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Computer system

Computer System

Book I: computer system fundamentals.

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER.
Question 1. What is a computer?
A computer may be defined as a machine which accepts data from an input
device, processes it by performing arithmetical and logic operations in
accordance with a program of instructions and returns the results through an
output unit.
A computer is basically an electronic machine operating on current.
Question 2. Components of a Computer system?
A computer system comprises of the following components:
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1. Central Processing Unit (CPU).
- CPU is the heart of the whole sys
- CPU consists of the :
• control unit (CU)
• arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
• accumulator (ACC)
• program counter (PC)
• instruction register (IR)
• memory address register (MAR)
• memory data register (MDR)
• status register (SR)
• general purpose register
- The function of each components of CPU:
• Control unit:
 control and co_ordinate all hardware functions of the
CS.
 examine and decode all program instructions to the
computer and initiate their execution by sending the
appropriate signals.
• ALU:
 performs all arithmetic <addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division & exponentiation> and logic
comparision two values functions required by
computer.
• ACC:
 holds the first operand of the temporary result of the
ALU.
• PC:
 contains the add of the next instruction to be
excuted.
• IR:
 contains the current instruction to be executed.
Main memory
• MAR:
 holds the address location to or from which data is to
be transferred
• MDR:
 contains the data to be written to or read out of the
addressed location.
• SR:
 keeps track of the status of the accumalator.
• General Purpose Register:
 for general purpose procedures.
Please refer to diagram for an illustratin of the basic components of the CPU.
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CPU
I
N
T Control unit
E Arithmetic Logic Unit
R
N Accumulator
A Program Couter
L
to main
Instruction Register
B
memory
U
S
Memory Address Register
Memory Data Register
Status Register
General Purpose Register

Basic components of a CPU.

Control Unit

Input Unit ALU Output

Unit

Main Memory

Backing Storage

Control signals
Data flow
Components of a CS.
2. Input units
- Used to enter data( raw unprocessed facts) and instructions to
the computer.
3. Output units
- Used for delevering the processed result from the computer in
useful form.
4. Backing storage units
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- Backing storage units need for high capacity data storage
devices that can store data in a more permanent form for later
retrieral, updating and referencing.
- Backing storage is also called secondary storage external
storage and auxiliary storage.
Chapter 2: MICOPROCESSOR.
Question 1. Cache Memory?
- Cache memory is a small amount of very fast store with faster
access time than the main memory.
- Cache memory is used to temporaryty store data instructions
that are likely to be retrieved many times, thus speeds up the
processing of data.
- Sits between main storage and the processor acting as holding
area through which all data and instructions pass.
- Old data in the cache memory is over written by new then cache
is full.
Question 2. Virtual Memory?
- Virtual memory makes use of both the main memory and
backing store.
- In a virtual memory sys, each user has the illusion that his
program is in the main memory all the time.
- The sys maintains this illusion by keeping some of the “unused”
portion of the program’s code and data on a backing store device
which is usually magnetic disk
- The movement of the unused portion from the backing store to
the mian memory is transparent to the users.
- Please refer to diagram for virtual memory.

Backing Store Main Memory

A3
A2
A1

A3

A2 A1
Virtual Memory

Chapter 3: BATCH/ ONLINE AND REAL TIME PROCESSING SYSTEM.

Question 1. Batch Processing System?
- Def: Computer processing does not begin until all the input data
has been collected and grouped together called Batched
Generally data is accumulated for a certain period of time or unitl
a certain quantity.
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- Ads:
 Response time is not critical.
 Need to process large volumn of data.
 Computer efficiency is more important than response
time.
- Dis:
 Time between recording and processing of source
document is long
 Rereen normally required if errors are encountered.
 Data is not current.
 Error correction is more difficult.
Question 2. Online Processing System?
- Def: Inputs data enters the computer directly as soon as it is
being transacted. There information will be processed
immediately and updated into the master file.
- Ads:
 Enter availability of information for decision making.
 More accurate data capture.
 Schedules suits user.
- Dis:
 CPU time is used less efficiently.
 Random arrival of transactions, terminal operator
process each transaction separately.
 More expensive than batch processing.
Question 3. Real Time Processing System?
- Def: One which controls the environment by receiving data
processing them and returning results sufficiently quickly to
affect the functioning of the environment at that time.
- Ads:
 Response time is very critical and sufficient quick.
- Dis:
 Expensive hardware & software.
 Very complex in terms of hardware & software.
Chapter 4: PRINTERS AND TERMINALS.
Question 1. Classification of printers?
1. Classifying printers according to speed.
a. Serial printers
Slow printers that print one character at a time.
Eg: Dot matrix printers
Daisywheel printers
b. Line printers
Medium to high speed printers that can print in excess of 2000 lines
per minute.
Eg: Chain Printers
Band Printers
Drum Printers
2. Calssifying printers according to method of printing
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a. Impact printers
Use hammers or prints to strike a print rebbon in order to form the
character on the paper.
b. Non impact printers
Use more silent methods of printing.
Eg: Thermal printers
Ink Jet printers
Lazers printers
3. Classifying printers according to print quality
Kinds of quality printers
Draft quality
Near letter quality(NLQ)
Letter quality
Graphic quality
Question 2. Describe some types of printer?
1. According to speed:
a. Dot matrix printer
- Serial impact printers that can print draft, near letter quality and
a limited amount of graphics.
- The print resolution is generally lower than lazer printers.
b. Daisywheel printers
- Are serial impact printers, the speed of a daisywheel printer is
slow(20-55 characters per second), noisy in operation.
- The print head has the letters arranged at the end of spokes
round a central hub.
c. Chain printers
- The chains printers has its characters set rapidly rotating on a
print chain.
d. Band printers
- The band printer has rotating scalloped steel band.
e. Drum printers
- Are line printers, the print character are raised in bands around a
heavy metal drum which rotates at very high speed.
- The print hammers strike the paper and a print ribbon against an
apropriate character on the line. An entire line of the same
character is printed on one rotation of the drum.
f. Thermal printers
- Uses special heat sensitive paper and a matrix of print wires that
become hot when exposed to an electric current. The heated
wires come into close contact with the paper, burning the image
of the character onto it.
- The more advanced thermal printers are using thermal transfer
printing.
- They have a special heat sensitive ribbon and a print head with
wires that become hot when a currents is applied.
- The heat from the print wires causes the ink from the ribbon to
fuse to a piece of regular paper.
g. Inl Jet Printers
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- The ink jet prints by using a small droplet generator to break
special inks into tiny drops, which are then forced towards a
paper supply.
h. Lazer printers
- Using a photoconductive drum.
- A lazer is then used to write the image of the character onto the
drum.
- After exposure to the lazer, the drum rotates through a
developing station, picks up toner and transfers it to the paper.
- The character is fused onto the paper by heat.
i. Ion deposition printers
- Ions are created in a cavity, and directed electrically through an
orifice onto the dielectric surface of a rotating cylinder.
- The required characters are formed as an electric charge image
on the cylinders surface.
- Toner is the applied to the charged image and transferred to the
paper on which it is transfixed by pressure(cold fusion).
j. Electrostatic printers
- Letterheads and logos are created electrostatically from a
changeable metal cylinder.
k. Magnetic printers
- A drum in the printer has a surface that can be coated with sows
of tiny spots of magnetion by means of thousands of minute
recording heads.
- As the drum rotates it becomes covered with these magnetic
spots so as to from a latent image of the page to be printed.
- Dry ink particles are brought into contact with the drum’s surface
and these adthere to the magnetised spots. The ink was then
pressunal on to the surface and subsequently transferred onto
the paper.
Question 3. Characteristics of a page printers?
- Speed
- Characters sets
- Copies
- Intelligence
- Output
Chapter 5: DATA STORAGE MEDIA.
Question 1. Data storage Requirements Characteristics?
- Low access time: fast speed
- Storage capacity: much enough
- Interchangeability: can be change easily
- Security: safe enough
- Transfer rate: fast enough
- Cost: economic
Question 2. Magnetic disks?
- This comprises a drive unit onto which one or perhaps two
magnetic disk cartridges are loaded.
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- The drive consists of a control unit and a spindle housing that
rotates continuously when switch on.
- The cartridge are loaded by the operator so as to provide the
data currently needed for the job in hand.
- Bach tracks is devided up into sectors(often 4 or 8), sectors are
read or written or more at a time as blocks by means of a read.
- There are usually one head for each surface, all the heads are
moved.
- Sunchronously across the tracks.
- Once in position all the data on the equiradial tracks can be read
or written without further movement of the heads.
- Cylinder is a set of equiradial tracks.
- A cartridge comprises several flat disks mounted on a central
sprindle. When mounted it rotates at a high speed enabling data
to be read from or written to it. The data is recorded
magnetically on both surfaces of each disk in the form of
concertric tracks.
•
 Certain models of disk units also have a number of
fixed read/write heads in addition to the movable
heads.
 The fixed head are positioned permanently over
certain of the outer tracks, there being one head per
track, so climimating the need for head movement.
- The heads are very close disk surface.
- Curshion of air carried by the rotating disk.
Question 3. Winchester disks( hard disks )?
- Comprises a number of platters(disks) permanently into an
airtight enclosure.
- All dust is excluded thus perimiting the read/write heads to be
positioned even closer to the surfaces and so enabling greater
recording densities to be employed.
- The disks have greater storage capacity and a higher rate of
data transger.
- It has the lubricated surfaces allowing the heads “land” when the
platters cease to rotate, so eliminating head crashes.
- Winchester platters are either 14 in, 8 in, 5¼ in or 3½ in
diameter.
Question 4. Floppy disks?
- Diskettes, generally called floppy disks, are single disks made of
flexible plastic and permanently housed is an envelope.
- The data on floppy disks is in concentric tracks on the outer part
of the surfaces and access to it is via slot in the envelope.
- The most common size are 3½ in, 5¼in, and 8 in diameter disks,
the 3½ in disks have the advantages of a shutter.
- Floppy disks may be either single or double sided and of course
the drive needs to be correspondingly equipped.
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- Both the drives and the floppy disks themselves are inexpensive
with the result that they have come into extensive used by small
business and home computer buffs.
- The range of capacities is from 1/4 to 2 megabytes and transfer
rates around 125 to 250 kilobytes per seconds.
Question 5. Optical disks?
- Optical disk are comparatively new development for data
storage.
- Optical disks consist of a single removable glass, plastic or metal
disk coated on one side with tellurium and protected by a 1 mm
layer or transpacent plastic.
- The disk diameters are mostly between 8 in and 14 in they rotate
on a spindle in a similar fashion to magnetic disks.
- The data is recorded in the form of minute pits burned into the
telliurium coating by a finely-focused lazer beam.
- Optical disks hold between 0.7 and GBs, this is about 20 times
greater than magnetic dis cartridges.
- The data is read by a low power laser beam which moved across
the surface and is reflected into a photo cell.
- Optical disks rotate mostly at 1500 r.p.m which, allowing for the
movement of the laser unti, given access time of between 16 &
500 ms and data transfer rates of 0.6 to 3 MVs per second.
- The draw back of optical disks is that the data cannot be erased
so making them non-rewriteable.
Question 6. Mass storage media?
- Mass storage media is a high capacity disk system as when
necessary by transferring data from a number of “data
cartridges” house in cells.
- Each cartridge consists of a 3 in wide magnetic modium inside a
protective cover
- In order to load the disk system, the data cartridges are moved
automatically from the cells.
- A typical system consists of 9440 cartridges giving a storage
capacity of 472000 million bytes.
Question 7. Magnetic drums?
- A magnetic drum consists of a cylinder upon the surface of which
data is stored in magnetic form in tracks running around its
circumference, each track has its own read/write head.
- A typical magnetic drum has 800 tracks each capable of holding
5000 bytes.
Question 8. Charge_coupled Device Memory (CCD)?
- CCD consists of thousands tiny metal squares each capable of
holding an electric charge, thus representing a bit.
- The squares are in the form of an array 64 x 64 holding 4096
bits.
- It is very impact.
- CCD is volate lity storage.
Question 9. Magnetic Bubble Memory?
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- A thin wayer of magnetic garnet is capable of containing tiny
domains or cylinders of magnetism, called bubbles.
- By erasing unwanted bubbles, the resultant presence of a
bubbles represent a 1 or a 0 bit.
- The main ads are low power consumption, compactness,
robustness reliability and non-volitility.
Question 10. Megnetic tape?
- The magnetic tape usage is now more as a backup medium
rather than a primary method of backing storage.
- It is often used as a depositony for disk dumped from fixed data
storage.
- It is in reells of up 3600 feet and is made of Mylar plastic tape,
1/2 in wide and coated with a magnetic material on one side.
- The data is read from one read and written to another.
- A reel of tape is loaded on a magnetic tape drive, and so as
many drives are needed as reels during a processing run.
- It is used as a backing medium than a primary method of
backing storage.
- The seconds usually have to be sequence where store in
magnetic tape.
Chapter 7: COMPUTER FILES.
Question 1. File Processes?
1. Sorting
a. The records in logical file are brought into some sequence as
determined by key in the records.
b. A computer is capable of sorting record into a “nested”
sequence.
c. Sorting is done by a “sorting generator”. This is part of the
computer’s software and comprises several sophisticated sorting
techniques that are called into use according to the file and the
sort requirements.
d. The need of sorting has dimished in line with the demise of
magnetic tape as backing storage.
2. Merging
- Merging implies that two or more files in the same sequence are
combined into one file.
a. File merging
 Two or more separate files of similar seconds
and in the same sequence are marged
together so as to form one file.
b. Record merging
 The records from two or more “input” files,
usually in the same sequence, are combined
one record in the output file.
3. Matching
a. Two or more input files (generally in the same sequence) are
compared records against record in order to ensure that there is
a complete set of records for each key.
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b. Masmatched records are highlighted for subsequent action
4. Summanizing
a. Records with the same key in one file are accumulated together
to form one record in the output file.
b. Summanizing usually applies to a file presorted into a certain
sequence and the resultant file is in the same sequence.
c. Records to be summarized are generally of a similar type.
5. Searching
a. Searching is looking for records with certain keys or holding
certain data and in some way making a note of these.
b. An instance is a search for and count of all records with a debt
balance of above a certain amount.
6. Information retrieval
a. Information retrieval is the process that involves the bringing
together of data from several files.
b. Data may also be extracted from several files and combined
before being presented as information.
Chapter 8: DIRECT ACCESS FILE ORGANIZATION AND STRUCTURES.
Question 1. Storage and Access Modes?
There are 3 principal modes for storing and accessing accords on a disk or
drum:
1. Serial mode:
- The record are stored contigously regardless of their keys
- The sole way of accessing serial seconds is to search through the
complete file starting with the first record.
- It is sometimes possible to partition a serial files thus reducing
the search time by starting the search at the beginning of a
known partition.
- A serial file is normally of a temporary nature awaiting sorting
into a useful sequence.
2. Sequential mode:
- direct access sequential mode normally involves accessing
sequential a file that is stored sequentially.
- sequential mode is often associated with a master file held in a
certain sequence and updated by a transaction file sorted into
the same sequence.
3. Indexed_sequential/ selective_sequential mode
- Indexed_sequential is a mode of storage where by records are
held sequentially and accessed selectively.
- Groups of unrequired records are skipped past.
- Indexed sequential files may also be accessed haphazandly.
4. Random modes:
- Each record is stored in a location determind from the second’s
key by means of an add generation algorithm.
- The only erricient way to find a record is to use the algorithm
- Random mode is applicable to master files
• Ads of random modes
 No index is required thus saving storage space
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 It is a fast access method because little or no
searching is involved
 Transaction do not need storing, thus saving time
 New records are easily insertly into the random file
provided they are not excessive in number
• Dis
 The main problem with the random mode is in
achieving a uniform spread of records over the
storage are allocated to the file
Question 2. Direct Access Addressing?
- The key of record is used to identify by record
- The key of record also is used to decide its storage location(or
address)
1. Self addressing:
- Self addressing is a straight forwards method because a record’s
address is equal to its key’s value
- The file is inevitably stored in key sequence
• Ads of self addressing
 It leads directly to the wanted record
 No indexing or searching is required
 The key itself need not necessarily be held within the
stored record- although it generally is
• Dis
 The storage space per second has to be the same
 When records one missing, storage locations related
to its must be left empty
2. Self addressing with key conversion
- This method a basically similar to self addressing except that the
key required a little processing to turn it into the record’s
address
- This leads to either a pricise address
3. Matrix addressing
- In somes case, it is necessary to find the add of a record held
within a multi dimensional matrix of record it’s called matrix
addressing.
Question 3. Direct Access Searching?
- Where as addressing determines the location of a record by
using algorithmic methods, searching finds the record by
scanning groups of records, and index, or both.
- ]The simplest method is to examine every record a file until the
required record is found a shortcut is generally desiable.
1. Indexed sequential searching
- A cylinder index is created to hold the highest cylinder’s key
- Associated with each cylinder is a block index holding the
highest key in each block within that cylinder
- When searching for a record’s key in the index
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 The cylinder index is examined key_by_key until one
is found that is larger than or equal to the wanted
key this directs the search to the appropriate block
index
 The block index a similarly examined and the search
 The block is searched record by record until the
wanted record is found
2. Binary searching( binary chopping )
- The key in the index to be binary search must be in sequence
and form a complete set
- The search starts at the midpoint of the index and then moves
half way to the left or right(down or up) depending upon whether
are wanted key is less than or greater than the midpoint key
- In pracice, the index is unlikely to as convenient as this example
because it is not always possible to exactly halve each sucessive
move(complete exact holvingis possible only when the total
number of keys in the index is 20-1)
- The average number of examinations comparisons is (log2k)-1 ( k
is the number of keys in the index)
3. Block searching
- A block is a subdivision of an index. A block is devised to contain,
roughly the square root of the number of keys in the whole index
- The search is first through the block index to find the appropriate
block and then through this to find the wanted key
- The average number of examinations is square – root – k (k is the
total number of keys)
4. Balanced binary tree searching
- A binary tree is a relationship of keys such that the examination
of any key leads to one of two other keys
- The binary tree is actually in the form of an index containing all
the keys together with a directory showing the braches
stemming left and right from each key
- Binary tree searching is suitable for an unsequenced file
- The search is similar to binary searching in that each key
examination holves the rinaining keys, on average
Chapter 11: INTRODUCTION TO ARTIFICAL INTELLIGENCE.
Question 1. AI?
Atificial Intelligence
It has three braches
1. Expert systems (or knowledge- base system)
- ESs are programs that contain the knowledge of human expert,
encoded so a computer can understand it with encated-
knowledge seasoning machinism, ES can tackle problem that
are beyond the seach of conventionally programmed computers.
2. Natural language systems (everyday native language)
- Natural language systems are programs that understand the
native language of the user, such as E
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- The most popular natural language systems are those that act as
interfaces to data bases
3. Simple perception systems (for vision, speed and touch)
- They can interpret visual scenes and decide if object meet
inspection standards and quality control criteria, or move a robot
to the proper location ot grasp a part for manufacturing
Question 2. Who does the updates?
- Updating the knowledge bases is very diffirent when with
updating databases because of the difference in the type of
information and in the cause and effect relationship contained in
knowledge bases
- A knowledge in the area, when databases may be modified by a
normal users
Chapter 12: EXPERT SYSTEMS.
Question 1. What is an ES( Expert system )?
An ES is a knowledge-intersive program that solves a problem that normally
requires human expertise
• Characteristics of ESs
- They solve problems as well as or better than human experts
- They use knowledge in the form of rules or frames
- They can consider multiple hypotheses simultaneouly
• Types of ES
- An assistant
 Is the leasts expert or lowest level ESs
 It helps a decision maker by doing routine analysis
and porting out those portion of the work where
human expertise is required
- A colleage
 The new discusses the problem until a joint decission
is reached
 When system is going wrong, the user adds more
information to get it back on track
- True ES
 Is a system that advises the user without question
 There are no practical areas today in which decission
Question 2. A ES Life Cycle (ESLC)?
- An accepted SDLC for expert systems has yet to be developed
There are 6 phases life cycle in an ES
1. Phase1 – Selection of an Appropriate Problem
- Phase 1 involves finding an appropriate problem for an ES,
indentifying an expert to contribute the expertise
- Establishing a preliminary approach
- Analysing the cost and benefitsPreparing a development plan
2. Phase 2 – Development of a prototype system
- A prototype sys is a small version of an ES designed to test
assumptions about how to encode the facts, the relationships
and the knowledge of experts
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- The prototype permits the knowledge engineer to gain the
expert’s commitment and to develop a deeper understanding of
the field of expertise
- Other subtasks in this phase:
 Learning about the domain and the task
 Specifying performance criteria
 Selecting an ES building tool
 Developing an implementation plan
 Developing a detailed design for a complete system
3. Phase 3 – Development of a Complete System
- The main work in this phase is the addition of a very large
number of rules
- The knowledge base has to be expanded to full knowledge base
appropriate to the real world and the user interface has to be
developed
2. Phase 4 – Evaluation of the system
- This phase involves testing the system against the performance
establised in earlier stages
5. Phase 5 – Intergration of the system
- The ES has to be intergrated into the data flow and work patterns
of the organization
- In this stage, the expert system has to be interfaced with other
databases, instruments and hardware.
6. Phase 6 – Maintenance of the system
- The maintenance of the ES involves is updating, charging in the
system when operating. When operating, more problems occur in
the system, so it is necessary to continue take care the system
by expert in a fix period of time
- So expert system, are so complex that in a few year the
maintenance costs will equal the development costs.
BOOK II: Computer systems architecture.
Chapter 1 – 2: NUMBER BASES.
Question 1. Common number bases used in computer hardware operation?
• Decimal(denary) system:
- The base is ten – there are 10 different symbols, the digits 0, 1,
2, etc...upto 9
- To represent value less than ten involves only one digit larger
values need two or more digits
• Binary system
- The base must be two, with only the digits 0 and 1 available
- To show values of two or ever require two or more binary digits
• Octal system
- Octal system has eight as its base, it uses the symbol 0, 1, 2 up
to 7 only
- Two or more digits are needed for values of eight and above
• Hexadecimal system(hex)
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- Hexadecimal system has sixteen as its base, it use the symbols
0, 1, 2...,9 & A, B, C, D, E, F, to stand for the “digits” ten, eleven,
twelve, thirteen, fourteen, fifteen.
Question 2. Converting from Bases To Bases?
1. Change the decimal
- Binary:
Eg. (2559) 10
2559 1
1279 1
639 1
319 1
159 1
79 1 (2559)10 =
(10111111111)2
39 1
19 1
9 1
4 0
2 1
0 0
- Octal:
7690 8
49 96,1 8
10 16 120 8

2 1 40 15 8
1
0 7
1

(7690)10 = (17012)8
- Hexadecimal:

6396 16
159 399 16
1 156 79 24 16
2 1 8 1
2 5 1 1
1
C F
(6369)10 = (CF81)16
2. Convert to others from binary
- To decimal
(101010)2 (?)10
1.25 + 0.24 + 1.23 + 0.22 + 1.21 + 0.20 = 42
(101010)2 = (42)10
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- To octal
100101101
 1st step change into denary
= 1.28 + 1.25 + 1.23 + 1.22 + 1.20
= 256 + 32 + 8 + 4 + 1
=(301)10
 2nd step: convert to octal

301 8
61 37 8
5 5 4
(301)10 = (455)8 (100101101)2 = (455)8
- To hexadecimal
110111011011
1st step
= 1.211 + 1.210 + 1.28 + 1.27 + 1.26 + 1.24 + 1.23 +
1.21 + 1.20
= 2048+ 1024 + 256 + 158 + 64 + 16 + 8 + 2 + 1
= (3547)10
2 step
nd

3547 16
384 221 16
27 1 61
1 1 3
1 3

(3547)10 = (CCA)16 (110111011011)2 =

(CCA)16
3. Convert into binary and display the answer in normalized exponential
form

247 1
123 1
61 1
30 1
15 1
7 1
3 1
1 1
0 1
(247)10 = (11110111)2
= 0. 1111011 x 2
normalized exponential form
Question 3. Integer and Floating – point arithmetic?
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1. Floating – point Addition
a. (0.1011 x 25 ) + (0.1001 x 25 )
= (0.1011 + 0. 1001) x 25
= 1.0100 x 25
= 0.10100 x 26
b. (0.1001 x 23 ) + (0.1110 x 25 )
= (0.001001 x 25 ) + (0.1110 x 25 )
= (0.001001 + 0.111000) x 25
= 1.000001 x 25
= 0.1000 x 26 (here have truncation)
(0.1000001 x 26 )
2. Floating – point subtraction
a. (0.1110 x 27 ) – (0.1100 x 27 )
= 0.0010 x 2 7

= 0. 10 x 25
(0.1001 x 28 ) – ( 0.1000 x 25 )
= (0.1001 x 28 ) – ( 0.0001 x 28 )
= 0.1000 x 28
3. Floating – point multiplication
(0.1010 x 23 ) x (0.1100 x 23 )
= (0.1010 x 0.1100) x 26
= 0.01111 x 26
= 0.1111 x 25
(0.11110 x 2 )
3
x ((0.01011) x 24 )
= (0.11110 x 0. 01011) x 27
= 0.001111 x 27
= 0.1111 x 25
4. Floating – point division.
(0.11010 x 26) : (0.001 x 26)
= (0.11010 x 26) : (1 x 23)
= 0.1101 x 26 : 1x 23
= 0.1101 x 2 3

(0.110111 x 26) : (0.1001 x 24)

= (0.110111 : 0.1001) x 22
= (1101.11 : 1001) x 22
= 1.100001 x 22
= 0.1100001 x 23

Chapter 3: TYPES OF INSTRUCTION AND ADDRESSING.

Question 1. Types of instructions used in CS?
1. Arithmetic instructions.
Arithmetic instructions include directives to the computers to perform
additions, subtraction, multiplications, divisions and exponentiations.
2. Input/ output instructions.
They direct the computer to read data values from the specified input
devices into the main store for processing.
They also include instructions to write the contents of memory locations
holding the result of processing to a specified output device.
 19
3. Decision or control instructions.
Most data processing application will contain situations where alternative
calculations or procedures will have to be executed based on the result of
condition tests carried out.
4. Data handling instructions
They include the copying of the content of one memory location to
another or setting a memory locations to an initial value.
Also include the management or insertion of characters into data items
Examples of such instructions include branch instructions, jump
instruction & stop instruction.
Question 2. Types of addressing?
1. Direct addressing
The operands of each machine instructions is used to retrieve the data
2. Indirect addressing
The operands is used to specify the memory address which contains the
address of the data to be processed
Op – code
OP – CODE OPERAND OP – CODE OPERAND

1234
5
Data item

12345
Da
ta item
Main storage
Direct addressing
Indirect addressing
3. Indexed addressing
- The main applications of this type of addressing technique is to
enable to access of sequential locations in memory that are
adjacent to each other
- Each adjcent memory address has value n+1, where n is the
address of the previous location
- When the first of the location have been accessed, the next
memory location in sequence is accessed by simply increasing
the add of the present location by 1 & using accessing it
- The starting address of the series of locations is specified in the
operand of the instruction
- In order to access the next location in sequence, the content of
the index register is increased by 1 a added to the opreand
address
- This is done repeatedly until the last memory location in the
series is processed
 20
Indexed addressing.
OP – CODE OPERAND

Index Register

Data 1 Data 2 Data 3 Data 4

Chapter 4: PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES.

Question 1. Program and level of language?
Program is group of constructions that is linked together to perform
specific task. It’s necessary for a computer program to be written in a
“PL” because at a computer program is created by a programing using a
sys analyst’s specification of the job in the hand.
1. Machine language
- ML is the set of bit(0,1) that can performed considered by CPU
- Ads
 fast
 short prog
 store in small memory
- Dis
 difficult to understand & remember its code
 takes a lot of time to programming
 difficult to use
2. Low level language
- LLL is used to dercribe exactly procedure of performance of CPU
at certain time
- Features:
 Instruction is written by natrural English or natural
language
 More powerful and so the prog is shortest
 Need less instruction
 Is a one to one relationship between the written
instruction and the machine instructions
 It’s instruction tend to be machine. It runs in OS
- Ads:
 Easy to write
 Easy to understand
 Known the processing data in CPU
 Prog writing is shortset
- Dis:
 Must be complier
 21
 The time of running prog is longer than machine
language
3. High level language
- HLL was developed in order to further easy the work of
programmers by making the programming language more
procedure oriented
- Features:
 The statements of HLL are closer to natural english
or other natural language
 A HLL source program must be translated into
machine code by means of a compiler or an
interpreter
- Ads:
 Easy to wirte
 Easy to understand
 May be used for everybody
 Closed to natural languages english language
- Dis:
 Must be interpreter by compiler or an interpreter
before processing by the computer
 The prog is long
 The time to run the prog is longer than low level
language
Question 2. Some High Level Languages (HLL)?
1. COBOL: Common Business Oriented Language
- COBOL is an exetensively used HLL and since around 1960
several versions have appeared
- The original intention was that COBOL should be capable of
being compiled and run on any model of computer
- COBOL is now employed for many business data processing
applications, and so a brief explaination of its structure follows
- A COBOL program consists of 4 divisions:
 Identifycation division this identifies the prog
 Enviroment division specifies the computer to be
used for compiling and processing
 Data division specifies the format and relates to
these to the names used in the procedure division
 Procedure division comprises the statements in the
source program, this is the main part of a COBOL
program
2. BASIC: Beginners ALL purpose Symbolic Instruction Code
- BASIC is a straightforward HLL intended for use in a time-sharing
environment in this respect it is particularly beneficial in
educational institutions
- One of the difficulties with BASIC is the welter of dialects
currently in use
 22
- Essentially BASIC consists of statements made up of verbs &
variables. The verbs are similar to those in COBOL but there is a
large to them that in effect become the addresses of their
locations in the main store
- A variable name must be unique and generally consists of one or
a few alphabetic characters, purhaps followed by a digit
3. PASCAL: named after the famous 17th century French mathematician
- It was expressly designed as a language to make programming
more systematic and discriplired and in these respects lends
itself to structured programming
- It is however more difficult to learn than are COBOLS BASIC and
so is unliked to be accepted as a language for microcomputers
are geared to BASIC only
Question 3. Operating Systeim?
- Concept of OS:
 An OS consists of a suite of programs, one of which,
the master, kernel or exeactive program, remains
resident in the main store. This program controls the
other OS programs in th suites and between them
they controls the application programs
 Often the operating system includes various
application packages among its suit of programs. Ex
of such software include: word processing, electronic
mail, networking, speadsheet, graphics and file
handling
- Function of OS
 Pricrity assignment:
Jobs waiting execution are scheduled according to either a
predetermined or a dynamic assignments plan
 Control of multiprogramming
Control of accomplish multiprogramming an “executive” or
“supervisor” program is employed to control the application programs
 Communication
Control of data transmission between terminals and the computer, and
computer to computer
 Database
Control of DBMS
 Software control
Control of assemblers, compilers, utility software, and subroutines so
that these are imediately available when required
 Spooling
The control of input/output peripherals in order to achieve their best
utilisation
 Dynamic allocation
Of main and backing storage, including virtual storage
 Operating allocation
Via the console printer or VDU
 23
 Debugging and editing new programs
In confunction with the compiler, and passing error msgs to the user
 Operation log
Maintaince of details of all jobs carried out by the computer
 Application package control
Especially with microcomputers, as describe above

Chapter 6: TRANSLATORS.
Question 1. Translators?
1. Assemblers
• Def: A program that translates assembly language into machine
code. Dos machine instruction is generated for each source instruction
- The resulting program ran only be executed when the assembly
process is completed
• Operation:
- Translates mnemonic operation codes into machine code &
symbolic address into machine address
- Includes the neressary linkages for closed subroutines and
inserts appropriate machine code for macros
- Allocates area of storage
- Detects and indicates valid source language instruction
- Procedures the object program on tape or disk required
- The lesting may also include error codes if appropriate. To
illustrate the methods used just think about an assembly
program. We must first look at the directives
 A directive is used to control the assembly process, it
is not asembled but is obeyed by the assembler
when it is encouteded, e.g ”END”, is sometimes
called a pseudo-operation code on pseudo-opcode
2. Interpreter
A program which translates and executes each source statement in logical
sequence as the program one instruction at a time, completely translating
and executing each instruction before it goes onto the next
- Interpreter, which deals with the source program one instruction
at a time, completely translating and executing each instruction
before it goes onto the next
- Interpreter seldom produce object code but call upon inbuilt
routines instead
- Some intermediate code is usually produced tempororily
- If an interpreter is used, the source program will be translated
every time the program is executed
- Interpreters are widely used, particular for the programming
language Basic on small computers
• Interpriter are used for such things as:
- Handling user commands in an interactive sys
- Debugging programs as they run
- Handling software produced for or by a different computer
3. Compilers:
 24
A program that translates HLL into a machine orientated language, often the
machine code. Many machine instructions are generated for each source
statement
- The compiler:
 Translates the source program statements into
machine code
 Includes linkage for closed subroutines
 Allcocates areas of main storage
 Generates the object program on cards, tape and
disc as required
 Produces a printed listing of the source and objected
programs when required
 Tabulates a lish of errors found during compilation
- Compilers are commonly used for the translation of HLL program
- Compiler translates the whole of the HLL source program into a
machine code object program prior to the program being loaded
into main memory and executed
- If a compiler is used, the same program need only be translated
once
• Stages of compilation
 lexical analysis
 systatical analysis
 code generation

Chapter 7: SOFTWARE.
Question 1. Application software?
- Application software comprises the programs that are written
specifically to achieve resulting appertaining to the company’s
activities
- Application software comes from two source
 They produce by themselves
 Buy from an external agency
1. Ads and dis of using application packages in house
Ads
- The requirements of the application are more easily met
- There is more control in testing and debugging
- The more control over the usage and support obtained
Dis
- There is a waiting period before the application can be
implemented
- Development cost is higher than buying a package
2. Ads and dis of using application package
Ads:
- The packages can be used immediately
- Documentation is generally good
- It can be used on a varisty of machines
 25
- It is cheaper as the costs of the packages are shared between
many users
- Comprehensive on line help information and guided tutorials
available
- Easily remembered command syntax
- Can be used in confunction with other software in an integrated
fashion
Dis:
- Modifications may be difficult for some applications
- Package may be two generalized to suit user needs
- Some features purchased may not be required
- Support given depends on stability and professionalison of the
vendor
- User are required to comply with the owner’s regulations
Question 2. Utility software?
- Certain processing is common to a high proportion of computer
users, and so utility software has been created to cater for this
need
- Utility software is intended to be sufficiently flexible to meet
most user’s requirements and is tailored to meet their precise
needs by means of parameter entered prior to use
- Some of the utility programs described below may be
incorporated into the OS that is used with a particular computer
 File conversion: this convers the transference of data
from any medium to any other
 File copying: an exact copy of a data set is made on
to another lot for the same type of storage medium
 File reorganisation: direct access, files over flow
records are stored in designed blocked, this is
acceptable up to a point but from time it si necessary
to reorganise the file so as to remove the overflow
 File maintenance(amendment): this procedure
involves the straightforward insertion and deletion of
records into or form sequential files
 Sorting: is frequently necessary in order to arrange a
set of records into a certain sequence based on their
key values
 Dumping routines: a dump routine is used in
confunction with a restfirt program ...
 House keeping operations: there are programs or
parts of a programs not directly concerned with the
solution of the problem in hand
 Trace routines: these entails, the dumping, display or
printing of th program or other contents of the main
store during program testing to facilitate error
detection
- Utilitys are commonly used to perform these functions:
 26
 Copying of files
 Sorting of data
 Merging of files
 Data recovery
 Reformating of records by reamanging their fields
 File reorganization
 Reporting of sys status and usages
Question 3. System software?
There are three main types of memory placement policy:
- First fit
- Best fit
- Worst fit
1. First fit policy, an incoming job is placed in the first available free
space large enough to fit it. This allows the placement decision to be
made quickly
2. Best fit policy, an incoming job is placed in the free space in which it
fits most tightly
3. Worst fit policy, an incoming job is placed in the largest possible hole
of free space
Question 4. Types of scheduling?
- Scheduling of job is also an important part of any OS. It involves
keeping track of and deciding which job is to be executed
- Types of scheduling
 Deadline scheduling
 First in first out scheduling(FIFO)
 Round robin scheduling
 Shortest job first(STF) scheduling
 Shortest remaining time scheduling(SRT)
- More details about types of scheduling
 In deadline scheduling certains are scheduled to be
completed by a specifir time or deadline. Deadline
scheduling can be very complex requiring substantial
overhead in resource management
 FIFO scheduling: processes are dispatched according
to their arrival time in the ready queue. This type of
 Round robin scheduling is similar to FIFO scheduling
but the difference lies in that each job is given a slice
of CPU time
 SJF scheduling: shorter jobs are more favoured than
longer one. SJF selects job that ensures the next jobs
will complete & leave the sys as soon as possible
 SRT scheduling: the job will the smallest estimated
remaining run time is executed first. In SRT, a
running job may be replaced by a new job with a
shorter estimated run time
Chapter 8: MEMORY MANAGEMENT.
Question 1. Virtual Storage System?
 27
- Instructions and data not currently needed might even be stored
on the disk and thus free up a portion memory
- Virtual storage systems have evolved to meet these needs.
Virtual storage systems allow programs to be as large as
necessary, even larger that the physical storage capacity of the
computer
- Translating the user’s view of the program into the physical
reality of computer storage is one of the major task performed
by virtual memory OS like IBM’s MVS and digital VMS
- Virtual storage system included non paged systems
Paged systems
Chapter 9: NETWORKING.
Question 1. Types of network layout?
Network topology is the name given to the various types of network layout
1. Start network(or centralised network)
- This network all communications go through a central node
Node A
Node D
Central(Hub) active
Passtive
Node C
Node B
- The centra of star network is the hub which performs the
function of routing msgs and data within the network
- The hub manages & senvices all incoming and outgoing
communication traffic. It’s also provide info services from a large
central data bases
2. Mesh network (or distributed network)
- This network may be fully connected or partially connected
A

E B

D C
- Data can get from one node to another node via different route
- Multi point to point
3. Ring network( or loop network)

A B
 28

D C
- Work stations connect to the ring
- More cabling requiring than BUS
- The connectors used with a lot of problem
- Cable is used UTP, STP
4. Bus network( or multidrop network)
A B

- All workstations are connected the same cable segment

- Commonly used for implomenting ethenet at 10 mbps(Mb/s)
- The cable is terminalled at each end
- Writing is normally store point to point
- A faulty cable or work station will take the entire LAN down
Question 2. Network control?
1. Modems(modulation demodulation)
A telephone line B

Modem modem
Digital signal analog signal
OR
Computer Modem Computer Modem

Data transmission Using a Modem

-To communicate between computers via telephone line, there is
a need to convert signals from the computer into a form suitable
for transmission over the telephone line or convert from digital
signals into analogue signals, and convert back from analogue
signals to digital signals
- From source: digitals signals are converted into analogue
signals(modulation)
- At the received end analogue signals are converted back into
digital signals (demodulation)
- A device to handle modulation, demodulation process is called
Modem
2. Bandwidth and Fibre Opties
The major benefits of fibre opties are:
- Fibre optic cables are much lighter and smaller in size
- Greatly increased speed in data transmission
- Greatly reliability
- Greater secerity as lines can not be tapped
 29
3. Transmission
a. Simplex transmission

This method allows for transmission in one direction only

b. Half duplex transmission

This method means that’s data can be transmitted in both directions, but is
only on direction at a time
c. Full duplex trasmission

This method of transimission allows for transmission in both directions

simultaneously
* Two modes of transmission are used when transmitting data over
communication lines. They are
 asynchrorous
 synchronous
Asynchronous:
- One character at a time is transmitted or received
- Each character is preceded by a start bit and a stop bit
 The start bit is used to indicate or character is being
sent
 The stop bit is used to indicate the end of the
character
- Asynchronous transmission is used for low speed devices
Direction of transmission

S S S S
T T T T
A 11000001 O 1111111 A 11000010 O
R P R P
T T
Synchronous:
- The speed of transmission is much faster
- Transmission groups of character can be send down the line
without the start and stop bits
Direction of transmission

000111000001011100000011
Question 3. LAN_Local Area Networks?
• Def: A LAN is a communication network in that connects office
equipment to provide a variety of data communication service
which features high transmission rates and low error rates
• Characteristics:
- Utilisation of some type of switching topology
- Locality restricted to a few miles or in the same bulding
- Proprietorship by a single organisation
• Features:
 30
- LAN is after used in offices & it connects of fire equipment to
provide a variety of data communication. Service with light
transmission rate and low errors rate
- The majorities of LANs are connected by coxial cable, and the
protocol(rule for communication) is very simple
• Three other important aspects of LANs:
- Acess method (protocol)
Central control
CSMA_CD
Empty slot access
Token access/token passing
• LAN transmission modes:
There are 2 main types of LAN transmission modes
a. Baseband transmission: is essentially & binary method, each bit
being represented by one of two states of an electric pulse
passing through the network.
Baseband is nevertheless suitable for most LANs, and is the
mode employed by Ethernet and Cambridge Ring network
b. Broadband transmission: the data is modulates into a carrier
wave. Broadband transmission has a much greater band width
than baseband, it can transmit sth like ten times as much in a
given time
• LAN is one of the distributed processing designs
- LAN are considered loosely coupled system processors are
located in separate machines and communicate at relatively low
speeds
- LAN is the means by which distribution takes places, regardless
of what are distributed
Chapter 10: DATA COMMUNICATIONS.
Question 1. Write a short note of?
1. Communication is an extensive subject in its own right, encompassing
not only data transmission but also sound and video transmission via
telephone lines, radio links and satellite links.
2. Multiplexing is a means of combining together data from several
sources so that it can be transmitted along one comminication line
3. Front – end processing: A front – end processor is usually a
minicomputer or a microcomputer interposed between the main
computer and the multiplexor
Its purpose is to relieve the host computer from the bunden of
communications housekeeping
4. Concentrators are device used to gather the bit from each terminal or
group of terminal and hold them on buffer store unit until there are
sufficient to justify forward transmission
5. Protocol is an “agreement” where by devices can communicate is a
fully understand manner
6. Multidrop line<multipoint line> has several terminals on concentrator
attached to it
 31
7. Distributed data processing sys is one of which interconnected points
at which processing power and storage capacity are availble
Question 2. Fibre Optics?
• Fibre optics is that data and other information is transmitted in the
form of light through very fine glass fibres
• Ads:
- High bandwidth eg data transmission capacity
- Low cross – talk eg interference between adjacent fibres
- Low attenuation eg loss of signal strength
- Freedom from interference from external electrical and
electromagnetic equipment
- High reliability
- Safe because no heat, sparks or electrical voltages are created
- Economic because glass is loss expensive than copper
Chapter 11: DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING.
Question 1. Client/ Server Model?
- It’s common way to employ distributed processing that is client/server
architecture which splits into components
- Server store & main palates the actual data & provide secenity, losting
function transaction logging recovery capabilities
- Client/ server model seems like PC lan each server support more users
- Data request in form of SQL(structure quenf language) command
travel across the network from client to server

Client Server
Database
Request

LAN Response
Question 2. File sharing VS client server?
Network

Application
tool
process
Application
tool Database
process
Client Server
The file sharing model

<< Continuousting to page 28>>

 32

Network

Application SQL execute

tool process commands

Database Database
engine engine Database
process process

Interface Interface
The client/ server model

File sharing Client server

- File are shared for a lot of - Database are stored in the
machines in the server machines and client
network(each machine can machines can send
access to the shared files) request for appropriate
- It can create heavy network data
traffic(each access to a large - Only the records matching
file can potentially block of the request criteria
the file, showing the system raresent back to client
amount of information machines so the sys never
temporarily unavailable to has heavy traffic
other user)
Question 3. Distributed Database Topology?
- With distributed processing system, user can access data, that is
located among a number of physically separate servers. It provides
user with a globol view of the data.
- With distributed database, the problems with implementing still exists.
- Developing distributed database application requires extensive
planning to anticipate the many complex possibilities.
- For a large number of transactions travelling across the network the
capacity of communication lines and the possible impact a system
must be carefully considered.
Chapter 12: THE TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE.
Question 1. The OSI model? <Open System Interconnection>
- OSI model, adopted in 1983 by IOS <International Organization
Standardization>, which is a framework for defining standards for
linking hetenogenerous computer
- The communication function are pastitioned into a vertical set of
layers. Each layer performs are lated subset of the functions required
to communicate with other sys
- The OSI layers
 33
 Physical: concerned with transmission of
unstructured bit stream over physical medium, deals
with the mechinical, electrical, functional, and
procedual characteristrics to access the physical
medium
 Data link: provides for the reliable transfer of
information across the physical link, send blocks of
data with the necessary synchronization, error
control, and flow control.
 Network: provides upper layers with independence
from the data transmission and switching
technologies used to connect systems, responsible
for establishing, maintaining and terminating
connections
 Transport: provides rediable, transparent transfer of
data between end points, provide end_to_end error
recovery and flow control.
 Session: provides the control structure for
communicaton between applications, establishes,
manages, and terminates connections between
cooperating applications.
 Presentation: provide independence to the
application processes from difference in data
representation(syntax)
 Application: provide access to the OSI environment
for users and also propvides distributed information
services
User oriented Application Users of transport
Presentation service
End to end Session
connection oriented Transport
Network
Point to point Data link Network service
link oriented Physical
Perspectives on the OSI architecture
Question 2. Protocols?
Both OSI and the TCP/IP protocol suite deal with communications among
hetrnogenerous computers
Both are based on the concept of protocol and have many similarities
TCP/IP protocol architecture
TCP: Transmission Control Protocol
IP: Internet Protocol
- The TCP/IP protocol architecture is based on a view of communication
that involves three agents: processes, hosts, and networks
- Communication between processes takes place across networks to
which the hosts are attached
 34
- A network need only be concerned with routing data between hosts, as
long as the hosts agree how to direct data to processes
- It is natural to organize protocols into four layer
i. Network access layer: contains those protocols that provide access to
a communication network
ii. Internet layer consists of the procedures required to allow data to
traverse multiple networks between hosts
iii. Host_host layer: containts protocol entities with the ability to deliver
data between two processes on different host computers
iv. Process/ application layer: contains protocols for resource sharing and
remote access
Operation of TCP/IP

Application Application
TCP TCP
O IP O IP
S S
Network access Network access
protocol 1 protocol 2

IP
Network 1 NAP 1 Network 2
Netwo
NAP2

Communications using the TCP/ IP protocol architecture

NAP: Network Access Points
- IP is implemented in all of the end systems it keeps track of blocks of
data to ansure that all are dilivered veliably to the appropriate
application
- For successful communication, every entity in the over all sys must
have a unique address, two level of addressing are needed
 Global Internet Address(for communication)
 Ports(for service)

Try your best, you will get the best!

 35

Contents

BOOK I: Computer system fundamentals.

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER..................................................2

CHAPTER 2 MICROPROCESSOR.....................................................................3

CHAPTER 3 BATCH/ ONLINE AND REAL TIME PROCESSING SYSTEM.............4

CHAPTER 4 PRINTERS AND TERMINALS........................................................5

CHAPTER 5 DATA STORAGE MEDIA...............................................................7

CHAPTER 7 COMPUTER FILES........................................................................9

CHAPTER 8 DIRECT ACCESS FILE ORGANIZATION AND STRUCTURES........10

CHAPTER 11 INTRODUCTION TO ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE.........................12

CHAPTER 12 EXPERT SYSTEMS.....................................................................12

 36
BOOK II: Computer systems architecture.

CHAPTER 1 NUMBER BASES........................................................................13

CHAPTER 2 NUMBER BASES........................................................................13

CHAPTER 3 TYPES OF INSTRUCTION AND ADDRESSING.............................16

CHAPTER 4 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES....................................................18

CHAPTER 6 TRANSLATORS..........................................................................20

CHAPTER 7 SOFTWARE...............................................................................21

CHAPTER 8 MEMORY MANAGEMENT...........................................................23

CHAPTER 9 NETWORKING...........................................................................23

CHAPTER 10 DATA COMMUNICATION...........................................................26

CHAPTER 11 DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING......................................................27

CHAPTER 12 THE TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE...................................................28