Oscillators

• Amplifiers are based on feedback where output voltage is added to the input.
αvout

vin vout
add A0 sample
vin + αvout αvout

• The effective gain A is:

v out A0
A = ---------
- = -----------------------
-
v in ( 1 – A0 α )

• If αA0 is negative there is a normal amplifier:

A0
A = ------------------------ < A 0
( 1 – A0 α )

• If αA0 is near 1:
A0
A = ------------------------ ⇒ ∞
( 1 – A0 α )

This will give oscillations

There are also oscillations for αA0 > 1.

LABORATORY ELECTRONICS II 1 of 22
Signal Phase
• Positive feedback must be in phase to compensate for energy lost on each oscillation.
• The low pass filter provides a phase shift that depends on the frequency.
i 1 ⁄ jωC 1 – jωRC
A = -------------------------------- = ------------------------------
vC ( 1 ⁄ jωC ) + R 1+ω R C
2 2 2
R
v0 C

• The phase can be expressed in terms of the complex impedance.

1
B = ------------------------------
2 2 2
1+ω R C
φ
– j ωRC
jC = ------------------------------
2 2 2
2
B +C
2 1+ω R C
– ω RC
φ = atan --------------- = atan ( – ω RC )
1
• The phase depends on the frequency:
At high frequency, φ -> −90
At ω = 1/RC, φ = −45
At low frequency, φ -> 0

LABORATORY ELECTRONICS II 2 of 22
Wien Bridge Oscillator
• The Wien bridge oscillator uses positive feedback to
get a phase shift on an RC filter. vinv
50 kΩ − vout
• The positive feedback can be calculated from the RC vnon
+
filters.
R C
1 + jωRC C R
Z RCser = 1 ⁄ ( jωC ) + R = -----------------------
jωC
R ⁄ jωC R
Z RCpar = -------------------------------- = -----------------------
1 ⁄ ( jωC ) + R 1 + jωRC

• The RC networks provide a voltage divider for the non-inverting input.

Z RCpar 1
v non = ------------------------------------------ v out = -------------------------------------------------------- v out
Z RCpar + Z RCser jωRC + 1 ⁄ ( jωRC ) + 3

• The inverting input must be equal to the non-inverting input so the variable resistor voltage divider
should be set to 1/3.
• Matching terms in the complex expression is called phase cancellation.
0 = jωRC + 1 ⁄ ( jωRC )

ω = 1 ⁄ RC

• The frequency ω is the point of stable oscillations.

LABORATORY ELECTRONICS II 3 of 22
Self-Regulating Feedback
• It is very difficult to get the oscillator feedback set to exactly 1/3.
• The Wien bridge oscillator could be better with a
resistance on the inverting input that varies with 470 Ω vinv
current, eg. a lamp. − vout
vnon
+

• Another solution is to use an FET as the variable R C

C R
resistor. The RC delay on the signal to the FET gate
makes the circuit resistance vary slowly compared to
the frequency of oscillation.

1 MΩ 2.2 μF

1.0 μF 10 kΩ

vinv
− vout
vnon
+

R C
C R

LABORATORY ELECTRONICS II 4 of 22
LC Oscillators
• The Colpitts oscillator uses an LC resonance to establish the oscillation.

L 1
ω = ------------------------
− vout LC 1 C 2
+ -------------------
-
C1 C1 + C2

C2

The inverting input is a parallel LC circuit (impedance divider) and the positive feedback is
through the capacitor.

• The Hartley oscillator also uses an LC resonance to establish the oscillation.

1
C ω = --------------------------------
− vout ( L 1 + L 2 )C
+
L1
L2

LABORATORY ELECTRONICS II 5 of 22
Crystal Oscillators
• A quartz crystal converts strain into voltage through piezoelectricity:
The schematic symbol for a crystal:

• There are natural crystal oscillations equivalent to an RLC circuit.

R L Cs

vout

Cm » Cs

• The crystal oscillator forms a tuned LC-feedback for the op-amp.

100 kΩ
− vout
+
10 kΩ
150 kHz

• The crystal is usually only marked with the characteristic frequency.

LABORATORY ELECTRONICS II 6 of 22
Comparator
• A comparator returns one of two values based on whether the input is greater or less than a
reference value.
• An op-amp can function directly as an analog comparator.
VCC
vin +
vout
Vref −

VEE

The logic states are vout = VCC if vin > Vref; vout = VEE if vin < Vref.
• Low-battery indicator

Vbb Vcc
R3 R2

vout
+
−
VZ
R1

Vbb is the value to be tested, VCC supplies power to the tester.

LABORATORY ELECTRONICS II 7 of 22
Schmitt Trigger
• The Schmitt trigger is a circuit with binary output that has thresholds at two different voltages
depending on the present state of the output.
• This combines analog elements with binary logic.
Vref

R2

vin −
+ vout

R3
R1

• The non-inverting input of the op-amp has a threshold which solely based on the three resistors and
Vref and vout.
v th = V ref – i 2 R 2 = v out – i 3 R 3 = i 1 R 1 = ( i 2 + i 3 )R 1
V ref v out
v th ⎛ ------ + ------ + ------⎞ = ---------- + ----------
1 1 1
⎝R R R ⎠ R R
1 2 3 2 3
For equal resistors and 5 V supply, vth=1.67 V or 3.33 V for vout = 0 V or 5 V respectively.

LABORATORY ELECTRONICS II 8 of 22
Hysteresis
• The Schmitt trigger circuit has one threshold when approaching from a low voltage state and a
different one when approaching from a high voltage state.
5V
Input 3.3 V
1.7 V

5V
Output

• The effect of having different thresholds for different directions is called hysteresis.
• A plot of the input versus output shows the hysteresis diagram.
Vout

1.7 V 3.3 V 5 V Vin

LABORATORY ELECTRONICS II 9 of 22
Relaxation Oscillator
• The relaxation oscillator uses I
an RC network on the R1
inverting input. Rf V thr = ------------------- V out
Vcap
− Vout R1 + R2
• A current flowing through Rf C +
can charge or discharge the Vthr
capacitor C with a time –t ⁄ Rf C
R2 V cap = V out – ( V thr + V out )e
constant t = RfC. R1
• The threshold for the output
shifts due to the hysteresis of
the amplifier.
• The output voltage is set at either +VCC or -VCC depending on the relative values of Vcap and Vthr,
and the period depends on Vthr/Vout.
V CC V cap

t ⎛ –T
---⎞ ⁄ ( RC )
V out ⎝ 2⎠
– V CC ----------- = V out – 3
--- V out e
2 2

V CC ⎛–T
---⎞ ⁄ ( RC )
V out 1 3 ⎝ 2⎠
--- = --- e
2 2
t
– V CC
T = 2RC ln 3 ≅ 2.2RC

LABORATORY ELECTRONICS II 10 of 22
Triangle-Wave Oscillator
• The relaxation oscillator can be modified to charge the capacitor with a constant current.
I

R R
Q1 Q2
Vcap −
C + Vout
Vthr
R1
R2 V thr = ------------------- V out = λV out
R1 R1 + R2

∫
1 It
V cap = ---- I dt = ----
C C

The JFET pair is Q1 and Q2. When the gate is more positive the JFET conducts, if the gate is more
negative it acts as a current source.
When Vout = −VCC : Q1 conducts and Q2 provides constant current.
When Vout = +VCC : Q2 conducts and Q1 provides constant current.

LABORATORY ELECTRONICS II 11 of 22
Triangle Timing
• The signal at Vcap is a ramp from −λVCC to +λVCC .
V CC V cap

t
– V CC

V CC V out

t
– V CC

• The period is
4λCV CC
T = ----------------------
I

• The triangle wave is not from Vout but instead from Vcap.

LABORATORY ELECTRONICS II 12 of 22
Monostable Multivibrator
• The monostable multivibrator, also called a one-shot, is a device with two output states that has
one stable state and another of fixed duration.
• An op-amp one-shot can be made from a relaxation oscillator.
C R

-
+ vout

vin
R2
R1

• Here the negative feedback capacitor is shorted by a diode, VC<0.6 V.

• When Vout is low the capacitor will discharge, but when Vout is high the capactitor will only charge
to 0.6 V.
V out R 1 – t ⁄ RC
- = V out + ( V D – V out ) e
------------------
R1 + R2

( V out – V D ) ( R 1 + R 2 )
t = RC log ------------------------------------------------------
V out R 2

LABORATORY ELECTRONICS II 13 of 22
One-Shot Recovery Time
• Dead time is the time when a device cannot function normally.
• The recovery time as the capacitor is charging towards 0.6 V a new trigger would need to be
sufficiently negative to permit refiring.
• With the resistor divider, this is not generally possible and no trigger is accepted during this period.
15 V
Vin

0.6 V

15 V
Vout

LABORATORY ELECTRONICS II 14 of 22
Inverter One-Shot
• A digital inverter can be used as a one-shot.
• The input pulse is altered by the high-pass filter.
Vin Vout
C
• The falling edge of the input pulse has no effect,
but the rising edge produces a pulse into the R
inverter that crosses the threshold for a time
proportional to RC.
5V
Vin

2.5 V

5V
Vout

1--- – t ⁄ RC
V0 = V0 e
2

t = RC log 2 = 0.693RC

LABORATORY ELECTRONICS II 15 of 22
Astable Multivibrator
• An astable multivibrator is a square wave generator.
• The output of a monostable multivibrator can feed back to retrigger another one-shot cycle.
V1 V2 Vout

R2
R1 C
VC
When Vout = +5, VC is charged towards ground from V2.
As the input V1 drops below the logic threshold, V2 = +5 and Vout = 0.
When Vout = 0, VC is charged towards +5 from V2.

• The system oscillates between the two states.

R 1 ≅ 10R 2

1
f ≈ ----------
R2 C

LABORATORY ELECTRONICS II 16 of 22
Integrated Circuit One-Shots
• Making a one-shot from gates leaves a design that depends on the individual component
characteristics.
• Integrated one-shots avoid component variations, and require only the external resistor and
capacitor to set RC.
+VCC

R
74LS123 C

A Q
B
Q

• A, B and X can trigger the one-shot, A with a falling edge, B and X with rising edges. X also acts
as a reset for Q.
• R and C set the time constant for the output pulse. As long as an input triggers the circuit the
output will continue to retrigger.

LABORATORY ELECTRONICS II 17 of 22
555 Timer
• One of the most important +VCC
multivibrators is the 555 timer.
• The 555 uses two internal thresholds. R 555
5 kΩ
• There are three external points, one is BAL
−
set by the external RC network, one THR +
by an external pulse, and one is used S Q
to discharge the capacitor. 5 kΩ OUT
TRG R Q
• In this configuration the 555 timer −
acts as a one-shot. +
• The input pulse starts the charging DIS
capacitor.
5 kΩ
• When the threshold is reached the C
capacitor discharges.
VCC
GND RST
TRG

2/3 VCC
THR 1/3 VCC

OUT

• The output pulse length is T = RCln3 = 1.1RC.

LABORATORY ELECTRONICS II 18 of 22
555 as an Astable Multivibrator
• The 555 can be wired as an oscillator. +VCC

R1 555
5 kΩ
BAL
−
THR + S Q
5 kΩ OUT
• The capacitor is charged is through R1 TRG R Q
R2 −
and R2. +
DIS
• The capacitor is discharged only
through R2.
C 5 kΩ
• The two states will have unequal
duration.
GND RST
2/3 VCC
THR 1/3 VCC

OUT
• The output pulse length is
T = (R1 + R2)Cln2 + R2Cln2 = 0.693(R1 + 2R2)C.

LABORATORY ELECTRONICS II 19 of 22
Duty Cycle
• The ratio of the high part of the cycle to the period is the duty cycle.
• For the 555 timer, duty cycle = (R1 + R2) / (R1 + 2R2).
• A duty cycle can be evened out by putting the output into a divide by two latch.

• A diode can make a low duty cycle 555 circuit.

DIS
R1 555
OUT Vout Th
TRG
THR Tl

C R2

• The 555 is set up as a monostable with Tl = 0.693R1C.

When the output is low the diode is off and the discharging is through the 555.
When the output is high the diode conducts and the charging is through R2.
• For R2 << R1 there will be short pulses at the period Tl.

LABORATORY ELECTRONICS II 20 of 22
Sawtooth Oscillator
• A constant current creates a linear change on the capacitor.
• There will be a triangle wave while charging but an immediate discharge.
• This circuit uses the 555 timer chip as an oscillator.
VCC
R1 555
RE
DIS
OUT Vout
TRG
THR
R2 IC
C Vcap

• The pnp transistor forms a constant current source with

⎧ ⎛ R2 ⎞ ⎫
I C = ⎨ V CC – V CC ⎜ -------------------⎟ + V BE ⎬ ⁄ R E
⎩ ⎝ R 1 + R 2⎠ ⎭
• The capacitor charges to 2/3 VCC then immediately discharges to
1/3 VCC.

LABORATORY ELECTRONICS II 21 of 22
Sawtooth Wave
• The signal at Vcap is a ramp from 1/3VCC to 2/3VCC .
2 V cap
--- V CC
3
1
--- V
3 CC
t

V CC V out

0
• The period is
CV CC
T = ---------------
3I C

• A buffer at Vcap is needed to drive other circuits.

LABORATORY ELECTRONICS II 22 of 22