Journal of Dental Research

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Structure and Properties of Gold Foil and Mat Gold

Jean Turnbaugh Hodson
J DENT RES 1963 42: 575
DOI: 10.1177/00220345630420020401

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Structure and Properties of Gold Foil and Mat Gold
JEAN TURNBAUGH HODSON
Department of Operative Dentistry, University of Washington,
School of Dentistry, Seattle, Washington

A previous study on hardness has led to microscopic examination of the underlying

structures of compacted gold foil and mat gold, whereby more has been learned about
the porosity first revealed by the microhardness indentations.' Emphasis was placed
on the physical and structural properties of the gold rather than on details of compac-
tion. The findings contribute to a better understanding of the mechanics and physical
properties involved in the compaction of gold foil and mat gold.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Different forms of the gold materials were studied under the metallurgical micro-
scope. Single sheets of No. 4 gold foil* and samples of uncondensed mat goldt were
cemented on the flat surface of preformed resin mounts for convenient examinations.
In addition, large pellets of the gold foil and small samples of the mat gold were
annealed and pressed at 3,000 psi in the metallurgical mounting press.
Solid gold specimens were prepared by melting new gold foil and mat gold on an
unused refractory firing tray in the electric furnace. The buttons were cooled in air to
room temperature and mounted in resinT at 3000 F. and 3,000 psi in the metallurgical
mounting press.
The compacted specimens from the hardness test had been prepared under pneu-
matic condensation, or hand malleting, in rectangular cavities measuring approxi-
mately 2 mm. in width by 3.5 mm. in length and 1.5 mm. in depth, and cut by hand in
clear methyl methacrylate resin.: Both the compacted- and the melted-gold specimens
were leveled, smoothed, and etched with aqua regia. Some of the compacted specimens
were also ground perpendicular to this surface for cross-section examination.
RESULTS
Single sheets of gold foil did not show grain structure when etched, although both
aqua regia and 10 per cent potassium cyanide with ammonium persulfate were tried.
When rolled by hand into pellets, the foil formed loose, soft folds. Some of the outer
folds were melted when the pellet was heated in the alcohol flame, causing the foil to
wrinkle, thicken, and form small droplets of melted gold (Fig. 1).

Presented before the Dental Materials Group at the IADR meeting in Boston, March, 1961 (J. T.
Hodson, J. dent. Res., 40:764, 1961 [abstract]).
Received for publication February 8, 1962.
* Morgan, Hastings & Co., Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania.
t Williams Gold Refining Co., Buffalo, New York.
$ Lucite, Du Pont de Nemours and Co., Wilmington, Delaware.
575

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Fic. 1 (upper left) .--Melted gold droplet in overheated gold-foil pellet. (Orig. mag. X 150.)
Fiu,. 2 (upper) r-ight).-Fkolds in a cohesive gold-foil pellet pressed at 3,000 psi. (Orig. mag. X 160.)
Flu;. 3 (lowei lrft).-Condenser nib imprints in a polished and etched specimen of compacted gold
foil. (Ori-. mag. X 1 5° )
Fi(. 4 (Iowce;ei, ight).-Condenser -nib imprints in a cross-section of the specimen of compacted gold
foil, with a lateral vieix of the imprints and layers of foil. (Orig. mag. X 50.)

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Vool. 42, No. 2 STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF FOIL AND MAT GOLD 577
Boundaries between the folds of a properly annealed pellet were still distinguish-
able after being pressed at 3,000 psi (Fig. 2). Under impact, however, the foil welded
into dense layers beneath the condenser nib in compacted specimens (Fig. 3), but
cross-section views showed that the foil was more loosely packed in other areas (Fig.
4). Another gold-foil specimen was compacted into a two-part mold, from which it
was removed and subjected to 3,000 psi in an attempt to eliminate microscopic poros-
ity. Although the pressure was applied slowly, no further compaction was achieved,
and the specimen split (Fig. 5).
Uncondensed mat gold was composed of a mass of loosely arranged dendritic struc-
tures and broken crystal fibers (Fig. 6). When a sample was pressed at 3,000 psi, most
of the spaces were filled in, but the shapes of individual structures were retained (Fig.
7). Welding of the crystals into solid gold occurred only under direct impact of the
condenser (Fig. 8). In cross-section, compacted specimens contained layers of dense
gold, broken fibers, and voids (Fig. 9).
Grain boundaries and etch pits were sharply defined in the solid specimens of gold
melted in the electric furnace (Fig. 10). The orientation of the individual grains of the
gold was shown by the etched facets, which corresponded to the crystallographic planes
of closest packing in the face-centered cubic structure. The facets or etch pits in indi-
vidual grains were either triangular or rectangular in shape, depending on whether
corners or faces of the cube structure were lying in the plane of the specimen. Grains
and grain boundaries were much smaller in size around a gas bubble located near the
periphery of the specimen (Fig. 1 1).
DISCUSSION
Much can be gained in understanding the phenomena associated with the dental use
of gold foil and mat gold by considering the structure and properties of pure gold.
Gold foils have such high purity that they have been used in studies on the structure of
gold.4 Although the etched surface of single sheets of the No. 4 gold foil suggested that
some grain growth might have occurred during manufacture, it had apparently been
distorted by the cold-working done in thinning the foil.5 The mat gold, on the other
hand, was entirely crystalline and had the dendritic structure resulting when metals
are electrodeposited from solution and the atoms are free to orient themselves during
crystal growth. The length of the dendrites indicated that crystal development had
occurred in the direction of current flow, and the four side branches which formed at
right angles to one another showed the cubic structure (Fig. 6). Typical structures of
crystal grains and boundaries were formed in the melted specimens during cooling.
Evidence of the well-organized structure of the individual crystals was seen in the
symmetrical shape of the etch pits (Fig. 10).
Because of the important relationship between structure and properties, it may be
well to review a few of the basic concepts. The crystal structure of pure gold has been
established as face-centered cubic. This means it has a co-ordination number of 12 and
implies that each atom has 12 near and equidistant neighboring atoms, all packed to-
gether in the closest possible way. The close-packed arrangement of atoms with diam-
eters of 2.88 X 10-8 cm. into a lattice parameter of 4.07 X 10-8 cm., at 250 C.,
accounts for the high atomic weight and density of gold. A single crystal of gold con-

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 I

Fie. 5 (upper left). Fissure and porosity in the compacted gold-foil specimen pressed at 3,000 psi.
(Orig,. mag X 160.)
FIG. 6 (upper right). J)endritic crystals of mat gold. Largest dendrites were approximately 0.15 mm.
in length. (Orig. mag. X 150.)
FIG. 7 (lower left). Dendrite in mat gold pressed at 3,000 psi. (Orig. mag. X150.)
FIG. 8 (lower right).-Foot condenser imprints in a polished and etched specimen of compacted mat
gold. (Orig. mag. X 150.)
578

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 FIG. 9 (upper left).-Condenser imprint in a cross-section of the specimen of compacted mat gold.
(Orig. mag. X150.)
FIG. 10 (upper right).-Triangular etch pits in grains and grain boundary of a 3-mm. diameter speci-
men of melted gold foil. (Orig. mag. X 150.)
FIG. 1 1 (lower) .-Gas bubble and smaller grains located near the periphery of the melted gold speci-
men. The diameter of the bubble was approximately 0.1 mm. (Orig. mag. X 150.)

579

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580 HODSON J. dent. Res. March-A pril 1963
sists of an assembly of atoms held together in the space lattice by the attraction of
intervening valence electrons.
Although slight cohesion is provided through van der Waals6 attraction between
outermost electrons, the principal bonding of the solid structure results from the
attraction between the negatively charged valence electrons and the positively charged
atoms. The valence electrons in the crystal exist as clouds or swarms, analogous to an
electron gas that fills the volume not occupied by the positively charged atoms. The
electron clouds overlap considerably in gold, and polarization occurs when the electrons
in one atom move in sympathy or harmony with those in another atom. The positive
charge on each atom is just sufficient to keep the crystal electrically neutral. In a
polycrystalline mass, essentially the same effect is present, and all the atoms and
electrons belong to one cohesive whole.
The major cohesion in the gold-foil and mat-gold specimens resulted from metallic
bonding between overlapped particles of gold under the pressure welding of compac-
tion. Although solid gold was produced in the depressions created by the serrations on
the face of the condenser, the possibility of achieving an over-all solid density was off-
set by the increase in resistance to deformation as the layers became thicker and the
gold was strain-hardened. In addition, porosity was produced by incomplete contact
between particles lying outside the area covered by the condenser nib (Figs. 3, 4, 8,
and 9). Localized welding of folds and particles around intervening air spaces formed
a structural bracing against further compaction. The use of non-cohesive gold foil was
considered, but experience proved that, although it remained pliable during compac-
tion, the final product was more porous.
The lattice mechanisms associated with malleability are plastic flow and slip. In
simple slip, the blocks of atoms in a crystal move an integral number of atomic spac-
ings along planes of identical orientation. Such planes were seen in the unstressed etch
pits of single grains in the melted-gold specimens (Fig. 10). These grains each had
four (111) planes on which slip preferentially could have occurred in three <101>
directions, making 12 slip systems in all. Although the differently oriented grains would
require different stresses, the stresses resolved on the slip plane and in the slip direction
would be the same. The critical resolved shear stress for starting slip in a single crystal
of gold at 20° C. has been reported at 130 pSi.7 Slip is a manifestation of plasticity
and the flow of gold under force. It was the principal structural change that occurred
in the gold foil and mat gold during compaction.
The gold foil and mat gold were malleable because deformation on the slip systems
could be effected to a great degree before internal fracture developed. However, many
of the small dendritic mat-gold crystals were broken during compaction, and the strain-
hardened gold-foil specimen split in the unsuccessful attempt to produce plastic flow
after compaction (Fig. 5). Dislocations in the arrangement of atoms were responsible
for the ease of deformation during compaction, but when these dislocations could no
longer move easily, the result was strain-hardening and a condition of high internal
energy. Under strain-hardening, the strength properties were increased, and plastic
properties were decreased. Brittle fracture occurred when the structure was so dis-
organized and strain-hardened that further slip became impossible.
Strain-hardening and disorganization also occur at the surface of metals when they
are polished. In gold, it has been shown by electron diffraction that the top 20-40 A

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 Vol. 42, No. 2 STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF FOIL AND MAT GOLD 581
making up the Beilby layer were either pseudo-liquid or else composed of non-oriented
crystals smaller than 15 A.8 The thickness of the polished surface layer in the com-
pacted gold-foil and mat-gold specimens was found to be quite uniform except in areas
of extensive porosity. In all cases, an obvious smearing of the surface gold had either
filled in small porosities at the surface or bridged them over. Measurements on photo-
graphic prints gave an average thickness of approximately 15 / for the polished surface
layer on cross-section specimens of compacted gold foil and mat gold.
Measurements on the mechanical properties associated with deformation were
available for 99.99+ gold.9 The tensile strength of wrought, annealed gold has been
measured at 19,000 psi, but a 60 per cent reduction in thickness, through cold work,
increased it to 32,000 psi. The yield strength increased from practically 0 to 30,000
psi, under 60 per cent reduction, and the Brinell hardness measurement increased from
25 to 58. The amount of elongation in 2 inches decreased from 45 to 4 per cent. These
figures represent the effect of strain-hardening on the plasticity of gold and are appli-
cable to the compaction of gold foil. The new foil had soft working qualities because
the strains from beating had been relieved by annealing during manufacture. Further
annealing was unnecessary, but the gold-foil pellets were heated as a cleansing opera-
tion to drive off volatile, adsorbed substances.
In respect to annealing, gold is like most other metals in which softness is usually
produced by recrystallization at low temperatures. The approximate recrystallization
temperature for severely worked gold has been reported at 2000 C.T (390 F.).
Annealing the gold materials during compaction in the cavity would be desirable to
increase malleability and achieve greater density, but this is prevented by physiologic
factors in the mouth, and the compacted gold remains strained and hardened, but in a
porous condition.
Aside from the physical properties of the gold, the compaction of the specimens de-
pended on the size, shape, and distribution of particles, the size of the cavity and con-
denser point, and the dynamics of the compacting system.'0 The microscopic size of
the mat-gold crystallites and the thinness of the foil facilitated pressure-welding under
forces tolerated by the dental tissues. Working within these limitations, successful
dental restorations have been produced by empirical methods.

SUMMARY
Different forms of gold foil, mat gold, and solid gold were studied under the micro-
scope. Selected specimens were subjected to heat and pressure to produce structural
changes for comparison with those seen in compacted specimens of gold foil and mat
gold. Explanations for the properties of the structures seen under the microscope were
taken from the literature and presented in conjunction with photomicrographs that
recorded the changes. Evidence of the cubic structure of gold was seen in the etch pits
and dendritic crystals of melted gold and mat gold, but none was found in the gold
foil. Cohesion was explained in terms of metallic bonding, and the lack of uniform
compaction was seen to be responsible for porosity, density, and non-uniform hardness
in the compacted specimens. Hardness was discussed in relation to plastic flow, slip,
deformation, and strain. Evidence of plastic flow was seen in the polished layer at the
surface of prepared specimens. Fracture was induced artificially in a gold-foil speci-

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582 HODSON J. dent. Res. March-April 1963
men, but it occurred naturally between the small mat-gold crystallites. In the com-
pacted specimens, plastic flow was limited to short distances under the condenser nib.
The final density was determined by the cohesive and strain-hardening properties of
the gold materials, the size and shape of the condenser nib and cavity, and the direc-
tion and magnitude of force.
I wish to thank Dr. Earl C. Roberts, professor of metallurgical engineering, for reviewing this paper.

REFERENCES
1. HODSON, J. T., and STIBBS, G. D. Structural Density of Compacted Gold Foil and Mat Gold,
J. dent. Res., 41:339-44, 1962, and 39:765, 1960 (abstract).
2. STIBBS, G. D. Appraisal of the Gold Foil Restoration, J. Amer. Acad. Gold Foil Operators, 2:20-
30, 1959.
3. HODSON, J. T. Structure and Properties of Gold Foil and Mat Gold, J. dent. Res., 40:764, 1961
(abstract).
4. FINCH, G. I., QuARRELL, A. G., and WILMER, H. Electron Diffraction and Surface Structure, Trans.
Faraday Soc., 31:1051-80, 1935.
5. PETERSON, H. W. A Study of the Annealing Temperature of Gold Foil, Northw. Univ. Bull. dent.
Res., 41:9-15, 1941.
6. HUME-Rr -(ERY, W., and RAYNER, G. V. The Structure of Metals and Alloys, p. 83. 3d ed. London:
Institute Oc Metals, 1956.
7. WILLIAMS, R. S., and HOMERBERG, V. 0. Principles of Metallography, pp. 52 and 72. 5th ed. New
York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1948.
8. LEES, C. S. The Structure of Polished Metal Surfaces, Trans. Faraday Soc., 31:1102-6, 1935.
9. ROESER, W. F. Gold (99.99 + Au), Metals Handbook, pp. 1116-17. Metals Park: American So-
ciety for Metals, 1948.
10. HODSON, J. T. Microstructure of Gold Foil and Mat Gold, Dent. Progr., 2:55-58, 1961.

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