International Management Review Vol. 4 No.

1 2008

Burnout among Employees of a Multinational Corporation in Malaysia

and Pakistan: An Empirical Examination
Muhammad Jamal
Department of Management, John Molson School of Business
Concordia University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3G 1M8

[Abstract] This study examined the relationship of job stress with burnout, job satisfaction and
health problems among employees working in a large North American-based multinational
corporation in Malaysia (N = 305) and Pakistan (N = 325). Data were collected from
employees by means of a structured questionnaire about overall job stress, job stressors, work
overload, ambiguity, conflict, resource inadequacy, and three dependent variables. Bivariate
multiple regression and hierarchical multiple regression analyses were used to test the nature
of the relationship between the measures of job stress and the dependent variables. In both
countries, significant relationships were found between the measures of job stress and burnout,
job satisfaction, and health problems. Overall, 90 percent of comparisons supported the linear
relationship between the measures of job stress and the dependent variables. Only in 10
percent of instances was the u-shaped/curvilinear relationship between the measures of job
stress and dependent variables supported. Implications of the findings are discussed for future
cross- cultural research.
[keywords] Employee; multinational corporation; Malaysia; Pakistan

Introduction
The present study examined the relationship of job stress and job stressors with burnout
among employees working in a large multinational corporation in Malaysia (N = 305) and
Pakistan (N = 325). A number of reviews of occupational mental health have highlighted the
importance of understanding stress and burnout relationship for the well-being of the
employees and employing organization (Baba, Jamal and Tourigny, 1998; Beehr, 1998;
Lepine, Podsakoff, and Lepine, 2005; Maslach, 2003). Job stress has been labelled as one of
the most serious occupational hazards of modern time in industrialized countries (Dollard and
Winefield, 1996; Jamal, 2005). Work-related stress affects employee health with 50-70
percent of diseases being psychosomatic or stress-related in nature (Jamal and Badawi, 1993;
Daley and Parfitt, 1996). Moreover, the reported cost of work-related stress has been
increasing quite rapidly in industrialized countries (Siu and Cooper, 1998). In the United
States, the cost of stress and stress-related problems to employers has been estimated at
approximately $150 billion annually (Donatelle and Hawkins, 1989). In the United Kingdom,
the cost to industry associated with replacing personnel who underperform due to stress is
estimated to be approximately $4500 million (Cox, Leather, and Cox, 1990; Siu and Cooper,
1998).

Burnout, on the other hand, has also been recognized as an occupational hazard with people-
oriented professions, such as health care, human services and education (Maslach, 2003). It
was first identified in the mid-1970’s and its main features included emotional exhaustion,
feelings of frustration, anger and cynicism, and a sense of ineffectiveness and failure. The
experience impairs both personal and social functioning (Maslach and Goldberg, 1998). The

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present study was guided by Maslach’s General Model of Burnout in which job stress and
stressors, such as work overload, ambiguity, conflict, and resource inadequacy, lead to
feelings of burnout that, in turn, lead to job dissatisfaction and health problems (Maslach,
2003; Maslach, Schaufeli and Leiter, 2001).

Both job stress and burnout constructs have been developed and empirically tested primarily
in developed industrialized countries (Glazer and Beehr, 2005; Jamal, 1999). Their portability
and usefulness to developing countries have rarely been tested despite repeated suggestions to
do so (Carr and Pudelko, 2006; Jamal, 2005). In this respect, the present research contributes
to cross-cultural management literature by examining the nature of the relationship between
job stress and burnout among employees working in a North American-based multinational
company in two developing countries, Malaysia and Pakistan. Our choice of Malaysia and
Pakistan as research settings was based not only on practical considerations but also on the
suggested empirical findings that these two countries differ from the western countries (i.e.,
Australia, Canada, United Kingdom, United States) on the most important dimension of
national culture, individualism, and collectivism (Hofstede, 2001; Noordin, Williams and
Zimmer, 2002; Triandis, 2004). While most of the western countries, in general, tend to be
high on individualism and low on collectivism, countries like Malaysia, Pakistan and China
tend to be high on collectivism and low on individualism (Hofstede, 2001; Jamal, 2005).

Cross cultural management researchers have long suggested that the work attitudes and
behavior of people in collectivist cultures are different from the work attitude and behavior of
people in individualistic cultures (Carpenter, 2000; Hoppe, 2004; Triandis and Suh, 2002). In
collectivistic cultures, the emphasis is belonging to an in-group. In return for their loyalty to
different types of groupings, individuals are provided with security and protection by these
groups when things are difficult and unpleasant, like situations of high job stress. In contrast,
in individualistic cultures, individuals are supposed to take care of themselves. The emphasis
in this culture is on individual initiative and achievement (Noordin, Williams and Zimmer,
2002). Thus, it may be possible that individuals from individualistic and collectivistic cultures
would respond differently when facing chronic job stress. The present study tends to provide
some empirical evidence from two collectivistic cultures with regard to employees’ emotional
and physical health when faced with chronic job stress and job stressors like work overload,
ambiguity, conflict, and resource inadequacy.

Job stress can be conceptualized as an individual’s reactions to work environment

characteristics that appear emotionally and physically threatening to the individual (Jamal,
1984). It generally shows a poor imbalance between the individual’s abilities/experiences and
the work environment in which excessive demands are regularly put on the individual, or the
individual is not fully equipped to handle a particular situation (Jamal, 1984; 1999). Implicit
in this conceptualization of stress is the chronic nature of stress, which implies that chronic
stress occurs when the individual does not fully recover between work days and has lasting
physiological strain that may result in stress-related diseases or end-organ dysfunction (Rick,
Acton and Payne, 1988; Jamal, 2005). In contrast, acute stress is conceptualized in terms of
short, temporary situations, such as taking exams, intensive employment interviews, or
dealing with short-lived extraordinary work levels, such as those faced by sales people with
the Christmas and Eid shopping or accountants at the end of the fiscal year and income tax

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filing season (Clausky and Vaux, 1997; Jamal, 1999). Studies that use the acute stress
perspective generally assess changes from and return to baseline states, whereas studies that
employ the chronic stress perspective usually rely upon self-reporting of psychological states
and a range of symptoms assumed to be related to the enduring characteristics of particular
jobs or occupations (Baba, Jamal and Tourigny, 1998; Rick, Acton and Payne, 1988).

In this two-nation study, the person-environment fit model of chronic job stress was employed.
However, other researchers have used different conceptualizations of stress in their
investigations, and these are reported elsewhere (Baba, Jamal and Tourigny, 1998; Hart and
Cooper, 2002). Our choice of the person-environment fit model was based on its applicability
to both acute and chronic stress, and its popularity in the behavioral sciences as well as its
solid empirical support (Hart and Cooper, 2002). Notwithstanding the conceptual differences,
job stress usually results in disruption of the individual’s psychological and physiological
homeostasis, forcing deviations from normal functioning in interactions with job stress and
the general work environment. In the face of chronic job stress, an individual’s deviation
from normal functioning is more likely to move toward the dysfunctional side (Jamal, 1984;
2005). This happens because, by nature, most employees are averse to chronic job stress that
creates an uncomfortable situation in the workplace (Beehr, 1998; Boswell, Olson-Buchanan
and Lepine, 2004; Hart and Cooper, 2002; Lepine, Podsakoff and Lepine, 2005).

As mentioned earlier, the present study was conducted among the employees of a
multinational company in two developing countries: Malaysia and Pakistan. Although the job
stress and burnout have been the focus of a large number of empirical studies in developed
countries, only a limited number of studies have been conducted in developing countries
(Jamal, 1999; 2005; Xie, 1996). Moreover, the paucity of empirical studies involving
employees from two developing countries working under the same management system is
even more acute (Cooper and Hensman, 1990; Hofstede, 2001). In this respect, the present
study, in a modest way, brings evidence of the portability of Western management concepts to
two collectivist cultures, thus helping us to understand the affect of recent globalization on
employees in developing countries (Al-Roubaie, 2002). Maslach’s General Model of Burnout
was used as a theoretical guideline for this study (Maslach, Schaufeli and Leiter, 2001).
Overall job stress and the four job stressors, work overload, ambiguity, conflict, and resource
inadequacy, were used as independent variables. Burnout, job satisfaction, and health
problems were used as dependent variables.

In light of previous empirical studies on job stress and employee well-being (Glazer and
Beehr, 2005; Harrison, Newman and Roth, 2006), as well as with the Maslach General Model
of Burnout (Maslach, Schaufeli and Leiter, 2001), a number of hypotheses were developed
and tested in this cross-cultural study.

Hypothesis 1: Overall job stress and the job stressors work overload, ambiguity, conflict, and
resource inadequacy will be positively related to burnout.

Hypothesis 2: Overall job stress and the job stressors work overload, ambiguity, conflict, and
resource inadequacy will be negatively related to job satisfaction.

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Hypothesis 3: Overall job stress and the job stressors work overload, ambiguity, conflict, and
resource inadequacy will be positively related to health problems.

Methods
Research Setting
The present study was conducted among the employees of a large North American-owned
multinational corporation in two countries: Malaysia and Pakistan. In both countries, the
subsidiary of the multinational was located in a large metropolitan city having several million
people and some world class universities. In both locations, the multinational employed more
than 1000 employees.

Procedures
In both countries, data were collected by means of a structured questionnaire. With the help
of the management, copies of the questionnaire were given to potential respondents with their
pay checks, with the instructions to mail back the completed questionnaire directly to the
researcher at the university address. In the Malaysian sample, approximately 450
questionnaires were given to randomly selected employees. With two follow-ups, 305
completed questionnaires were returned, yielding a response rate of 68 percent. In the
Pakistani sample, approximately 450 questionnaires were given to randomly selected
employees. With two reminders, 325 completed questionnaires were returned, yielding a
response rate of 72 percent.

Sample Characteristics
In the Malaysian sample, the majority of respondents were male (78 percent) and were
married (82 percent). The average respondent was 38 years of age, had 15 years of education,
had 11 years of seniority in the company, and had 4 dependants to support. In the Pakistani
sample, the majority of respondents were male (88 percent) and were married (86 percent).
The average respondent was 43 years of age, had 14 years of formal education and had 6
dependants to support. In both samples, respondents were quite similar to all employees in
the company with regard to a number of background and socio-demographic variables.

Measures
In both countries, the same standardized scales were employed to assess the study’s variables,
recommended for cross-cultural research (Schaffer and Riordan, 2003). Descriptions of the
scales are presented below.

Job Stress: Job stress was assessed with the 13-item scale developed by Parker and DeCotiis
(1983). This is a Likert-type scale with 1-5 response options, 1 indicating a strong agreement
and 5 indicating a strong disagreement with the item. This scale is frequently used to tap
overall job stress and has good psychometric properties (Baba, Jamal and Tourigny, 1998).

Job Stressors: The job stressors work overload, ambiguity, conflict and resource inadequacy
were assessed with the Michigan job-related tension scale (Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek and
Rosenthal, 1964). This scale consists of 15 Likert-type items with scale points varying from
“strongly agree” to “strongly disagree.” The 15 items of scale were divided into well
accepted four job stressors: work overload, ambiguity, conflict, and resource inadequacy. A

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higher score on a job stressor indicated a higher degree stress condition. This scale has been
widely used to assess various job stressors and has good psychometric properties (Glazer and
Beehr, 2005; Jamal, 1999).

Burnout: Burnout was assessed with the 22-item Maslach Burnout Inventory (Maslach and
Jackson, 1981). The scale measures employees’ burnout in terms of three dimensions:
emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and lack of accomplishment. This is a Likert-type
scale with response options from strongly agree to strongly disagree. A higher score on this
scale indicated a higher degree of burnout. This scale has been widely used in behavioral and
health sciences and has excellent psychometric properties in cross-cultural research (Jamal,
2005).

Job Satisfaction: Job satisfaction was assessed with the Job Description Index (JDI)
developed by Smith, Kendall and Hulin (1985). The JDI assesses job satisfaction in five areas:
nature of work (17 items), pay (7 items), coworkers (18 items), supervision (18 items), and
promotion opportunities (12 items). The JDI is scored on a 3-point scale consisting of y = yes
(3), n = no (1) and ? = undecided (2) as possible responses. A higher score on this scale
indicated a higher degree of job satisfaction. The JDI is considered to be one of the most
thoroughly researched and developed measure of its kind, and it has maintained excellent
factorial clarity and psychometric soundness over the years (Roznowski, 1989).

Health Problems Psychosomatic health problems were assessed by adopting measures from
Michigan studies of workers health (Jamal, 1997). Health problems examined in the present
study included headaches, upset stomach, gas, and bloated feelings, trouble getting to sleep,
loss of appetite, changes in bowel movements, early morning sickness, dizziness during the
day, nervousness or shakiness inside, and inability to relax. Each health problem has 1-5
response options, 1 representing having to face the problem less than once in a month and 5
representing having to face the problem several times a week. Individuals’ responses on
various health problems were combined to create the index of health problems. A higher
score on this index indicated a higher degree of health problems. This scale is frequently used
in behavioral sciences and has excellent psychometric properties (Jamal, 2005; Xie, 1996).

Results
The means, standard deviations, and reliability coefficients of all variables are presented in
Table 1. Reliabilities varied from .73 (work conflict) to .90 (job satisfaction) in the Malaysian
sample. In the Pakistani sample, reliabilities varied from .75 (work conflict) to .92 (job
satisfaction). In both countries, reliabilities were judged to be sufficient for survey-type
research.

Table 1. Means, Standard deviations and reliability coefficients for Malaysian (M) and Pakistani (P)
samples
Variable Sample No. of Items M SD Alpha Reliability

(1) Overall Job (M) 13 2.11 1.03 .86

Stress (P) 13 2.04 1.09 .89

(2) Work (M) 4 2.29 1.23 .79

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Overload (P) 4 2.21 0.93 .82

(3) Work (M) 4 2.18 0.87 .85

Ambiguity (P) 4 2.29 0.59 .80

(4) Work Conflict (M) 3 2.25 1.01 .73

(P) 3 2.10 0.93 .75

(5) Resource (M) 4 2.53 0.55 .81

Inadequacy (P) 4 2.61 0.44 .88

(6) Burnout (M) 22 2.25 0.59 .85

(P) 22 2.38 0.88 .83

(7) Job (M) 72 2.21 0.44 .90

Satisfaction (P) 72 2.13 0.27 .92

(8) Health (M) 10 1.98 1.11 .88

Problems (P) 10 2.11 1.03 .90

Inter-correlations among study’s variables were computed and are presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Inter-correlations among study’s variables for Malaysian (M) and Pakistani (P) employees

Variables Sample (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

(1) Overall Job Stress (M)a --

(P)b --

(2) Work Overload (M) .44 --

(P) .39 --

(3) Work Ambiguity (M) .32 .48 --

(P) .33 .41 --

(4) Work Conflict (M) .39 .43 .33 --

(P) .42 .44 .42 --

(5) Resource (M) .36 .40 .32 .27 --

Inadequacy (P) .39 .43 .38 .44 --

(6) Burnout (M) .44 .46 .36 .38 .35 --

(P) .35 .41 .29 .33 .23 --

(7) Job Satisfaction (M) -.38 -.29 -.27 -.28 -.44 -.44 --
(P) -.29 -.22 .25 -.27 -.36 -.36 --

(8) Health Problems (M) .48 .28 .23 .27 .24 .36 -.24 --
(P) .39 .19 .27 .16 .27 .39 -.18 --
a. N = 305, r = .09, p < .05, r = .14, p < .01
b. N = 326: r = .08, p < .05, r = .13, p < .01

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Overall job stress was moderately correlated with 4 job stressors and the three dependent
variables in both countries. Similarly, 4 job stressors were moderately correlated with each
other, as well as with burnout, job satisfaction, and health problems in both countries.
However, it should be noted that in both countries the relationship of overall job stress and 4
job stressors with dependent variables are significant and are in the predicted direction.

It has been suggested by some researchers that the relationship of job stress with job
performance and other outcomes might not be a linear one but could be a u-shaped/curvilinear
one (Jamal, 1985; Muse, Harris and Field, 2003; Sturman, 2003). For this reason, in the
present study, both linear and curvilinear tests were performed. Bivariate multiple regression
between each independent variable and each dependent variable was computed as evidence of
the linear relationship. A significant R indicated that a linear relationship is supported
between an independent and dependent variables. Hierarchical multiple regression was
performed to test the u-shaped/curvilinear relationship between the measures of job stress and
outcome variables (Cohen and Cohen, 1985). The procedure requires that a quadratic term
for the independent variables be added and the increment in R2 due to this term be tested with
the appropriate formula (SPSS). Both multiple regressions and hierarchical regressions were
performed after controlling for age, gender, education, marital status, and seniority. The
results from multiple regressions r’s and curvilinear r’s are presented in Table 3 for the
Malaysian sample.

Table 3. R and R2 from multiple regression and from curvilinear coefficient between job stressors and
dependent variables for Malaysian employees
R from Multiple R from
Job Stressor Dependent Regression R2 Curvilinear R2
Variable Coefficient
(1) Overall Job Burnout .42a .46 .211
.176
Stress: Job Satisfaction .35 .36 .129
.122
Health .44 .46 .211
.193
Problems
(2) Work Burnout .44 .193 .47 .220
Overload: Job Satisfaction .27 .072 .29 .084
Health .26 .067 .27 .067
Problems
(3) Work Burnout .33 .108 .45 .202b
Ambiguity: Job Satisfaction .26 .067 .27 .072
Health .21 .044 .25 .062
Problems
(4) Work Conflict: Burnout .35 .122 .38 .144
Job Satisfaction .26 .067 .28 .078
Health .25 .062 .27 .072
Problems
(5) Resource Burnout .31 .096 .33 .108
Inadequacy: Job Satisfaction .39 .152 .40 .160
Health .21 .040 .22 .048
Problems
a. N = 305, r = .14, p < .01
b. The difference between the linear and the curvilinear r’s is significant (p < .05)

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In order to support the curvilinear relationship between the measures of job stress and
outcome variables, non linear r’s must be significantly higher than the linear r’s. Results
presented in Table 3 indicate that in only 1 out of 15 comparisons, nonlinear r was
significantly higher than the linear r, involving work ambiguity and burnout. Thus, it may be
said that the relationship between work ambiguity and burnout for the Malaysian employees
appeared to be monotonic nonlinear.

In sum, results presented in Table 2 and Table 3 generally support a positive linear
relationship between overall job stress and job stressors work overload, conflict, and resource
inadequacy with burnout, thus supporting hypothesis 1. Overall job stress and the job
stressors work overload, ambiguity, conflict, and resource inadequacy, were negatively
correlated with job satisfaction in a linear manner, thus clearly supporting Hypothesis 2.
Overall job stress and the job stressors work overload, ambiguity, conflict and resource
inadequacy were positively correlated with health problems, thus supporting Hypothesis 3.
Results from the linear and curvilinear analyses for the Pakistani sample are presented in
Table 4.

Table 4. R and R2 from multiple regression and from curvilinear coefficient between job stressors and
dependent variables for Pakistani employees
R from R from
Job Stressor Dependent Multiple R2 Curvilinear R2
Variable Regression Coefficient
(1) Overall Job Stress: Burnouta .33 .108 .36 .129
Job Satisfaction .27 .072 .29 .084
Health Problems .36 .129 .38 .144
(2) Work Overload: Burnout .38 .144 .41 .168
Job Satisfaction .19 .036 .22 .048
Health Problems .17 .028 .18 .032
(3) Work Ambiguity: Burnout .27 .072 .43 .184b
Job Satisfaction .22 .048 .24 .057
Health Problems .26 .067 .37 .136b
(4) Work Conflict: Burnout .31 .096 .33 .108
Job Satisfaction .25 .062 .27 .072
Health Problems .15 .022 .18 .032
(5) Resource Burnout .21 .040 .23 .052
Inadequacy: Job Satisfaction .33 .108 .34 .115
Health Problems .25 .062 .27 .072
a. N = 325, r = .13, p < .01
b.The difference between the linear and the curvilinear r’s is significant (p < .05)

Out of 15 possible comparisons between measures of job stress and outcome variables, only
in 2 instances, curvilinear r’s were significantly higher than the linear r’s. In both instances, it
involved the stressor work ambiguity with burnout and health problems, respectively. Thus, it
may be said that the relationship of work ambiguity with burnout and health problems for
Pakistani employees appeared to be significant but monotonic nonlinear. In sum, results
presented in Table 2 and Table 4 generally support a positive linear relationship between
overall job stress and job stressors work overload, conflict, and resource inadequacy with
burnout, thus supporting Hypothesis 1. Overall job stress and the job stressors work overload,
ambiguity, conflict, and resource inadequacy were negatively correlated with job satisfaction
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in a linear manner, thus clearly supporting Hypothesis 2. Overall, job stress and the job
stressors work overload, ambiguity, conflict, and resource inadequacy were positively
correlated with health problems, thus supporting Hypothesis 3.

In conclusion, in both countries, overall job stress and the four job stressors were significantly
related to burnout, job satisfaction, and health problems. Both bivariate multiple-regression
and curvilinear analyses generally supported the existence of linear relationships between the
measures of job stress and outcome variables. Only in 10 percent of instances was limited
support for the u-shaped/curvilinear relationship found in both countries.

Discussion
The results of the present study derived from employees working in a large multinational
company in Malaysia and Pakistan generally supported the relationship between the measures
of job stress and dependent variables. Overall job stress and the job stressors work overload,
ambiguity, conflict, and resource inadequacy were positively related to burnout and health
problems in both countries. Similarly, in both countries, overall job stress and the job
stressors work overload, ambiguity, conflict, and resource inadequacy were negatively related
to job satisfaction. The nature of the relationship between the measures of job stress and
dependent variables in both countries was found to be dominantly linear rather than u-
shaped/curvilinear. Before the findings are discussed any further, a note of caution is needed
about the limitations of this study, which might include perceptual nature of both independent
and dependent variables, a modest response rate in both countries and the cross-sectional
research design. For future research, it will be desirable to use some objective measures along
with perceptual measures and to use longitudinal research designed for greater confidence in
observed results.

The findings that overall job stress and job stressors are related to burnout and its three
dimensions are in line with the meta-analysis of burnout by Lee and Ashforth (1996). Their
result indicated that overall job stress and stressors, such as work overload, ambiguity, and
conflict, were significantly related to emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and lack of
accomplishment in studies they included in their meta-analysis. Almost all of the studies
included in Lee and Ashforth’s (1996) meta-analysis were conducted in industrialized
developed countries. A number of recent studies of employees in developing countries also
tend to be supportive of the adverse effects of job stress or employee emotional well-being
(Jamal, 1999; 2002; Lu, Tseng and Cooper, 1999; Wong, Baba and Jamal, 2004). In a cross-
cultural study of employees in Canada (N=535) and China (N = 685), the job stressors work
overload, conflict, ambiguity, and resource inadequacy were significantly related to emotional
exhaustion, depersonalization, and lack of accomplishment (Jamal, 2005). Similarly, in
another study of nurses in China (N = 550), job stress was found to be significantly related to
three dimensions of burnout (Wong, Baba and Jamal, 2004). Finally, in a study of managers
in Taiwan, it was found that job stress was significantly related to mental and physical health
problems (Lu, Tseng and Cooper, 1999). Thus, the findings of the present study, along with a
few available studies from developing countries, further extend the pervasive effects of job
stress on employee emotional and physical health.

The findings that overall job stress and stressors are related to job satisfaction are consistent

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with the bulk of the studies on the topic, which have been primarily done in individualistic
developed countries (Baba, Jamal and Tourigny, 1998; Glazer and Beehr, 2005). Two recent
studies of employees in developing countries also tend to support the findings of adverse
effects of job stress on employee job satisfaction (Jamal, 1999; Jamal and Preena, 1998). In a
cross-cultural study of college teachers in Canada and Pakistan (Jamal, 1999), job stress was
found to be significantly related to satisfaction with work, pay, and supervision in the
Pakistani sample. Similarly, in another study, it was found that job stress was significantly
related to overall job satisfaction (JDI) and satisfaction with pay, coworkers, and supervision
among airline employees in an Asian developing country (Jamal and Preena, 1998). Thus, the
findings of the present study from two developing countries with collectivist cultures further
extend evidence about the negative consequences of job stress on employees’ job satisfaction.
In this respect, our findings are supportive of the convergence perspective, as opposed to the
diversion perspective in cross-cultural management research (Pudelko, Carr, Fink, and
Wentage, 2006).

In sum, the present study generally supports significant relationships between overall job
stress and the stressors work overload, ambiguity, conflict, and resource inadequacy and
burnout, job satisfaction, and health problems. The nature of the relationship between stress
and the dependent variables was overwhelmingly linear rather than u-shaped/curvilinear, as
was suggested by some researchers. Overall job stress and the job stressors assessed in the
present study were of the nature which will be affected primarily through management actions.
Therefore, it is recommended that management should invest time and resources to discover
how such stressors might be managed for the well-being of the employees and the employing
organization. As the process of globalization will become more intense in the coming years, it
will become more important that these actions reflect a cross-cultural management
perspective (Al-Roubaie, 2002).

Acknowledgements
This study was supported by grants from the Social Sciences Research Council of Canada
(410-99-0203; S00 802, 2003-2006) and Fonds pour la formation de chercheurs de l’aide à la
recherche from the Province of Quebec (99-ER-0506). The authors acknowledge the
cooperation and help of Dr. Muhammad Anwar, Mr. Farooq M. Rana, Dr. Amer Al-Roubaie,
Dr. Muhammad Ismail and many research assistants in Malaysia and Pakistan in data
collection and analysis.

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