BIOLOGY HANDOUT

CELL

- Is the basic unit of life

- Building blocks of life

Cells have structures that have specific functions in order for the cell to function properly. These are the
following:

¤ Nucleus – is regarded as the most important structure of the cell since it serves as the the control
center in which individual functions of the other organelles are coordinated.
¤ Cell wall/ Cell Membrane – the cell wall gives the shape and rigidity for the plant cell and in some
bacterias and protists. The cell membrane is a semi permeable membrane. This means that only
certain materials are permitted to exit or enter the cell.
¤ Mitochondrion – serve as the powerhouse of the cell. Site of ATP synthesis.
¤ Chloroplast – serves as the site of photosynthesis among plants and photosynthetic algae.
¤ Ribosome – site of protein synthesis.
¤ Endoplasmic Reticulum – serves as channels or passageways of materials to the different parts of the
cell.
¤ Centriole – serves for cytokinetic purposes and is very common among dividing cell.
¤ Lysosome – also called the “suicidal bag” since it secretes the digestive enzymes.
¤ Golgi apparatus – serves for selection and packaging of materials.

Differences between plant and animal cells

Structure Plants Animals

1. cell wall Present Absent

2. chloroplast Present Absent

3. centriole Absent Present

4. lysosome Absent Present

5. vacuole One/large Many/small

Animal Cell

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THE CELL THEORY
The cell theory states that:
1. All living things are made up of cells.
2. Cells are the basic unit of structure and function in living systems.
3. All cells come from preexisting cells.

The cell is composed of biomolecules that are combined to enable the cell to perform its functions.

a. Carbohydrates – immediate source of energy

- elemental composition: C, H, O
- building blocks: monosaccahrides
- e.g. sucrose (table sugar), maltose, amylase
b. Fats/Lipids – these molecules serve as another source of energy after carbohydrates
- elemental composition: C, H, O
- building blocks: fatty acids and a glycerol backbone
- e.g. waxes, oils, and cholesterol
c. Proteins – these molecules serve as sources of building materials.
- elemental composition: C, H, O, N, S
- building blocks: amino acids
- e.g. amylase, actin and myosin
d. Nucleic Acids – these molecules include the RNA’s and the DNA’s
- elemental composition: C, H, O, N, P
- building blocks: nucleotides

CELLS ACCORDING TO COMPLEXITY

 Prokaryotic cells
- have no true nucleus
- have no membrane bound organelles
 Eukaryotic cells
- have true nucleus
- have membrane bound organelles

Animal Cell

Prokaryotic Cell

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CELL REPRODUCTION

A) Mitosis – refers to the division of the somatic cells

- the ploidy number of the daughter cell is equal to the ploidy number of the dividing cell

B) Meiosis – refers to the division of germ cells

- also referred to as reductional division because the ploidy number of the daughter cells is
only half that of the parent cell.

BOTANY
- Study of plants

Plants – are autotrophic organisms capable of producing their own food.

- they have eukaryotic cells
- they are multicellular
- they are distinguished by the presence of cellulosic cell walls, plastids and large vacuoles

Major Plant Cell Types:

The major plant cell types make up the different plant tissues

 Parenchyma cells
- the plant cells that are usually large and thin walled
 Sclerenchyma cells
- have a comparatively thick primary cell wall bearing heavy depositions of lignified secondary
substance laid down in a laminated pattern
 Collenchyma cells
- have primary cell walls that are thickened irregularly by cellulose and pectin materials.

PLANT PARTS

ROOT – serves as anchorage for the plant

- absorbs nutrients and water from the soil

STEM – readily recognized by the presence of nodes

- serves as the passageway of the food nutrients and water to the leaves

Xylem – transfer of water

Phloem – transfer of food materials

LEAF – site of photosynthesis

- contains the chloroplast

FLOWER – for reproduction

FRUIT – ripened ovary

- serve as protection and dispersal of seeds
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PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND TRANSPIRATION

Photosynthesis involves the trapping of the radiant energy and its conversion into chemical energy.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS:
6 CO2 + 6 H2O C6H12O6 + 6 O2
Transpiration is the loss of water in vapor form through the stomates, minute openings distributed on the
surface of leaves.

RESPIRATION
- It is a complex process by which energy in the form of ATP is released from food molecules ingested
by organisms.

C6H12O6 + 6 O2 6 CO2 + 6 H2O

TAXONOMY

TAXONOMY
- It is the science of classification, nomenclature and identification of organisms.

CLASSIFICATION
- is the arrangement of plants into categories that have similar characteristics. These categories called
taxa are arranged into hierarchy to form a classification system. The smallest taxonomic unit is the
species.
NOMENCLATURE
- is the orderly assignment of names to taxa or categories

THE BINOMIAL SYSTEM OF GIVING SCIENTIFIC NAMES

Genus – gives the generic name of the organism

Specific Epithet – describes the characteristic of the organism

The specific epithet can be given to an organism by means of:

a) description or appearance of the organism

Example: Gingko biloba biloba – two lobes in the leaf
b) location where the organism can be found
Example: Bubbalus mindorensis mindorensis – an organism which can be found in Mindoro
c) the founder of the organism
Example: Oryza sativa L. the L. means that it is first classified by Carolus Linnaeus

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GENETICS

GENETICS
- is the study of heredity and variation.
HEREDITY
- is the transmission of traits from generation to generation
VARIATION
- deals with genetic differences between organisms.
Gene Segregation and Interaction

Dominant Allele - alternative trait that is expressed in the phenotype.

Recessive Allele – alternative trait whose expression is marked in the phenotype.

Law of Dominance – state that only dominant alleles are expressed in the phenotype and that recessive alleles
are masked among hybrids but are manifested among pure breeds.

Law of Co-dominance – states that two equally dominant alleles are equally expressed in the phenotype and
that no blending is achieved.

Law of Incomplete Dominance – states that among multi-allelic traits, two dominant alleles that are not
dominant enough to mask the expression of one another, are incompletely expressed in the phenotype, hence
a blended trait is achieved.

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 a. Monohybrid Cross

Female Parent (P1) Male Parent (P2)

Phenotype: Round Wrinkled

Genotype YY yy

Gametes Y y

Fertilization

F1 genotype: Yy

Phenotype; Yellow

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 Example of a dihybrid cross

Yy x yy

Gametes Y

Y Yy (yellow)

y yy (green)

Genotypic Ratio: 1Yy : 1yy

Phenotypic Ratio: 1yellow : 1 green

Central Dogma of Molecular Biology

The central dogma of molecular biology consists of three general processes namely: replication (DNA
synthesis), transcription (RNA synthesis) and translation (protein synthesis). The transfer of information from
cell to cell or from generation to generation is achieved by replication. On the other hand, the transfers of
information from the DNA to the proteins involve two processes: transcription and translation. Generally, all
organisms follow this mode of transfer except for some viruses that undergo reverse transcription.

Transcription
Translation

DNA RNA PROTEIN

Reverse

Transcription

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 ANIMAL DEVELOPMENT

Animal Tissues
o Epithelium, in its simplest form, is composed of a single continuous layer of cells of the same type
covering an external or internal surface.

o Connective Tissue, has the widest range encompassing the vascular tissue(blood and lymph), CT
proper, cartilage and bone.

o Muscular tissue consists of elongated cells organized in long units of structures called muscle fibers or
muscle cells. The two general categories of muscle, smooth and striated. Striated or skeletal muscle
functions for voluntary control while smooth muscle functions for involuntary contractions.
o The nerve cells or neurons comprising the nervous tissue each possess a cell body which contains the
nucleus and the surrounding cytoplasm. The process come in contact with other nerve cells, or with
other effector cells through a point of contact called synapse .

Stages of Animal Development

. Gametogenesis

Each species has its own chromosome number. Somatic cells of humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes
(22 pair somatic and one pair sex; one chromosome of each pair is originally derived from the father and the
other from the mother. The chromosomal pair comes in contact with each other and exchange segments
during meiosis. This phenomenon provides combinations of parental traits hence there is more viability in the
characters of the offspring.

Gametogenesis changes the diploid cells into haploid sperms and ova. Cells undergo meiosis, a
sequence of two divisions during which the chromosomes divide only once. The resulting cells have only half
the number of the chromosomes of the parent cells. This process prevents doubling of the chromosomes
during fertilization.

The male germ cells, initially round and large, are changed into slender and flagellated cells. The
cytoplasm is practically lost and mature cells develop a head, neck and tail. The female germ cells gradually
increase in size as a result of growth.

b. Fertilization

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 The ovum and the sperm unite thus restoring the diploid chromosome number of the species. In
humans, each gamete has 23 chromosomes (haploid). Upon fertilization the zygote acquires 46 chromosomes.
At this stage of development, the genetic sex of the individual is established.

c. Cleavage

The unicellular zygote undergoes cleavage characterized by active mitoses. It is not a period of growth
but a time in which the zygote is divided into a large number of small cells, the blastomeres. Each blastomere
nucleus has the same DNA since these are derived from the same cell, the zygote. Cleavage ends with the
formation of the multicellular organism.

d. Blastula

The mass of blastomeres forms a hollow fluid-filled cavity, the blastocoel. In frogs, cells below the
blastocoel are large; these are the macromeres.

In humans, at this embryonic stage, the 32-cell cell blastocyst burrows into the uterus. The blastocyst
has two distinct cell types; an inner cell mass and an outer shell, the trophoblast. The former will become the
embryo, the latter will give rise to the extra-embryonic membranes termed amnion and chorion.

e. Gastrula

Gastrulation, a stage of extensive cell movements, rearranges the embryonic cells. Cells are
translocated to the different areas thus acquiring new neighbors and new positions. The neighbor cells may
act as inducers in the formation of structures. The different cell movements establish the third germ layer, the
mesoderm.

At the end of gastrulation, the embryo has three primary germ layers: an outer ectoderm, an inner
endoderm and middle mesoderm. At this stage tissues have become committed to form one type of organ- a
brain or stomach.

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 The ectoderm gives rise to the epidermis of the skin, sense organs and the nervous system. The
endoderm gives rise to the organs of the respiratory and digestive systems. The mesoderm gives rise to the
organs of the circulatory, skeletal, muscular, excretory and reproductive systems, connective tissues and
linings of body cavities.

f. Neurula

Toward the end of gastrulation, the ectoderm along the dorsal surface elongates to form a layer of
columnar cells, the neural plate. This region thickens and moves upwards forming the neural fold which then
fuse to form a hollow tube, the neural tube. Closing of the neural tube starts at the head region and continues
posteriorly. This piece of tissue gives rise to skin pigments, nerves and the adrenal medulla.

g. Organ formation

The ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm formed in the gastrulation are the source materials for the
development of organs. At this stage the component cells are still undifferentiated and do not show any adult
feature. These masses are further subdivided into groups of cells until the organ acquires its unique
characteristics and specific location.

h. Brain Formation

The earliest form of the brain is the nueral tube. At this stage, the brain shows three regions-
prosencephalon (forebrain), mesencephalon (midbrain) and the rhombencephalon (hind brain). Later, the
prosencephalon divides into telencephalon and diencephalons. The mesencephalon remains undivided.

In frogs, the brain is a straight tube and remains in that condition in adult. In humans, the embryonic
brain undergoes bending and twisting. Hence in adult, the hindbrain is adjacent to the forebrain and the eyes
become anterior to the nose.

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i. Limb Formation

Limbs start as buds at the embryonic sides, which later develop as paddle-like extremities. Later,
circular constrictions appear dividing the limb into three main segments. Fingers and toes develop when cells
at the most distal end die. The upper limb rotates 90º sideward so that the thumbs move sideward. The lower
limb rotates 90º towards the center, placing the big toe at the center.

ECOLOGY

Ecology – study of the relationship of an organism with its environment

Two basic components of ecology

a) Biotic – living component
b) Abiotic – non living component

AUTOTROPHS – produce their own food

HETEROTROPHS – does not produce their own food

FIVE KINGDOMS
 Monera – prokaryotic; unicellular; includes the bacteria and the cyanobacteria.
 Protista – eukaryotic; unicellular/colonia and multicellularl; includes the flagellates, the ciliates, the
sarcodines and the algal systems.
 Fungi – eukaryotic; unicellular (yeasts) and multicellular (molds and mushrooms).
 Plantae – eukaryotic; multicellular;
 Animalia – eukaryotic; multicellular; includes the invertebrates and vertebrates.

ECOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS
a. Mutualism – “give and take” relationship
b. Commensalisms- a relationship where the commensal is benefited and the host is neither benefited
nor harmed
c. Parasitism – a relationship where the parasite is benefited and the host is harmed
d. Competition – neither organism in this relationship is benefited
e. Predation – a relation where the predator is benefited and the prey is harmed

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