emirates Journal for Engineering Research, Vol. 11, No.2, 2006
Solid and Liquid Waste Management
Industries / Society
(1) Emissions (2) Environmental Legislation
(4) (6)
(9)
(5) Impact (3) Environmental Technology
Ecosystems (7)(7)
A. EIA
I. E
(8) Environmental Modelling
(4)+(6) Environmental Managment
Figure 1. Environmental management as related to other fields.
Emissions and impact are closely related to each
other (9), and environmental management attempts to
determine the permissible limit of emission to ensure
an acceptable impact (10).
To avoid or control emissions completely ('Zero
discharge') is not feasible. However, by the judicious
amalgamation of environmental technology, eco-
technology and environmental legislation, we may
build up the kind of environmental management that
will be able to maintain our environment in a very
near to ecological balance.
Obviously, this type of environmental
management will become rather complicated. But it
should not come as a surprise that this complexity
concerning a complex system requires a solution,
which will be more complex in nature.
Good environmental management system must
find and apply a wide spectrum of solutions
simultaneously. One of the reasons for this is that all
ecosystems are different and perform differently, and
this is true even for different ecosystems representing
the same types of lakes, forests, savannahs, etc.
In addition, wide spectrums of environmental
technologies are needed. There is no one universal
technology for all problems: each pollution situation
is different from the other. The chemical composition
of the emission is different, the environmental
condition is different, the associated emission are
different, therefore we need specific individual
solutions which will most often be different from
each other too, and will differ from case to case.
The fortunate thing is that environmental
technology and eco-technology have by now reached
such a high standard that we do have a wide spectrum
of choices at our disposal. It is a challenge to find a
good environmental management solution to a
complex environmental problem. But as resources
available to solve environmental problem are usually
limited, it is of prime necessity to examine the
complexity of the problem carefully and consider
various solutions available at our disposal before a
final management decision is taken. In addition, this
21
S. Syed
practice may ensure economy is considering the
solution of other problems.
As mentioned earlier by its very nature a 'zero
discharge' situation is unrealistic. There being more
than five billion people inhabiting this earth, we
cannot think of an environment without being
affected. But we have to differentiate between
damaging the ecological balance and only influencing
it slightly.
It is important in this context to emphasize that
certain ecosystems are crucial and must at all costs be
maintained totally undisturbed, or almost in un-
disturbed condition, whereas there are certain other
ecosystems which may be influenced by human
activity to a greater extent.
Such a distinction between the ecosystems leads
to a management approach which requires proper
planning. A planning of all human activities under
consideration, thereby keeping their effect on our
environment under control, is a key to a more
comprehensive solution of the environmental crises
that we are facing towards the end of the 20th century.
Unfortunately, there are numerous examples of poor
planning of management which have damaged the
environment severely, even without any profit being
realized by anybody. And there are several examples
of poor environmental planning that have led to a
short term profit but a long term economic disaster.
As this review has tried to explain, environmental
management is a multifaceted problem which must
play on many strings:
• Planning of all human activities with respect to
their effects on the environment.
• Formulation of an unambiguous and compre-
hendsive environmental legislation, and equally
important are the measures for the enforcement
of this legislation.
• Use of a wide spectrum of already existing
environmental technologies and ecotechnologies,
and the combination thereof.
• Development of 'new and alternative techno-
logies; which most often implies technologies
with little or no pollution involved. Ecological
agricultural and integrated agriculture are
examples of such technologies.
• Recycling of raw materials and waste materials
to the greatest possible extent. Recycling is a
very useful method of solving pollution
problems: what is recycled is not emitted, and at
the same time resources are saved.
• Knowledge about the interdependency between
society and the ecosystem, and about how all
parts of the system interfere with each other is
important because a solution to one problem may
lead to greater problems somewhere else in our
society or in the environment. This adds to the
difficulty of environmental management and
prompts the manager to apply a macroscopic
view.
22
Analysis
Environmental
Management
Evaluation Control
Figure 2. Dynamics of three components of environmental
management.
4.6 The Dimensions
Environmental management has three dimensions:
first, it takes into consideration the environment itself
that is, the ecosystem and attempts to provide
management to maintain a reasonable, close to the
natural balance for this system, second, it reflects on
the best attainable long-term conditions for human
society, including its socio-economic conditions; and
third, it determines the solutions which are
technically and economically feasible. In brief,
Environmental management is the art and science of
preparing, organizing and directing human efforts to
analyze, evaluate and control the factors responsible
for environmental degradation and utilize the
manmade and naturally occurring materials for the
benefit of mankind with least disruption to the
ecosystem. A model is shown in Fig. 2 [6]. The
consideration of the natural balance of ecosystem
requires a good knowledge of ecology.
5. CLASSIFICATION OF WASTE
Wastes are numerous in kind and defy easy
definition. It is difficult to evolve a universal
classification for 'waste'. However, roughly there are
three basic classification methods, which are
combined to form a waste classification system [7].
They are:
• Physical classification,
• Chemical classification and
• Thermal classification.
The last one is directly related to thermal
processing requirements and focuses on the
information needed to select, design, and operate a
thermal processing system.
5.1 Physical Classification
This classification identifies the physical state of
waste. It is needed for the selection and design of
waste handling systems and the choice of processing
equipment. Based on physical characteristics, typical
waste materials are classified as: gaseous, liquid,
slurry, sludge, solid and containerized waste. In the
Emirates Journal for Engineering Research, Vol. 11, No.2, 2006

present context, solid and liquid wastes will be
discussed in the succeeding section. Nevertheless the
classification of liquid waste demands separate
treatment which will be dealt in detail in sections 10
to 11.3.
5.1.1 Solid Waste
Solid wastes are those which arise from human and
animal activities that are normally solid and are
usually discarded as useless or unwanted. The term as
used in this context is all inclusive, and it
encompasses the heterogeneous mass of throwaways
from the urban community as well as the more
homogeneous accumulations of agricultural,
industrial and mineral wastes [8].
In discussing solid waste, generally and tradition-
ally certain categories of wastes are well recognized
as they are very common. For example, solid wastes
include domestic, commercial, industrial, (due to
construction and demolition) agricultural, institution-
al and miscellaneous. Many times domestic and
commercial wastes cannot be differentiated and are
considered together as urban wastes. Included in this
category are the garbage materials which result from
food preparation both in the homes and restaurants,
and also the rubbish which is produced in residences
and commercial establishments. Generally, the
garbage consists of rapidly decomposable materials
while the rubbish is either slowly decomposable or
non-degradable.
A second major category of waste is industrial,
the refuse produced by industrial processes.
Generally the character of the refuse produced in any
manufacturing or processing operation will depend
very much on the type, amount, or the character of
wastes produced by the industry. Obviously, the
wastes produced by steel manufacturers will differ
considerably from those produced in the chemical
industry. Usually the wastes produced by any food
processing operation, the paper and plastics industries
are almost similar to the paper and plastic packaging
materials found in domestic rubbish. On the other
hand, the metal processing industry will obviously
generate metallic wastes, but in addition will also
produce large quantities of slags, processing
chemicals, and other residues, many of which are
used in air pollution control and water pollution
control activities. The wastes produced by chemical
industries or other more specialized industries will in
general depend upon the specific nature of the end
product of the manufacturing process.
5.2 Chemical Classification
It is the key to selection of proper process design
parameters, selection of materials of construction,
choice of concentration equipment, design of
incinerator hardware, the possibility of bye-product
recovery, and the requirement of fuel gas and
discharge water treatment systems. Based on this
Emirates Journal for Engineering Research, Vol. 11, No.2, 2006
Solid and Liquid Waste Management
classification, the waste materials are broadly
classified as clean waste and hazardous waste.
5.2.1 Clean Waste
This group covers hydrocarbons which contain only
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The oxidation
products are considered clean and can be discharged
into the environment.
5.2.2 Hazardous Waste
The problem with hazardous wastes is that there is
still no internationally accepted definition of a
hazardous waste. However, technical criteria such as
toxicity, flammability, corrosivity, ignitability and
reactivity have been proposed and used to some
extent to identify and designate the waste as
hazardous.
Though the hazardous wastes account for only a
small proportion of all wastes generated by the
industries, their impact can be disastrous as they not
only affect the physical environment but also the
biotic components.
The United States alone generates about 60
million tones of hazardous waste every year, and the
European Economic Community about half of that
quantity. Roughly 10 to 20 per cent of the total waste
produced can be considered as potentially hazardous.
In general, there are industries like metallurgical,
iron and steel, fertilizers, thermal power production,
etc. generating large quantities of solid and liquid
wastes containing low concentration that is at the
trace level of hazardous constituents. On the other
hand, there is another group of industries such as
chlor-alkali, pesticides, dyestuffs, electroplating,
photographic chemicals, fine chemicals, etc. which
generate comparatively small quantity of wastes, but
they are highly toxic and hazardous.
Approximately one million tonne of solid waste is
generated annually by the 131 industrial units
surveyed. Nearly 22% of wastes from these industries
are hazardous. It has been estimated that about 94%
of these wastes are generated by process oriented
(generating during the processing of raw materials to
get the finished products) industries and 6% of it is
pollution control oriented (generated from the
treatment of gaseous and liquid effluents) industries.
Maximum amount of hazardous waste is
generates by chlor-alkali, dyes and pigment, organic
chemicals, pesticide and plating industrial sectors.
The inorganic chemical sector on the other hand,
generated low volume-high toxic wastes. The
synthetic drug manufacturing units in drugs and
pharma sector generate maximum quantity of
hazardous wastes.
Thus, hazardous waste may be further classified
into waste generating gaseous contaminants, waste
containing alkali and alkaline earth metals and waste
containing heavy metals.
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S. Syed

Raw materials Residual Debris

5.3 Thermal Classification
This is used in the determination of energy require- Manufacturing Residual waste material
ments for processing and in the selection of system
configuration. Based on the thermal properties, Processing and recovery Secondary Manufacturing
typical waste materials are classified as follows:
• Combustible wastes: This group includes Consumer
wastes which will sustain oxidation reaction
without additional energy requirements. Final disposal
• Noncombustible wastes: This group represents
low-Btu value wastes, which will not sustain Waste materials
oxidation reaction without additional energy
supply. These wastes may be further classified Raw material product and recovered materials

into following two categories.

ƒ noncombustible wastes with no low The Figure 3. Materials flow and the generation of solid wastes in a
volatiles (the organics in the wastes contain no low technological society.
volatiles which, when heated, will evaporate) and
ƒ noncombustible waste with low volatiles (the It is apparent from Fig. 3 that one of the best
organics in the waste are heat sensitive and readily ways to reduce the amount of solid wastes that must
vaporized when heated). be disposed of is to limit the consumption of raw
materials and to increase the rate of recovery and
Table 1. Basic data on waste
reuse of waste materials. Although, the concept is
Parameter Species simple, effecting this change in a modem
Ultimate analysis C, H, O, N, H2O, S and ash technological society has proved extremely difficult.
Metals Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cu, Au, Ag, Ni, Pb, Sn, Cd,
Hg, V, Bi, etc.,
Halogens F, CI, Br, l 7. GENERAL ASPECTS OF RECYCLING
Others P, B, etc
Heating value Btu/lb It is obvious from the previous sections that
Solids Size, form and quantity significant savings in costs for solid and liquid waste
Liquids Viscosity, specific gravity management can be achieved if reductions in
Gases Density collection requirements are made. Additionally,
Organic composition % compound
Special data Corrosiveness, reactivity, flammability, compositional analyses have shown that significant
decomposition, polymerization amounts of highly valuable materials such as gold,
Disposable rate Peak, average, normal, minimum silver and other metals from the solid and liquid
Water content % water waste stream could be recovered. Therefore, the
separation from the stream and reuse of such
These two categories provide important materials would also yield significant salvage and
information for the designing of evaporation and income by resale. Thus "recycling" seems to be a one
steam stripping systems. They are also important word solution to a large part of the current solid and
factors in the selection of pre-concentration liquid waste problem.
equipment of wastes. For the successful application In discussing the reuse and recycling of materials
of thermal processing systems accurate and reliable which now appear in the solid and liquid waste
information about the composition and characteristics stream several facts are to be considered:
of any waste to be processed is essential. Such data • The predominant material in recyclable solid and
are necessary to understand the process and for the liquid waste is paper.
selection of process equipment. The basic data • Of the materials in the solid and liquid waste
needed about waste are presented in Table 1. stream a large portion of the materials is
recoverable.
6. MATERIALS FLOW AND WASTE • Vast potential exists for enhancing the current
GENERATION resource recovery rate.
• The amount of solid and liquid waste produced
An indication on how and where solid wastes are
has increased phenomenally during the 1980s
generated in our technological society is shown in the
and 1990s and will continue to show this trend.
simplified materials flow diagram presented in Fig. 3.
• There is no simple solution or simple way to
Solid wastes (debris) are generated even at the start
recycle and reuse solid and liquid waste
of the process, beginning with the mining of raw
materials.
material. The debris left from strip mining operations,
for example, is well known. Thereafter, solid wastes 8. POTENTIAL FOR RECYCLING
are generated at every step in the process where raw
materials are converted to finished produces for Undoubtedly recycling seems to be the most
consumption. constructive approach at present to alleviate the solid

24 Emirates Journal for Engineering Research, Vol. 11, No.2, 2006


waste problem. Solid waste will always be produced
as long as man inhabits this planet, however, it can be
qualitatively controlled so that recycling would be
much feasible. Recycling and reuse are not magic
actions to get rid of the problem. Recycling must be
an economical venture which must be a part of the
total system of the industry. In other words, recycling
is not merely collecting materials for reuse, but also
finding a market for the outlet of the recycled
products.
9. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Solid waste management is a separate discipline
dealing with the control of generation, storage,
collection, transfer and transport, processing, and
disposal of solid wastes in a manner that is in
accordance with the best principles of public health,
economics, engineering, conservation, aesthetics, and
other environmental considerations, and that also is
responsive to public attitudes. In its scope, solid
waste management includes all administrative,
financial, legal, planning, and engineering functions
involved in the whole spectrum of solutions to
problems of solid wastes thrust upon the community
by its inhabitants. The solutions may involve
complex interdisciplinary relationships among such
fields as political science, city and regional planning,
geography, economics, public health, sociology,
demography, communications, and conservation, as
well as engineering and materials science[8].
The field of solid waste management is to serve as
a basis for understanding the interrelationships of the
engineering fundamentals and the management
aspects. These include:
• brief history of the evolution and development of
this discipline,
• description of the functional elements of solid
waste management system,
• solid waste management planning and
• brief discussion on various aspects of solid waste
management system.
9.1 Evolution of Solid Waste Management
The beginning of solid waste management can be
traced to antiquity that is the practice of recycling
human wastes. One of the early attempts to manage
solid wastes in the United States took place at the
turn of the century when New York City built a
wooden-crib bulkhead around Rikers Island in the
East River and filled in the area behind the marshes
with ashes, rubbish, and street sweeping. The wastes
were transferred from wagons to scow (barges) in
New York City, towed to the island, unloaded by
clamshell dredges onto a conveyor or into rail cars,
and dumped. Clearly some sort of management plan
was followed to accomplish this large operation. Here
again, it is evident that solid waste management
planning is not new.
Emirates Journal for Engineering Research, Vol. 11, No.2, 2006
Solid and Liquid Waste Management
Waste generation
Storage
Collection
Transfer and transport Processing and recovery
Disposal
Figure 4. Simplified diagram showing the interrelationships of the
functional elements in a solid waste management
system
9.2 Functional Elements
The problems associated with the management of
solid wastes in today's society are complex because
of the magnitude and diverse nature of the wastes
coupled with the development of sprawling urban
areas, the funding limitations for public services in
many large cities, the impact of technology, and the
emerging limitations in both energy and raw
materials. As a consequence, if solid waste
management is to be accomplished in an efficiently
and orderly manner, the fundamental aspects and
relationships involved must be identified and
understood clearly.
The activities involved in the management of
solid wastes from the point of generation to final
disposal have been divided into six functional
elements namely, waste generation, storage,
collection, transfer and transport, processing and
recovery and disposal. In general, each functional
element involves a physical activity. By considering
each functional element separately, it is possible, first
to identify the fundamental aspects and relationships
involved in each element and second to develop,
where possible, quantifiable relationships for the
purposes of making engineering comparisons,
analyses, and evaluation (Fig. 4). Separation of
functional elements is necessary as it allows the
development of a frame work within which to
evaluate the impact of proposed changes and future
technological advancements.
9.3 Solid Waste Management Planning
In solid waste management planning workable
alternative programs are planned and developed to
solve solid waste problems. In most situations the
alternative programs and plans must be presented to
the public and to decision makers for consideration,
selection, and adoption. At present the
interrelationships between technical, economical,
environmental, social and political factors involved in
these problems are not well understood.
25
S. Syed

10. LIQUID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Waste may be characterized as follows: Origin,
Primary recycle
destination and content. The later is further classified
as: It is important to appreciate the limitations under
each heading, as it is unlikely that any one method Recycle Secondary recycle

will be sufficient to characterize a liquid waste

adequately. Reuse

Source of waste
Liquid Waste Storage
Underground

Origin Destination Content Treatment Value Dumping Land

Disposal
Rivers
Phase Physical nature Chemical nature Quantity and Destruction Sea
of Liquid of pollutant of pollutant concentratio
of pollutant
Figure 5. Classification of liquid waste by destination
10.1 Origin
This allows for a multi-effluent industry, but
To classify wastes by origin may appear superfluous, requires additional information in order to be useful.
since the producer should know where his waste Geographical location of the source of waste is also
comes from, and the disposal contractor should know important when considering costs and disposal Vs
where he collects it. However, neither producer nor recycling. Transportation, sometimes can even
contractor may be aware of the alternatives available contribute up to 90% or more of the total cost of
for treatment or disposal, or of the potential value of waste disposal.
the waste if recycled or reused. Classification by
source or origin itself is not very helpful unless it is 10.2 Destination
related to other methods of classification. It can then
The destination or handling of waste is much easier
be a useful starting point for a characterization
to examine and classify than its source (Fig. 5).
scheme and for a discussion of properties, effects or
treatment method [9-15]. 10.2.1 Recycling of Liquid Waste
• The Water Treatment Handbook [10] provides an
Recycling may give the primary material for the
extensive classification by source, including
waste producer to reuse, such as electroplating salts
identification of the multiplicity of waste
from plating wastes, or a secondary material which is
streams that can arise from each industry and
related, such as metal or metal oxides for smelting to
also indication of the contents and requirements
metal again from plating wastes. A waste may be
for treatment. However, a wide range of wastes
reused, rather than recycled, when it is employed for
can arise from one industry, each of which
a different purpose, for example, the burning of waste
requires individual consideration. To be
lubricating oils or solvents for their heat content.
effective, classification either has to become
Further subclassification of primary and secondary
very detailed, and hence unwieldy, or it should
recycle and reuse could be by industrial source as
be simplified[15-17]. The following is a
under (10.1) above, but it requires an exhaustive
comprehensive but simple and effective list of
analysis of sequential material flows through related
main sources based on type of industry: Sewage
industries and knowledge of marketing factors. Such
Metal production (including mining) Metal
an exercise is only useful for highly specific materials
treatment
such as non-ferrous metals.
• Animal processing
• Vegetable processing 10.2.2 Disposal of Liquid Waste
• Food processing (if excluded from the above)
Disposal of liquid waste includes dumping on land;
Organic chemical Inorganic chemical
underground to rivers or to the sea, some pretreat-
• Agricultural Water
ment of waste may be necessary before disposal in
When it is related to type of treatment this list
order to comply with the legislation. Destruction, for
can conveniently be split into wastes normally
example by incineration is also included. Dumping
processed by a biological system (starred) and others.
for short term for future recovery is employed for
This leads to a simpler classification:
liquid wastes such as solvents which are accumulated
• Natural organic wastes (usually water-based)
until the process of recovery is practical and viable.
• ‘Synthetic’ organic wastes (usually non-water
But long term storage has been seriously proposed
based)
only for solid wastes [18] with the exception for
• Inorganic wastes (usually water-based)
radioactive liquid wastes which are a special case.

26 Emirates Journal for Engineering Research, Vol. 11, No.2, 2006

 Solid and Liquid Waste Management

Discharge water 10.3 Content

Recycle water
Recycle pollutant
10.3.1 Phase of Liquid
Aqueous treatment
Aqueous Waste is most often characterised by its content and
Aqueous the plethora of literature on liquid waste is invariably
Liquid
Dump
related to treatment of a specific waste, often by a
phase
Non- specific method. The simplest and most obvious
aqueous Separation
classification is by phase of liquid, which derives
Non-aqueous
Destroy directly from (10.1) above. Essentially, two liquid
phases may be considered-aqueous and non-aqueous.
These may occur together and hence form a third, for
Non-aqueous treatment
example emulsions and oily waste water from
Recycle
petroleum refining. This is a particularly helpful
Figure 6. Classification of liquid waste by phase. initial screening test as it differentiates between those
wastes where the major constituent, water, may be
There are, however a number of examples where safely discharged (for example, to rivers), usually
a dumped waste being reworked as a result of after separation of the pollutant, and those wastes
technological progress and rising raw material costs. which must be totally recycled or disposed off in
The alternatives available for disposal can be some other way. This differentiation indicated in the
evaluated only after getting complete information on Deposit of Poisonous Waste Act [21] and in the
liquid waste composition and costs. Provisional Code of Practice [22].
Recent studies on recycling Vs disposal include Subdivisions may be readily formed from any of
an investigation into the economics of recycling the other classification on content, such as
pickle liquor as opposed to nautralisation and identification of the specific pollutants, or origin of
disposal[19], and incineration of pig manure compared waste, as discussed earlier, or destination as shown in
with reuse as fertiliser [20]. Fig. 6. This classification must be combined into one
or more other methods in order to characterize a
waste completely.

Contaminant

Gas Liquid Solid

Dissolved Suspended Miscible Solid / liquid Dissolved

Immiscible (e.g. paint spray Suspended
(e.g. ammonia) (e.g. foam) (e.g. methanol) (e.g. metal salts)
wash-waters).

Stable emulsion Discrete phases Coarse Fine / colloidal

(e.g. soluble (e.g. oily (e. g. mining (e.g. aluminium
cutting oil) refinery waste wastes) hydroxide gel)

Physical mixture

Figure 7. Classification of liquid waste by physical nature of pollutant.

Emirates Journal for Engineering Research, Vol. 11, No.2, 2006 27

S. Syed

10.3.2 Physical Nature of Pollutant Table 2. Physical properties of liquid wastes

Classification by phase differentiates between those Aqueous Non-aqueous

effluents which are totally noxious (non-aqueous or Biological oxygen Ash
‘synthetic’ organic wastes), and those effluents from demand (BOD)
Color Boiling point
which the pollutant has to be removed or changed to
Conductivity Calorific value
leave an aqueous liquid that is acceptable for Density Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
discharge. Non-aqueous and mixed wastes that are PH Density
disposed off need little identification other than that Suspended solids Distillation range
required for safe handling and disposal. Classification Temperature Explosive limits
in this case is therefore only of academic interest. Total dissolved solids Flashpoint
Further information is necessary, however, for Viscosity Odor, Temperature, Viscosity, Volatility
recycling, and sometimes physical characteristics are All the above mentioned properties apply to mixed wastes as well.
sufficient. For non-aqueous materials, the physical Biodegradable wastes
In addition to the above properties of aqueous waste, the following
nature may be classified in two ways-nature of
are also considered: Ash, COD, Nitrogen content, Odor,
pollutant(s) and conventional physical properties. Permanganate value, Taste, Turbidity
The pollutant(s) in either aqueous or non-
aqueous wastes may exist in several forms such as: Sewage consists of natural organics (such as
• Dissolved gas protein, fats, and carbohydrates) in either solution or
• Suspended gas suspended, ‘synthetic’ organics [30] (such as
• Miscible liquid detergents and disinfectants) and various life forms
• Immiscible liquid [28]
. Painter [31] has reported extensively on the
• Solution of a solid chemical composition of sewage, and other authors
• Suspended solid have also attempted to give a definition by
Subdivisions may be formed by consideration of composition [32]. Apart from sewage, any waste
multiple-phase contamination and morphology of the containing organic materials may be treated
contaminative phase, to give the classification shown biologically, although this is usually reserved for
in Fig. 7. An alternative, complementary classificat- ‘natural’ organic wastes which may be conveniently
ion is by conventional physical properties. A suggest- termed biodegradable.
ed list is given in Table 2 for aqueous and non- An initial chemical classification of liquid waste
aqueous wastes. Information on properties of specific that appears to cover all possibilities may be as
chemicals and mixtures is available in literature[23, 24]. follows:
All the above-mentioned properties apply to
mixed wastes as well Biodegradable wastes. In Insoluble ‘volatile’ organics hexane
addition to the above properties of aqueous waste, the Insoluble nonvolatile organics tars
following are also considered: Soluble organics acetone
• Ash Acids sulphuric acid
• COD Alkalis caustic soda
• Nitrogen content Metals in solution iron chloride
• Odor Metals, suspended nickel hydroxide
• Permanganate value Cyanide copper cyanide solution
Neutral inorganic chemicals ammonium sulphate
• Taste
Natural biodegradable substances potato-processing waste
• Turbidity
10.3.3 Chemical Nature of Pollutant These classes are not mutually exclusive, a waste
may have several of these constituents, for example
Although a full chemical analysis, is the ultimate and
alkaline cyanide, or may consist of a mixture, for
complete classification of waste, but it is insufficient
example suspended metal compounds, alkali and
by itself to characterise waste adequately. For
cyanide. Classification may be further expanded
example, trace quantities of highly toxic materials
taking into consideration individual chemicals.
may be more significant than larger quantities of
Chemical analysis will usually give the proportion of
relatively inert materials. A range of classification
each chemical present, except that of organics which
based on general chemical action has been employed
[25-29] may be characterized by one or more physical
, but none of these appears to cover all types of
properties as listed in Table 2. To indicate the extent
wastes. This may be explained by the tendency to
of identification of individual compounds,
differentiate liquid wastes into sewage and other
publication of United Nations [29] lists 111 inorganic
wastes, probably because identification of pollutants
and 328 organic chemicals as examples of products
in chemical wastes in easy, whereas among the
of the basic chemical manufacturing industry. A
biodegradable wastes sewage is particularly difficult
comprehensive list of chemicals that might be found
to define chemically.
on waste would be many times larger.

28 Emirates Journal for Engineering Research, Vol. 11, No.2, 2006

 Solid and Liquid Waste Management

Alternatively the description may be limited to waste and to notify the appropriate authority of this
[33]
synthetic organic materials, natural organic materials, , this includes classification by phase, content,
and inorganic materials and this characteristic proportion of pollutants and such other information
corresponds to classification by origin, as in (10.1) as will adequately define the hazards involved in the
above. chosen method of disposal.
Finally, waste is usually wastes because it consists
of unusable and often unpleasant mixture of Table 3. ‘Toxic’ wastes described to the key committee
chemicals. Wastes ‘chemical’ slurry Highly acid organic residues
10.3.4 Quantity and Concentration of Pollutant Tarry liquids Sludge from tar distillation
Waste paint Phenol-formaldehyde sludge
Data are required on flow rates of waste and Solid tarry matter Nicotine waste
concentration of pollutants, together with their Oil-impregnated rubbish Kier liquor
variation with time both throughout the day and over Arsenic waste Spent sheep dip
the year. This information is necessary for the design Wastes containing cyanide Sulphides
of treatment plant and setting up of storage facilities, Beryllium wastes Mercaptans
Waste oil Acid tars
making arrangements for disposal and also for
Residues from pesticide Alkaloid wastes
budgeting. These data are also valuable in order to formulation
evaluate the possibility of recycling, either by the Photographic waste Silver thiosulphate
producer or by any outside organization. The Carbides Fluorides
information by itself may not very helpful, but it Sludges containing copper, zinc Plating sludges
definitely complements the other aspects of Cadmium, nickel, etc. Pickling sludges
classification of content of waste. It is, however, compounds
possible to estimate the capital cost of a number of Aromatic hydrocarbons Spent acids
processes, including effluent treatment plant, on the Noxious organic solvents Sludge from leaded petrol
basis of capacity only. White spirit Waste alcohols
Lacquer Beta-naphthylamine sulphate
10.3.5 Toxicity and Hazard Lubricants Diaminodiphenylmethane
Chrome acid Propyl isocyanate
Indiscriminate dumping of toxic waste led to the Complex cyanides Sodium acetylide
formulation and adoption of Deposit of Poisonous Water-kerosene mixtures Chlorphenols
Waste Act 1972 [21] and this aspect has been Trichloroethylene Chlorcresols
extensively discussed [22,27,33,40]. The Key Report [27] Oily slops from petroleum
which preceded the Act listed a wide range of industry
chemicals and waste liquids reported to the
committee as toxic (Table 3). It is of limited value as Classification of a waste by toxicity and /or
complex and vaguely defined wastes, such as kier hazard is important for safety and also to comply
liquor and alkaloid wastes are included alongside with legislation [34-40]. In practice, it is better to use
specific chemicals such as chrome acid and propyl the characterization ‘hazardous’ and ‘non’ hazardous’
isocyanate. Perhaps an easier approach will be the list having regard to both toxicity and the environmental
of exempted materials (Table 4) [34, 41] provided. implications of the waste on disposal.
It is not clear as to what proportion of industrial Therefore the Control of Pollution Act
waste can be considered deleterious or toxic; the distinguishes waste as poisonous, noxious or
World Health Organization has estimated 15 % polluting and whose presence on land is likely to give
which, equivalent to about 20 kg per head per year rise to an environmental hazard. It also encompasses
[42]
. The actual figure in the UK was between 2 and 5 highly flammable or explosive materials which may
tonnes per year [43], but even there is some confusion have little toxicological significance.
with regard to terminology. Thus, ‘toxic’ has been 10.4 Treatment
considered synonymous with ‘poisonous’ without
specifying toxic concentration. This is the most common system of classification of
Hazards are more difficult to define. The Key waste. A list of treatment methods is given in Table
Report[27] simply classified wastes as flammable, acid 1.5 together with some examples. The list includes
or caustic, and indisputably toxic. The Provisional only those operations known to be used in effluent
Code of Practice[22] suggests the adoption of the Blue treatment, and has been divided under three main
Book classification [44]. Which is simplified into the categories-chemicals, physical and biological.
following broad groups; Explosive, Flammable, Practically all the listed methods are accepted
Oxidising, Infections, Corrosive and Radioactive chemical engineering unit operations or unit
processes. Treatment of a waste for recycling, or
Information on hazards and precautions to be taken in prior to disposal, may be subjected to a sequence of
handling hazardous materials is given in the Yellow operations.
Book[45]. The Deposit of Poisonous Waste Act 1972
[21]
requires the producer to know the ‘nature’ of his

Emirates Journal for Engineering Research, Vol. 11, No.2, 2006 29

S. Syed
Table 4. Exempted waste
Any waste normally arising in the use of premises as an office for any
purpose, or as a retail shop (that is to say, a building used for the
carrying on of any retail trade or retail business wherein the primary
purpose is the selling of goods or services by retail).
Any waste produced in the course of:
• construction, repair, maintenance or demolition of plant or of
buildings;
• laundering or dry cleaning of articles;
• working mines and quarries, or washing mined or quarried material;
• construction or maintenance of highways, whether or not repairable
at the public expense;
• dry cutting, grinding or shaping of metals, or the subjection thereof
to other physical or mechanical process;
• softening, treatment or other processing of water for the purpose of
rendering it suitable for (i) human consumption, (ii) the preparation
of foods or drinks, (iii) any manufacturing or cooling process, or (iv)
boiler feeds;
• treatment of sewage;
• breeding, rearing or keeping of livestock;
• brewing;
• any other fermentation process; or
• cleansing of intercepting devices design to prevent the release of oil
or grease.
Any waste (not being waste in any of the foregoing classes) consisting of
one or more of the following items whether mixed with water or not:
• paper, cellulose, wood (including sawdust and sanderdust); oiled
paper, tarred paper, plasterboard
• plastics, including thermoplastics in both the finished and raw states,
and thermosetting plastics in the finished state;
• clays, pottery, china, glass, enamels, ceramics, mica, abrasives;
• iron, steel, aluminium, brass, copper, tin, zinc;
• coal, coke, carbon, graphite, ash, clinker;
• slags produced in the manufacture of iron, steel, copper or tin of
mixtures of any of these metals;
• rubber (whether natural or synthetic);
• electrical fittings, fixtures and appliances;
• cosmetics;
• sands (including foundry and moulding sands), silica;
• shot blasting residues, boiler scale, iron oxides, iron hydroxides;
• cement, concrete, calcium hydroxide, calcium carbonate, calcium
sulphate, calcium chloride, magnesium carbonate, magnesium
oxide, zinc oxide, aluminium oxide, titanium oxide, copper oxide,
sodium chloride;
• cork, ebonite, kapok, kieselghur, diatomaceous earth;
• wool, cotton, linen, hemp, sisal, any other natural fibre, hessain,
leather, any man-made fibre, string, rope;
• soap and other strearates;
• food, or any waste produced in the course of the preparations,
processing or distribution of food;
• vegetable matter;
• animal carcases, or parts thereof;
• excavated material in its natural state;
• any other substance which is hard solid and is insoluble in water
and in any acid.
30
A thorough exploration of all the possibilities for
a specific problem might use a morphological
approach which considers all possible operations,
permutes them to give all possible processes, then by
application of a number of predetermined criteria,
and reduces the multiplicity of alternative to a few
that may be explored in depth [46].
Most of the essential treatment operations done
prior to disposal have been well documented.
Recycling processes are either well established and
documented, or not at all practiced for a number of
valid or superficial reasons. A well designed recovery
process can, not only virtually eliminate the disposal
problem but can also significantly reduce the disposal
coats and some times even the cost may become
negative, i.e., the waste may produce income. There
are many areas of waste disposal that would benefit
from a careful and thorough examination with this
point in view.
10.5 Value
The value of waste material may arrived at by
multiplying the quantity by the concentration and
multiplying again by the value of each recoverable
component in the waste. Quantity and concentration
are discussed under (10.3) above.
Cost of chemicals used as materials are published
regularly in a number of journals in the form of price
list [47-49]. However, prevailing market price may bear
no relation to the published list price and hence a
market survey is necessary before embarking on
recovery programme.
Recoverable components identified by analysis
may exist in the waste in a different form: metal
compounds, for example, are often reported as metal
or metal oxide whereas actually they may exist in the
waste as acid solutions of metal salts, recovery may
be through another metal compound by precipitation,
or of the metal itself.
In summary, the complete characterization
scheme for liquid waste comprises of the following
information.
Origin Where does it come from (type of industry
or specific industry)?
Destination Is it going for disposal, reuse or recycle?
Content What phases (s) are present in the waste?
In what form is the pollutant?
What chemicals form the pollutant?
What are the physical properties?
How much is there?
What is the concentration of the pollutant?
Is it toxic? If so, to what extent?
Is it hazardous in any way (e.g. flammable,
explosive)? If so, to what extent?
Treatment How will it be treated, whether for disposal
or recycle?
Value Is it worth anything?
Emirates Journal for Engineering Research, Vol. 11, No.2, 2006
 Solid and Liquid Waste Management

Table 5. Treatment methods for liquid effluent To illustrate the application of this scheme, a
range of example is presented in Table 6, based on
Chemical treatment methods Example
extracts from the records of a disposal contractor.
Absorption Solvent recovers
Cementation Gold recovery
Chlorination Cyanide oxidation Table 6. Examples of characterization of liquid waste
Coagulation-see Flocculation
Origin Inorganic, metal treatment
Demulsification Soluble oil recovery Destination Disposal
Electrolytic processes Metal recovery Phase Aqueous
Flocculation Sewage treatment Physical nature Dissolved gases and solid pH2
Total solids 11.57%
Hydrolysis Cellulose waste Chemical nature Acidity as HCl 5.81%
Incineration Waste oil Composition Iron 1.72%
Ion exchange Metal recovery Zinc 0.112%
Leaching Metal-bearing sludges Lead 0.024%
Cadmium Present
Neutralisation Waste oil Chromium Present
Oxidation Phenol removal Nickel Present
Ozonisation Cyanide oxidation Quantity 6.8 m3 (1500 gal)
Precipitation Metals Toxicity and hazards Poisonous, Corrosive
Reduction Hexavalent chromium Method of treatment None
Value None, value of potentially
Thermal decomposition Recycling hydrochloric acid Recoverable materials may be Calculated. [18]
Physical treatment methods Origin Natural organic, cess
Absorption Removal of volatile organics Destination Disposal
Cooling Water reuse Content : Phase Aqueous
Physical nature Solution of solids, suspended solid, pH 8.65
Crystallisation Recovery of inorganic salts Total Solids 0.23%
Desoption-see Absorption Suspended matter 0.07%
Dewatering-see Filtration Ash 0.678%
Dialysis Desalination lashpoint 110oC
Distillation Solvent recovery Electrical conductivity 4085µm hos/cm3
Drying Pig manure Chemical nature Ether extract 0.31% Composition
Electrodialysis Desalination Quantity 6.8 m3 (1500 gal)
Evaporation Sulphuric acid recovery Toxicity and hazards Bacterial infection
Method of treatment None
Filtration Sewage sludge Value None
Flotation Dairy wastes Origin Inorganic, metal treatment
Foam fractionation Metal separation Destination Disposal
Fractionation-see Distillation Content : Phase Aqueous
Physical nature Dissolved solids, miscible liquids, pH 0.7
Freezing Desalination
Electrical conductivity 178 000 µmhos/ cm3
Heating Demulsification
Total solid 19.1%
Phase separation Oily wastes Chemical nature Acidity as H SO 14.5%
Reverse osmosis Desalination 2 4
Composition Chromium 6.2%
Screening Sewage
Copper 0.46%
Sedimentation Suspended solids removal Zinc 0.26%
Solvent extraction Metal recovery Iron 0.51%
Stripping Ammonia removal Quantity 4 m3 (800 gal)
Ultrafiltration-see Dialysis, Toxicity and hazards Oxidising, Poisonous, Corrosive
Method of treatment None
Reverse osmosis
Value None, value of potentially recoverable materials
Biological treatment methods may be calculated. [18]
Activated sludge Sewage Origin Synthetic organic, organic chemical
Anaerobic digestion Food wastes Destination Disposal
Content : Phase Mixed aqueous-nonaqueous
Chemical production Ethanol
Physical nature Suspended solids, immiscible, liquid, pH 6.0
Disinfection Sewage plant effluent Total solids 37.6%
High rate filtration Phenol removal Ash 0.62%
Oxidation-see Activated sludge, - Flashpoint 110oC
High rate filtration, - Chemical nature Phenol 0.48%
Trickling filter - Quantity 5.6 m3 (1250 gal)
Toxicity and hazards -
Reduction-see Anaerobic digestion -
Method of treatment Demulsification and oil separation
Single-cell protein production Organic waste Value Small heat content oil from burning
Trickling filter Sewage

Emirates Journal for Engineering Research, Vol. 11, No.2, 2006 31

S. Syed

Table 7. Examples of materials recovered from solid and liquid 11. MATERIALS RECOVERY:
waste AN INTRODUCTION
Chemical Example of source
Acetic acid Paper Material recovery has only recently been proposed,
Acetone Petrochemicals including special examples where ‘one man’s waste’
Ammonia Coke ovens can be turned into ‘another man’s profit’ by virtue of
Ammonium sulphate Coke ovens circumstances, special knowledge or economy of
Anthracene Coal tar scale. The diversity of recyclable materials from solid
Anthranilic acid Dyestuffs and liquid waste is shown in Table 7.
Aromatic organics Coke ovens
Aromatics Naphtha pyrolysis quench 11.1 Hydrometallurgical Processing
Benzene Styrene manufacture All methods of metal recovery are based on
Bromine Potash hydrometallurgy [50-66]. There is a rapidly growing
Calcium sulphate Phosphates interest in hydrometallurgical extraction of metal
Carboxylic acids Petrochemicals which generally involves three stages - pretreatment,
Casein Milk recovery and refining of metals from aqueous
Chromic acid Electroplating
solution. The technology, principles and practice are
Copper salts Secondary copper
equally applicable to all waste metals and alloys. A
Copper Sulphate Secondary copper number of problems related to metal scrap have been
Creosote Coal tar recently investigated and reported. Some of which
Cresol Coal tar whose separation and recovery are reported include
Elthanol Cellulose nickel/cobalt, cadmium/zinc alloy and bearing
Ethylbenzene Styrene manufacture metal[73,67,68]. Other examples where leaching,
Ethylene dichloride Oxychlorination waste-water purification and reduction processes adopted are:
Fluorides Phosphate • Leaching, preferably selected to reduce
Gold cyanide Electroplating subsequent purification. Examples include acid
Hydrochloric acid Pickle liquor leaching, ammoniacal leaching (gold, silver) and
Hydrofluoric acid Aluminium caustic leaching (aluminium, zinc and tin).
Hydroulic oil Engineering • Purification, remove impurities. Examples include
Hydrogen Refineries most chemical engineering operations, such as ion
Hydrogen peroxide Spent photographic solution exchange, solvent extraction and precipitation.
Iodine Saltpetre • Reduction, to produce an acceptable metallic
Iron oxides Titanium product. This final step is unnecessary if metal
Iron sulphates Pickle liquor salts are being produced. Selective reduction is
Lubricating oil Vehicle maintenance also possible to overcome impurities. Examples
Magnesium chloride Sea water include electrolysis and hydrogen reduction.
Methanol General purpose solvent
11.2 Gold Recovery
Methylaniline Dyestuffs
Naphthalene Coke ovens Because of relatively high value and ease of recovery
Nickel salts Electroplating of metals, there have been many proposals for the
Paint Automotive reclamation of metals like gold, silver and other
Phenols Petroleum refineries precious metals from specific waste solutions like
Potassium hydroxide Dyestuffs spent electroplating solution, spent photographic
Protein Fermentation solution, spent mirror solution and drag-out. Gold is a
Quench oil Metal treatment precious metal. Liquid of solid waste containing even
Sodium chloride Desalination one ppm of gold is of considerable interest as an
Sodium cyanide Gold containing broken porcelain economic source. In recent years, many industries are
Sodium hydroxide Dyestuffs making use of gold as metal and its salts.
Sulphuric acid Silverbearing materials Consequently, the scrap and the industrial effluent
Sulphur Desulphurisation processes contain substantial concentrations of gold the
Sulphuric acid Pickling liquor recovery of which may be paramount interest to the
Sulphur oxides Ore smelting entrepreneurs and technocrats. The materials which
Tar Coke ovens contain substantial amount of gold include electronic
Toluene Benzole from coke ovens scraps, electric scrap, gold containing broken
Trichlorobenzene Pigments porcelain spent electroplating solutions, spent gold
Trichloroethylene Degreasing mirror solutions, etc. The precipitation and metallic
White spirit General purpose solvent replacement processes for the recovery of gold from
Xylene Benzole from coke ovens gold containing broken porcelain and drag-out/ spent
Yeast Brewing electroplating solutions is represented in Figs. 8 and
Zinc slats Rayon 9[69,70].

32 Emirates Journal for Engineering Research, Vol. 11, No.2, 2006

 Solid and Liquid Waste Management

There are, however, probably a few such
reclaimable wastes remain unexploited. There are
about 70 such instances where byproduct recovery
including many metals and metal compounds from
aqueous effluents were reported several years ago [71].
11.3 Silver Recovery
Considerable quantities of metals are lost annually in
aqueous effluent. India is ranked as the third largest
country in the world for the use of silver. There is
little information on the geographic distribution and
environmental effects of silver discharges in India.
However, recent worldwide studies show that the
toxicity of silver depends on its chemical form,
concentration, salinity, recox-potential and pH of the
receiving water. Recovery of silver is of paramount
importance, as it happens to be a highly priced metal.
Attempts have been made to recover some of the
valuable constituents such as silver by
hydrometallurgical techniques. A flowsheet diagram
is shown in Fig. 10 and 11 [72,78] of acidic recovery of
metal silver from spent photographic solution.
Warren Spring Laboratory has applied a range of
adaptations of the basic principles in a variety of
situations [72-76]. It is, however, exceptional for such
recovery processes to be justified economically. A
survey conducted in Egypt showed that the solutions
produced are nearly 2160 m3 containing about 16.2
tons of pure metal silver. The price of this pure metal
silver is nearly $3 million. Hence it is desirable to
recover the silver form spent solutions[77]. Recent
proposal for the recovery of silver has been made and
the flow diagram for the recovery of silver from spent
photographic solution is given in Fig. 12 and Fig. 13.

Gold containing
Broken porcelain

Water Sodium
Dissolution of gold layer
Cyanide O2H2

Solution Leached porcelain

Filteration of Water
gold containing solution st wash step1

Aluminium Gold precipitation Leached porcelain

Water
Water Washing nd wash step 2 Water

Melting
Gold free
Broken
porcelain

Gold 99.5%

Figure 8. Flow sheet of gold recovery from gold containing broken porcelain.

Emirates Journal for Engineering Research, Vol. 11, No.2, 2006 33

S. Syed

Drag-out / spent Silver bearing

electroplating solution materials

NaOH PH>13 Water

Silver dissolution
H2SO4

Dissolution
Filtration residue for
Al Precipitation recovery of
impurities
Water Ag2 SO4 precipitation

Decant
Filtration Filteration for
recovery of
impurities
Sludge 2H
Ag2 SO4 dissolution

Washing Water Water

Hydrogen reduction (NH4)2 SO4
NH3
by-product

Melting
Dissolve in aquaregia

Silver %99.5
Filteration

Na2So4 Reduction Figure 10. Flow sheet of silver recovery from silver bearing
materials

Gold precipitate Stock solution

Acidic or alkaline
HNO3 Boiling reagent
Adjust pH to 3.6

Gentle warming at = 500 C

Decant

Ag sludge precipitation
Washing Water
Filtration of the sludge and
washing

Drying
Precipitation with
Dissolution in boiling HNO3
NaOH

Borax + Pinch Melting Filtration and

of KNO3 Ag NO3 salt Evaporation till dryness
washing of the AgOH

Thermal decomposition =
Other
% 99.5 Gold 9800C

Figure 9. Precipitation process for gold recovery from drag-out /
spent electroplating solutions
12. CONCLUSIONS
The management of waste is one of the earliest of
man’s branches of knowledge. In some ways it can
also be considered as one of the latest. The reason for
this seeming paradox is the success which rewarded
the efforts of public health specialists and sanitary
engineers in overcoming the abysmally unhygienic
conditions into which man has allowed his
habitations to degenerate at different times in his
history. This could be particularly seen during the
later part of the
Silver
Figure 11. Flow sheet diagram of acidic recovery of metal silver
from spent photographic solutions.
last century, when the practice of public health grew
up to ameliorate, in particular, the housing and living
conditions of the working poor in British cities. The
public health movement later on spread rapidly to
Europe and to the United States, where the need for
improvement was not as strong as in Europe, but
where danger signs were visible in the increasingly
crowded conditions of the eastern cities. It was only
during the last three decades that Indian community
and planners started taking a serious view of the
waste management.

34 Emirates Journal for Engineering Research, Vol. 11, No.2, 2006


Stock solution
Concentrating
Cooling H2O2 stock
Filtration of Ag sludge
Washing and drying Dissolution in HNO3
Ag salts
Thermal decomposition
e.g. AgNO3
Silver
Figure 12. Flow sheet diagram of recovery of metallic silver from
spent photographic solutions with H2O2
The improvements which were brought about had
such strikingly good impact, noticeable mainly in the
reduction in disease rates and in the cleanliness of the
cities, that codes of good practice were established
handbooks were written, school of public health were
opened and the general population relaxed under the
belief that the problems associated with our waste
had been solved forever.
This situation lasted for about two generations
long enough for most research groups to die out or be
disbanded. An approach tied to tradition and
unresponsive to change was followed. But change
came in the form of increased intensity of the very
industrial revolution which had enabled the problems
of the last century to be resolved with such relative
ease.
These new problems brought about fundamental
and for reaching changes in the nature of domestic
refuse, which in the days of coal fires had consisted
predominantly of only ashes and food waste and
which became increasingly composed of large
quantities of paper, plastics and glass packaging
materials. These problems also included changes in
industrial wastes, which began to incorporate
previously unknown variety of substances with, in
many cases still unknown properties and hazards. The
substances which were disposed of with relative
safety in minute quantities by the industrialists of the
last century began to be discharged in vast tonnages
with immediate catastrophic effects in some cases,
and disturbing implications for the longer term in
others.
Emirates Journal for Engineering Research, Vol. 11, No.2, 2006
Solid and Liquid Waste Management
Stock solution
Evaporating till dryness
Thermal decomposition at = 9800C
Grinding of solids
Ag separation by water
Ag washing and drying
Silver
Figure 13. Flow sheet diagram of recovery of metallic silver form
spent photographic solutions by thermal process
Our previous complacency resulted in being
caught virtually unawares by these new problems.
During the last two decades we have witnessed an
unprecedented rapid growth in first concern and later
action, which transformed the entire field of waste
management. It was the transformation which
necessitated undertaking this study.
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