Formula sheet for the final exam in Math 135

Limits. lim f (x) = L is equivalent to lim+ f (x) = lim− f (x) = L.

x→a x→a x→a
Continuity. f is continuous at a when all of the following conditions are satisfied:
1. f (a) is defined, 2. lim f (x) exists, 3. lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a x→a
f (x + h) − f (x)
Differentiability. f is differentiable at x when f 0 (x) = lim exists. The
h→0 h
number f 0 (a) is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at a.
Differentials. dy = f 0 (x)dx, ∆y = f (x + ∆x) − f (x), f (a + ∆x) is approximately equal
to f (a) + f 0 (a)(∆x).
Graphing and optimization. If f 0 (x) > 0 on an interval then f is increasing on that
interval. If f 0 (x) < 0 on an interval then f is decreasing on that interval. If f 00 (x) > 0
on an interval then f is concave upward on that interval. If f 00 (x) < 0 on an interval
then f is concave downward on that interval. Relative max and min of a function
f can occur only at critical points (points x in the domain of f where f 0 (x) = 0 or
f 0 (x) does not exist). Absolute max and min occur only at critical points or endpoints.
Inflection points are points where the concavity of f changes sign. The line x = a is
a vertical asymptote of the graph of a function f if lim+ f (x) = +∞ or −∞, or if
x→a
lim− f (x) = +∞ or −∞. The line y = b is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of f if
x→a
lim f (x) = b or lim f (x) = b.
x→+∞ x→−∞

Basic log and exp laws. eln x = x for x > 0 ln(ex ) = x for all x

ln(ab) = ln a + ln b ln(a/b) = ln a − ln b ln(ab ) = b ln a ln 1 = 0 ln e = 1

ea eb = ea+b ea /eb = ea−b (ea )b = eab e0 = 1 e1 = e

Basic trig identities. sin2 x + cos2 x = 1 sin(−x) = − sin x cos(−x) = cos x

sin(x + 2π) = sin x cos(x + 2π) = cos x 360 degrees = 2π radians

sin x cos x 1 1
tan x = cot x = sec x = csc x =
cos x sin x cos x sin x
Z
0
The indefinite integral. If F (x) = f (x) then F is an antiderivative of f . f (x) dx is
Z
the set of all antiderivatives of f . F 0 (x) = f (x) is equivalent to f (x) dx = F (x) + C,
where C is a constant. Z b
The definite integral. If f is continuous and f (x) ≥ 0 on [a, b] then f (x) dx is the
a
area of the region between y = f (x), the x-axis, x = a and x = b. If f (x) < 0 occurs for
Z b
some x then f (x) dx is the area above [a, b] minus the area below [a, b]. The fundamental
a Z b
theorem of calculus says f (x) dx = F (b) − F (a), where F is any antiderivative of f .
a

1
Riemann sums. Suppose f is defined on the interval [a, b]. Consider a subdivision of
[a, b] into n subintervals of length ∆x = (b − a)/n. Let x1 , x2 , . . . , xn be representative
points in these subintervals. The number f (x1 )∆x + f (x2 )∆x + · · · + f (xn )∆x is called a
Riemann sum. Z b
1
Average value. The average value of f over [a, b] is f (x) dx.
b−a a

Differentiation rules Integration rules

Z
d
(kx) = k for constant k k dx = kx + C for constant k
dx
Z Z
d
[kf (x)] = kf 0 (x) for constant k kf (x) dx = k f (x) dx for constant k
dx
Z
d k xk+1
(x ) = kxk−1 for constant k xk dx = + C for constant k 6= −1
dx k+1
Z Z Z
d
[f (x) ± g(x)] = f 0 (x) ± g 0 (x) [f (x) ± g(x)] dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx
dx
Z
d x
(e ) = ex ex dx = ex + C
dx
Z
d 1 1
(ln x) = dx = ln |x| + C
dx x x
Z
d
(sin x) = cos x cos x dx = sin x + C
dx
Z
d
(cos x) = − sin x sin x dx = − cos x + C
dx
Z
d
(tan x) = sec2 x sec2 x dx = tan x + C
dx
Z
d
(sec x) = sec x tan x sec x tan x dx = sec x + C
dx
Z Z
0
Integration by substitution. If u = g(x) then f (g(x))g (x) dx = f (u) du and
Z b Z g(b)
0
f (g(x))g (x) dx = f (u) du .
a g(a)
Chain Rule. If h(x) = g(f (x)) then h0 (x) = g 0 (f (x))f 0 (x) when f , g are differentiable.
Product and Quotient Rules. (f g)0 = f 0 g + f g 0 and (f /g)0 = (f 0 g − f g 0 )/g 2 .
Calculus in economics. Profit P equals revenue R minus total cost C. If the unit price
is p and the number of units is x then R = px. The average cost is C(x)/x. The demand
pf 0 (p)
equation relates p and x. If x = f (p) then E(p) = − is the elasticity of demand.
f (p)
The demand is elastic if E(p) > 1. The demand is inelastic if E(p) < 1. The demand is
unitary if E(p) = 1.
Exponential functions as mathematical models. Problems about exponential growth
and decay use the formulas Q(t) = Q0 ekt and Q(t) = Q0 e−kt , respectively.