Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Clothing and textiles have been enormously important throughout human history—so have their
materials, production tools and techniques, cultural influences, and social significance.
Textiles, defined as felt or spun fibers made into yarn and subsequently netted, looped, knit or
woven to make fabrics, appeared in the Middle East during the late stone age.[1] From ancient
times to the present day, methods of textile production have continually evolved, and the choices
of textiles available have influenced how people carried their possessions, clothed themselves,
and decorated their surroundings.[2]
Sources available for the study of the history of clothing and textiles include material remains
discovered via archaeology; representation of textiles and their manufacture in art; and
documents concerning the manufacture, acquisition, use, and trade of fabrics, tools, and finished
garments. Scholarship of textile history, especially its earlier stages, is part of material culture
studies.
Prehistoric development
Recent scientific research estimates that humans have been wearing clothing for as long as
190,000 years.[3]
The development of textile and clothing manufacture in prehistory has been the subject of a
number of scholarly studies since the late 20th century, including Prehistoric Textiles: The
Development of Cloth in the Neolithic and Bronze Ages.[5] These sources have helped to provide
a coherent history of these prehistoric developments. Evidence suggests that human beings may
have begun wearing clothing as far back as 100,000 to 500,000 years ago.[6]
Genetic analysis suggests that the human body louse, which lives in clothing, may have diverged
from the head louse some 107,000 years ago, evidence that humans began wearing clothing at
around this time.[7]
Possible sewing needles have been dated to around 40,000 years ago.[8] The earliest definite
examples of needles originate from the Solutrean culture, which existed in France from 19,000
BC to 15,000 BC. The earliest dyed flax fibers have been found in a prehistoric cave in the
Republic of Georgia and date back to 36,000 BP.[9][10]
The earliest evidence of weaving comes from impressions of textiles and basketry and nets on
little pieces of hard clay, dating from 27,000 years ago and found in Dolni Vestonice in the
Czech Republic.
At a slightly later date (25,000 years) the Venus figurines were depicted with clothing.[11] Those
from western Europe were adorned with basket hats or caps, belts worn at the waist, and a strap
of cloth that wrapped around the body right above the breast. Eastern European figurines wore
belts, hung low on the hips and sometimes string skirts.[12]
Archaeologists have discovered artifacts from the same period that appear to have been used in
the textile arts: (5000 BC) net gauges, spindle needles and weaving sticks.[13]
Evidence exists for production of linen cloth in Ancient Egypt in the Neolithic period, c. 5500
BC. Cultivation of domesticated wild flax, probably an import from the Levant, is documented
as early as c. 6000 BC Other bast fibers including rush, reed, palm, and papyrus were used alone
or with linen to make rope and other textiles. Evidence for wool production in Egypt is scanty at
this period.[18]
Spinning techniques included the drop spindle, hand-to-hand spinning, and rolling on the thigh;
yarn was also spliced.[18] A horizontal ground loom was used prior to the New Kingdom, when a
vertical two-beam loom was introduced, probably from Asia.
Linen bandages were used in the burial custom of mummification, and art depicts Egyptian men
wearing linen kilts and women in narrow dresses with various forms of shirts and jackets, often
of sheer pleated fabric.[18]
Ancient China
The earliest evidence of silk production in China was found at the sites of Yangshao culture in
Xia, Shanxi, where a cocoon of bombyx mori, the domesticated silkworm, cut in half by a sharp
knife is dated to between 5000 and 3000 BC. Fragments of primitive looms are also seen from
the sites of Hemudu culture in Yuyao, Zhejiang, dated to about 4000 BC. Scraps of silk were
found in a Liangzhu culture site at Qianshanyang in Huzhou, Zhejiang, dating back to 2700 BC.
[19][20]
Other fragments have been recovered from royal tombs in the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 – c.
1046 BC).[21]
Under the Shang Dynasty, Han Chinese clothing or Hanfu consisted of a yi, a narrow-cuffed,
knee-length tunic tied with a sash, and a narrow, ankle-length skirt, called shang, worn with a
bixi, a length of fabric that reached the knees. Clothing of the elite was made of silk in vivid
primary colours.
Ancient Japan
The earliest evidence of weaving in Japan is associated with the Jōmon period. This culture is
defined by pottery decorated with cord patterns. In a shell mound in the Miyagi Prefecture,
dating back about 5,500, some cloth fragments were discovered made from bark fibers.[22] Hemp
fibers were also discovered in the Torihama shell midden, Fukui Prefecture, dating back to the
Jōmon period, suggesting that these plants could also have been used for clothing. Some pottery
pattern imprints depict also fine mat designs, proving their waving techniques. Since bone
needles were also found, it is assumed that they wore dresses that were sewn together.[23]
The textile trade in the ancient world
The exchange of luxury textiles was predominant on the Silk Road, a series of ancient trade and
cultural transmission routes that were central to cultural interaction through regions of the Asian
continent connecting East and West by linking traders, merchants, pilgrims, monks, soldiers,
nomads and urban dwellers from China to the Mediterranean Sea during various periods of time.
The trade route was initiated around 114 BC by the Han Dynasty,[24] although earlier trade across
the continents had already existed. Geographically, the Silk Road or Silk Route is an
interconnected series of ancient trade routes between Chang'an (today's Xi'an) in China, with
Asia Minor and the Mediterranean extending over 8,000 km (5,000 miles) on land and sea. Trade
on the Silk Road was a significant factor in the development of the great civilizations of China,
Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, the Indian subcontinent, and Rome, and helped to lay the
foundations for the modern world.
Dress in classical antiquity favored wide, unsewn lengths of fabric, pinned and draped to the
body in various ways.
Ancient Greek clothing consisted of lengths of wool or linen, generally rectangular and secured
at the shoulders with ornamented pins called fibulae and belted with a sash. Typical garments
were the peplos, a loose robe worn by women; the chlamys, a cloak worn by men; and the
chiton, a tunic worn by both men and women. Men’s chitons hung to the knees, whereas
women’s chitons fell to their ankles. A long cloak called a himation was worn over the peplos or
chlamys.
The toga of ancient Rome was also an unsewn length of wool cloth, worn by male citizens
draped around the body in various fashions, over a simple tunic. Early tunics were two simple
rectangles joined at the shoulders and sides; later tunics had sewn sleeves. Women wore the
draped stola or an ankle-length tunic, with a shawl-like palla as an outer garment. Wool was the
preferred fabic, although linen, hemp, and small amounts of expensive imported silk and cotton
were also worn.
Industrial revolution
During the industrial revolution, fabric production was mechanised with machines powered by
waterwheels and steam-engines. Production shifted from small cottage based production to mass
production based on assembly line organisation. Clothing production, on the other hand,
continued to be made by hand.
Sewing machines emerged in the 19th century [47] streamlining clothing production.
In the early 20th century workers in the clothing and textile industries became unionised.[48] Later
in the 20th century, the industry had expanded to such a degree that such educational institutions
as UC Davis established a Division of Textiles and Clothing,[49] The University of Nebraska-
Lincoln also created a Department of Textiles, Clothing and Design that offers a Masters of Arts
in Textile History,[50] and Iowa State University established a Department of Textiles and
Clothing that features a History of costume collection, 1865–1948.[51] Even high school libraries
have collections on the history of clothing and textiles.[52]
Alongside these developments were changes in the types and style of clothing produced. During
the 1960s, had a major influence on subsequent developments in the industry.[53]
Textiles were not only made in factories. Before this that they were made in local and national
markets. Dramatic change in transportation throughout the nation is one source that encouraged
the use of factories. New advances such as steamboats, canals, and railroads lowered shipping
costs which caused people to buy cheap goods that were produced in other places instead of
more expensive goods that were produced locally. Between 1810 and 1840 the development of a
national market prompted manufacturing which tripled the output’s worth. This increase in
production created a change in industrial methods, such as the use of factories instead of hand
made woven materials that families usually made.[54]
The vast majority of the people who worked in the factories were women. Women went to work
in textile factories for a number of reasons. Some women left home to live on their own because
of crowding at home; or to save for future marriage portions. The work enabled them to see more
of the world, to earn something in anticipation of marriage, and to ease the crowding within the
home. They also did it to make money for family back home. The money they sent home was to
help out with the trouble some of the farmers were having. They also worked in the millhouses
because they could gain a sense of independence and growth as a personal goal.[55]
Contemporary technology
Synthetic fibers such as nylon were invented during the 20th century and synthetic fibers have
been added to many natural fibers.
The first literary information about textiles in India can be found in the Rigveda, which refers to
weaving. The ancient Indian epics-Ramayana and Mahabharat also speak of a variety of fabrics
of those times. The Ramayana refers to the rich styles worn by the aristocracy on one hand and
the simple clothes worn by the commoners and ascetics. Ample evidence on the ancient textiles
of India can also be obtained from the various sculptures belonging to Mauryan and Gupta age as
well as from ancient Buddhist scripts and murals (Ajanta caves). Legend has it that when
Amrapali, a courtesan from the kingdom of Vaishali met Gautam Buddha, she wore a richly
woven semi transparent sari, which speaks volumes of the technical achievement of the ancient
Indian weaver.
India had numerous trade links with the outside world and Indian textiles were popular in the
ancient world. Indian silk was popular in Rome in the early centuries of the Christian era. Hoards
of fragments of cotton material originating from Gujarat have been found in the Egyptian tombs
at Fostat, belonging to 5th century A.D. Cotton textiles were also exported to China during the
heydays of the silk route.
Silk fabrics from south India were exported to Indonesia during the 13th century. India also
exported printed cotton fabrics or chintz, to European countries and the Far East
before the coming of the Europeans to India. The British East India Company also traded in
Indian cotton and silk fabrics, which included the famous Dacca muslins. Muslins from Bengal,
Bihar and Orissa were also popular abroad.(Muslin-a very thin cotton material) (Chintz-cotton
cloth, usually printed with flowery patterns, that has a slightly shiny appearance)
The past traditions of the textile and handlooms can still be seen amongst the motifs, patterns,
designs, and the old techniques of weaving, still employed by the weavers.
Brocade weaving, especially with gold and silver, has been an age-old tradition in India. There
are two broad classes of brocades. Brocades of pure silk or silk and cotton blends and zari
brocades with gold and silver threads. The most important material in brocade weaving is silk. It
facilitates lovely weaves, is durable, strong, fine and smooth. There are several varieties of raw
silk of which the chief ones used for brocades are Tanduri, Banaka and Mukta. Tanduri is
imported from Malda and other places in Bengal. Banaka is thinner and finer variety and is
mostly used to weave soft fabrics such as turbans and handkerchiefs. Mukta is a coarse and
durable silk used for kimkhabs, as fine silk would not withstand heavy gold patterns.
Raw silk is specially treated for brocades. It is first twisted (called 'silk throwing') after which the
threads undergo reeling and checking for uniformity and roundness. When the yarn has been
processed, it is bleached and "degummed", as raw silk has a gum-like substance (sericin) in its
composition. This has to be removed in order to bring out the sheen and softness and to enable
penetration of the dye. The task has to be done with great care as the fibers can weaken or get
damaged. The silk is boiled in soap water for a certain duration and then sent for dying.
IMPORTANCE OF COLOR
Color plays a vital part in weaving a brocade. The charm and subtle beauty of the brocade
depends upon color synchronization. Colors are surcharged with nuances of mood and poetic
association in fabrics and weaving as much as in painting.
Red - the color of love. The three tones of red evoke the three states of love.
Yellow - is the color of vasant (spring), of young blossoms, southern winds and swarms of bees.
Nila (indigo) - the color of Lord Krishna who is likened to a rain-filled cloud.
Hari nila - the color of water in which the sky is reflected.
Gerwa (saffron) - the color of the earth and of the yogi the wandering minstrel, the seer, the poet
who renounces the world.
Earlier, vegetable dyes were used during weaving. These produced fast colors, lasted for almost
a generation, and remained as beautiful and vivid as ever. Nowadays aniline dyes have gained
popularity as they are cheaper, less time-consuming and produce a larger variety of colors.
Making of nakshas (designs) forms an important part of brocade weaving. Banaras is the main
center where the nakshabandha (designer) tradition prevails. The skill and imagination of
nakshabandha plays a prominent part in making of designs. Designs are associated with legends
and symbolism. The most popular motifs are drawn from nature. In Banaras, it is said that
nakshabandha families were brought to this country during the reign of Muhammed Tughlak
(1325-1350 A.D.). They were supreme masters of the art of tying designs into the loom. Local
artisans and weavers learned this art from these great craftsmen. Some of these craftsmen were
also great poets-perhaps they wove their poetry into their designs. One such renowned poet was
Ghias-I-Naqsband, mentioned in Abul Fazl's 'Ain-I-Akbari'. The nakshas are first worked on
paper. This part of the work is called likhai (writing). The nakshabandha then makes a little
pattern of it in a framework of cotton threads like a graph. This pattern gives guidance to the
working of that design into weaving.
Designs and motifs have undergone changes gradually and imperceptibly. These changes can be
traced through paintings made during different periods. Ajanta and Bagh murals show the
existence of different techniques of designs and textiles. During the Gupta period (14th century
A.D.). popular designs were formal floral motifs or scrolls entwined with hansas or sinhas -bird
and animal depictions. In the 16th century, the old designs were replaced by Persian floral
motifs. Akbari paintings show half-blooming flowers, the Jehangir period, full-blown blossom
and the Shahjehan period, tiny blossoms with emphasis on the leaves. In the 19th century, with
the advent of British rule, there was a drastic change in designs. Some brocades started depicting
English wallpaper designs to suit the tastes of the British rule.
Textile
The textile tradition of India is perhaps the world's oldest textile tradition. Textile serves a
variety of purposes like clothing, carpeting, and furnishing. Textiles are also used for industrial
purposes. The origin of Indian textile can be traced back to the ages of Indus Valley civilization.
The household items like needles made of bone as well as a number of spindles unearthed at the
excavation sites in the district of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa amply suggest that the people of
those civilizations used homespun cotton for weaving garments. One of India's most celebrated
ancient royal dynasties, the Vijayanagar Dynasty emphasized that textile was an important trade
in the ancient era. The art of Indian textile is defined at its best by the Indian geography, climate,
social customs, availability of the raw materials etc.
Many occasional comments about the textile craft of the Indian subcontinent can also be found in
the ancient Indian writings. Rig Veda provides us with the first literary information about textiles
in India. Even the two ancient Indian epics Ramayana and Mahabharat also relate us about a
variety of fabrics used in those times. The past traditions of the textile and handlooms can still be
seen amongst the motifs, patterns, designs, and the old techniques of weaving, still employed by
the weavers.The Indian textile is popular all across the globe for its beauty, texture and
durability. In the recent times Indian textile has found a place in the global market and is offered
in an extensive range at economic prices.
Textile Fabric
The origin of the term ‘textile' can be traced back to the Latin terminology. The textile
tradition of India is perhaps the world's oldest textile tradition. Textile serves a variety of
purposes like clothing, carpeting, and furnishing. Textiles are also used for industrial purposes.
The material used to prepare various kinds of textiles for the textile industry is generally known
as Textile Fabric. Because of the higher quality and durability, the textile fabrics in the
contemporary period in demand both in the domestic and global market.
The availability of the textile fabric can also be classified into various types. The broad
categorization of textile fabric includes textile furnishing fabric and textile apparel fabric .
The various types of textile fabric are Plastic Fabric; Cotton Fabric; Chiffon Fabric; Cotton
Canvas; Crepe Fabric; Narrow Fabric; Industrial Fabric; Furnishing Fabric; Jacquard Fabric,
Yarn-dyed Fabric; Laminated Fabric; Quilted Fabric' Upholstery Fabric; Non-woven Fabric,
Woven Fabric.
Textile fabric also serves a variety of purposes. The uses of textile fabric includes: crafting of
carpets and rugs; making embroidered apparel and garments; used for making home furnishing
products; making various types of textile accessories; making plastic products, tents and camps,
designing jute products like bags, rugs, wall-décor and other types of decoration items, making
embroidery threads and sewing threads designing woolen garments, blankets and woolen
accessories, making mosquito nets, insect nets and bug nets.
Textile fabrics are either natural or synthetic. According to the contemporary needs and
constant innovation of textile fabrics, they have also been made water-proof, oil-resistant and
ultra-violet rays resistant.
Textile Technology
Textile manufacturing entails an elaborate production process and this process is supported
by Textile Technology . Information on the textile technologies from the crude, rudimentary
stage to the latest innovations…all you get to know about at our site India Handicraft Store .
Textile Technology is the biggest support for the booming fashion and textile industries. Several
technologies that are adopted by the textile manufacturers aid in processing the textile fiber(link)
to fashion fabrics and textile products.
They are the support system of the processes like weaving, knitting, crocheting, bonding,
bleaching, dyeing, fabricating and finishing.In order to keep up to the latest trends in fashion the
textile technologies have been suitably upgraded and innovated. Few of the textile technologies
that are used:
• Cotton Mixing --It is the first and important step in spinning process
• Blowroom Process --Deals with opening, cleaning and blending of fibers used in the
mixing
• Carding Process--Cleaning and removal of impurities, dust. It also caters to opening of
fibers into individual strands.
• Combing Process--It improves the shine and smoothness of the yarn. Combed yarn is
more strong and uniform
• Humidification--Temperature and moisture content control in the manufacturing process
of textile fibers
Computer soft wares have immensely helped this advancement. Warehouse software, pattern
software, embroider software, Knitting & weaving software and CAD (Computer Assisted
Design) have greatly advanced the progress in Textile Technology.
Textile technology has undergone a massive change from the ancient days when crude looms and
simple weaving practices were uses. At present it has revolutionized itself by introduction of
modern, manufacturing textile techniques . Application of technologies like digital inkjet
technology is an advancement on the existing technologies.
Medieval India
British Influence
Export of Indian cotton products
In the next stage, from about 1830, British cotton productivity increased to a level
that it could compete with Indian cotton even in the Indian domestic market at least
in some products. The result of this change was shown in the increase of the
Britain¡¯s share of the Indian cotton market: while it only took 3.9 % of the market
share in 1831-1835, the share increased to 35.3 % by 1856-1860, and eventually to
58.4 % in 1880-1881. (63) As a consequence, India¡¯s domestic handicraft
industries suffered such a decline that they almost were merely memories of the
past by the end of the 19th century. The liquidation of the artisans gave rise to the
problem of unemployment on an unprecedented scale and a large number of
craftsmen died of starvation. (64)
The decline in Indian textile industry was part of a greater phenomenon
called the Great Divergence, which refers to the period beginning in the 18th
century in which the "West" clearly emerged as the most powerful world civilization,
eclipsing the Islamic empires (the Ottoman Empire, Mughal India), Tokugawa Japan,
and Qing China. (65) Other industries such as iron smelting, salt-petre, bangle-
making, and glass manufacture also experienced complete decline (66), and the
economy of India gradually declined from its position at the second largest economy
in the world in 1775-1825 to the sixth in 1900-1925. (67) This economic decline,
coinciding with the collapse of Mughal Dynasty and the beginning of the British Raj
in the mid 19th century, showed the downfall of India (among other Asian nations).
VI. Conclusion
Throughout the history of India, the textile industry has maintained its
position as one of the most important - sometimes symbolic - industries in the
nation. It has a long and diverse tradition; the first cotton was cultivated by the
people of the Indus Valley Civilization, and now India is a producer of a variety of
textiles ranging from the woolen products of Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh to
embroidered cotton and silk from Rajasthan and Gujarat to silk saris of Banarasi,
Patola, Baluchari, and Pochampalli. (78) It also has taken an important position in
the international trades from ancient times.
The success of Indian textile industry can be attributed to abundant sources
of raw materials, sufficient labor, traditionally developed technology and labor
division due to the caste system. With the rise of India as one of the most important
developing nations, Indian textiles continue to clothe India and the world.
The first literary information about textiles in India can be found in the Rig-Veda,
which refers to weaving. The ancient Indian epics-Ramayana and Mahabharata also
speak of a variety of fabrics of those times. The Ramayana refers to the rich styles
worn by the aristocracy on one hand and the simple clothes worn by the
commoners and ascetics. Ample evidence on the ancient textiles of India can also
be obtained from the various sculptures belonging to Mauryan and Gupta age as
well as from ancient Buddhist scripts and murals (Ajanta caves). Legend has it that
when Amrapali, a courtesan from the kingdom of Vaishali met Gautama Buddha,
she wore a richly woven semi transparent sari, which speaks volumes of the
technical achievement of the ancient Indian weaver.
India had numerous trade links with the outside world and Indian textiles were
popular in the ancient world. Indian silk was popular in Rome in the early centuries
of the Christian era. Hoards of fragments of cotton material originating from Gujarat
have been found in the Egyptian tombs at Fostat, belonging to 5th century A.D.
Cotton textiles were also exported to China during the heydays of the silk route.
Silk fabrics from south India were exported to Indonesia during the 13th century.
India also exported printed cotton fabrics or chintz, to European countries and the
Far East before the coming of the Europeans to India. The British East India
Company also traded in Indian cotton and silk fabrics, which included the famous
Dacca muslins. Muslins from Bengal, Bihar and Orissa were also popular abroad.
(Muslin-a very thin cotton material) (Chintz-cotton cloth, usually printed with flowery
patterns, that has a slightly shiny appearance)
The past traditions of the textile and handlooms can still be seen amongst the
motifs, patterns, designs, and the old techniques of weaving, still employed by the
weavers.
Earlier, vegetable dyes were used during weaving. These produced fast colors,
lasted for almost a generation, and remained as beautiful and vivid as ever.
Nowadays aniline dyes have gained popularity as they are cheaper, less time-
consuming and produce a larger variety of colors.
About cotton
Cotton is a soft fiber that grows around the seeds of the cotton plant, a shrub native to the
tropical and subtropical regions of Europe and America. The fibre is most often spun into thread
and used to make a soft, absorbent and breathable textile used for making clothing, sheets and
towels.Cotton is a valuable crop because only about 10% of the raw weight is lost in processing.
Once traces of wax, protein, etc. are removed, the remainder is a natural polymer of pure
cellulose. This cellulose is arranged in a way that gives cotton its unique properties of strength,
durability, and absorbency. Each fibre is made up of twenty to thirty layers of cellulose coiled in
a neat series of natural springs. When the cotton boll (seed case) is opened the fibres dry into flat,
twisted, ribbon-like shapes and become kinked together and interlocked. This interlocked form is
ideal for spinning it into a fine yarn.
Cotton In India
Cotton is the most famous textile material associated with the Indian Subcontinent. The export of
fast dyed cotton cloth to Europe revolutionised the garment and furnishing fashions, agricultural
practices and the textile manufacturing industries of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
Cotton has been cultivated within the Indian Subcontinent for the manufacture of textiles since
1750 BC, the date ascribed to the Mohenjodaro fragments of the Indus Valley Civilization. The
perennial form of cotton plant is a slow growing and warmth and water demanding shrub. Its
cultivation in the north was therefore limited. By the sixth or seventh century AD the more
robust annual variety, Gossypium herbaceum, was grown in India. By the thirteenth century, its
cultivation spread across the west and south-east Asia.
History of Cotton
For centuries Cotton has been used to make very fine lightweight cloth in areas with tropical
climates. Some authorities claim that it was likely that the Egyptians had cotton as early as
12,000 BC, and evidence has been found of cotton in Mexican caves (cotton cloth and fragments
of fibre interwoven with feathers and fur) which dated back to approximately 7,000 years. There
is clear archaeological evidence that people in South America and India domesticated different
species of cotton independently thousands of years ago.
The earliest written reference to cotton is in India. Cotton has been grown in India for more than
three thousand years, and it is referred to in the Rig-Veda, written in 1500 BC. A thousand years
later the great Greek historian Herodotus wrote about Indian cotton: "There are trees which grow
wild there, the fruit of which is a wool exceeding in beauty and goodness that of sheep. The
Indians make their clothes of this tree wool." During the late medieval period, cotton became
known as an imported fibre in northern Europe, without any knowledge of what it came from
other than that it was a plant; people in the region, familiar only with animal fibres (wool from
sheep) could only imagine that cotton must be produced by plant-borne sheep. John Mandeville,
writing in 1350, stated as fact the now-preposterous belief: "There, in India grew, a wonderful
tree which bore tiny lambs on the endes of its branches. These branches were so pliable that they
bent down to allow the lambs to feed when they are hungrie.". This aspect is retained in the name
for cotton in many European languages, such as German Baumwolle, which translates as "tree
wool." By the end of the 16th century AD, cotton was cultivated throughout the warmer regions
of Africa, Eurasia and America. The Indian cotton processing industry was eclipsed during the
British Industrial Revolution, when the invention of the Spinning Jenny (1764) and Arkwrights
spinning frame(1769) enabled cheap mass-production of cotton cloth in the UK. Production
capacity was further improved by the invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney in 1793. In the
United States, growing the three crops, cotton, indigo and tobacco historically were the leading
occupations of slaves. After emancipation, the share cropping system evolved which in many
cases differed little from the systems of slavery.
Cotton Processing
After cultivation, cotton is harvested at the farm, and goes through multiple processes. Before
processing, there are 3 stages When cotton arrives at a textile mill, it is fed into the cleaning
machones with the help of several blenders. Here, the trash is removed from the cotton by
mixing and breaking it into smaller pieces. This is called ginning. Then the cotton is sucked
through a pipe into picking machineswhere it is repeatedly struck by the beaters in order to
knock out the dirt and separate lumps of cotton into smaller pieces. Cotton then goes to the
carding machine, where the fibers are separated and trash and short fibers are removed. Some
cotton goes through a comber that gives more short fibers and makes a stronger lustrous yarn.
This is followed by the process of spinning.
Singeing : This weaved cloth is checked by the inspectors for its quality and strength. Then the
cloth passes through a gas flame that singes the fuzz off its surface. Boiling the cloth in an
alkaline solution removes natural waxes, coloured substances or discolourations.
Desizing : Desizing is the process of removing the size material from the warp yarns in woven
fabrics.
Scouring : Scouring is the process of washing cotton in hot water and detergent to remove the
contaminants and then drying it. It has always been an important step in cotton processing. A
growing concern for the environment has led to increased demands on the scouring process.
Bleaching : Then the cloth is bleached in hypochlorite or peroxide. The cloth may then pass
through a machine that prints design on it.
Mercerizing : Named after an English textile manufacturer who invented the process of
strengthening a material, namely cotton, with a substance that will give the material strength and
in some cases lends a silky appearance. It is the process of swelling the cross section of cotton
fibre so that the handfeel / appearance of the garment can be improved.
Dyeing : Dyeing is the process of changing the color of a yarn or cloth by treatment with a dye.
Production of Cotton
Today cotton is produced in many parts of the world, including Europe, Asia, Africa, America
and Australia using cotton plants that have been selectively bred so that each plant grows more
fiber. In 2002, cotton was grown on 330,000 km² of farmland in Texas. 47 billion pounds (21
million t) of raw cotton worth 20 billion US dollars was grown that year. The cotton industry
relies heavily on chemicals such as fertilizers and insecticides, although some farmers are
moving towards an organic model of production, and chemical-free organic cotton products are
now available. Historically, one of the most economically destructive pests in cotton production
has been the boll weevil. Most cotton is harvested mechanically, either by a cotton picker, a
machine that removes the cotton from the boll without damaging the cotton plant, or by a cotton
stripper which strips the entire boll off the plant. Cotton strippers are generally used in regions
where it is too windy to grow picker varieties of cotton and generally used after application of a
defoliant or natural defoliation occurring after a freeze. Cotton is a perennial crop in the tropics
and without defoliation or freezing, the plant will continue to grow. Cotton is a close relative of
okra and hibiscust. The logistics of cotton harvesting and processing have been improved by the
development of the cotton module builder, a machine that compresses harvested cotton into a
large block, which is then covered with a tarp and temporarily stored at the edge of the field.
Care for your cotton fabrics For fabrics made of 100% cotton:
• Wash in cold water
• Iron the clothes at medium temperature
• While washing, set the washing machine at low setting
• Do not bleach the cotton clothes
• Hang to dry and do not tumble dry
For fabrics made of 50% cotton and 50% polyester
• While washing, turn the cloth inside out
• Wash with warm water
• Use only chlorine bleach to bleach the clothes
• Tumble dry with medium setting
• Iron the clothes at a medium temperature
Properties of cotton
• Cotton is soft and comfortable
• It absorbs perspiration
• It has a good color retention
• It is a good material for printing
• It wrinkles easily
Uses of cotton
In addition to the textile industry, cotton is used in fishnets, coffee filters, tents and in
bookbinding. The first Chinese paper was made of cotton fiber, as is the modern US dollar bill
and federal stationery. Fire hoses were once made of cotton. Denim, a type of durable cloth, is
made mostly of cotton, as are most T-shirts. The cottonseed which remains after the cotton is
ginned is used to produce cottonseed oil, which after refining can be consumed by humans like
any other vegetable oil. The cottonseed meal that is left is generally fed to livestock.
About silk
Silk is a natural protein fiber that can be woven into textiles. It is obtained from the cocoon of the
silkworm larva, in the process known as sericulture. The shimmering appearance for which it is
prized comes from the fibres triangular prism-like structure, which allows silk cloth to refract
incoming light at different angles.
Early History
The coveted secret of silkworm cultivation began 5000 years ago in China. The credit of all this
goes to a Chinese Empress Xi Ling-Shi, the 14-year-old wife of Chinas third emperor, Huangdi
(Huang-Ti). One day, as she was making tea in the palace garden, Xilingji accidentally dropped a
silkworm cocoon into a cup of hot water and discovered that the silk fiber could be loosened and
unwound. By twisting together fibers from several cocoons, she made a thread that was strong
enough to be woven into cloth. No one is certain how much of this delightful story is true, but
the practice of sericulture (rearing silkworms for the production of raw silk) is certainly older
than recorded history. For centuries, it was the Chinese nobilitys most closely guarded secret.
Only members of the royal family were permitted to wear garments made of silk. But as the laws
regulating sericulture were gradually relaxed, explorers and traders began to acquire enough
samples of the fabric to create a demand for it in the West. Though first reserved for the
Emperors of China, its use spread gradually through Chinese culture both geographically and
socially. The Chinese used silk since the 27th century B.C. During the Roman Empire, silk was
sold for its weight in gold. The Chinese domesticated silk worms and fed them with mulberry
leaves. They unwound the silkworms cocoons to produce long strands of silk fiber. Farm women
in China at that period were supposed to raise such silkworms as one of their chores. Silk was
used in China and exported along the Silk Road (the ancient trade route linking China and the
Roman Empire). This trade brought China great wealth, but the Chinese did not give away the
secret on how silk was formed. During the eleventh century European traders stole several eggs
and seeds of the mulberry tree and began rearing silkworms in Europe. Christian monks finally
broke Chinas monopoly of the silk production by smuggling silkworm eggs out of the country,
and soon other countries started to produce their own silk. Sericulture was introduced into the
Southern United States in colonial times, but the climate was not compatible with cultivation.
Silk rapidly became a popular luxury fabric in the many areas accessible to Chinese merchants,
because of its texture and lustre. Because of the high demand for the fabric, silk was one of the
staples of international trade prior to industrialization.
Production of silk
Silkworms are cultivated and fed with mulberry leaves. Some of these eggs are hatched by
artificial means such as an incubator, and in the olden times, the people carried it close to their
bodies so that it would remain warm. Silkworms that feed on smaller, domestic tree leaves
produce the finer silk, while silkworms that have fed on oak leaves produce the coarser silk.
From the time they hatch to the time they start to spin cocoons, they are very carefully tended to.
Noise is believed to affect the process, thus the cultivators try not to startle the silkworms. Their
cocoons are spun from the tops of loose straw. It will be completed in two to three days time.
The cultivators then gather the cocoons and the chrysales are killed by heating and drying the
cocoons. In the olden days, they were packed with leaves and salt in a jar, and then buried in the
ground, or else other insects might bite holes in it. Modern machines and modern methods can be
used to produce silk but the old-fashioned hand-reels and looms can also produce equally
beautiful silk.
Silk Trade
Perhaps the first evidence of the silk trade is that of an Egyptian mummy of 1070 BC. In
subsequent centuries, the silk trade reached as far as the Indian subcontinent, the Middle East,
Europe, and North Africa. This trade was so extensive that the major set of trade routes between
Europe and Asia came to be known as the Silk Road.
Secret
The Emperors of China strove to keep the knowledge of sericulture secret from other countries,
in order to maintain the Chinese monopoly on its production. This effort at secrecy had mixed
success. Sericulture reached Korea around 200 BC with Chinese settlers, about the first half of
the 1st century AD in Khotan, and by 300 AD the practice had been established in India.
Although the Roman Empire knew of and traded in silk, the secret was only to reach Europe
around 550 AD, via the Byzantine Empire. Legend has it that the monks working for the emperor
Justinian were the first to bring silkworm eggs to Constantinople in hollow canes. The
Byzantines were equally secretive, and for many centuries the weaving and trading of silk fabric
was a strict imperial monopoly; all top-quality looms and weavers were located inside the Palace
complex in Constantinople and the cloth produced was used in imperial robes or in diplomacy, as
gifts to foreign dignitaries. The remainder was sold at exorbitant prices.
Today, silk is cultivated in Japan, China, Spain, France, and Italy, although artificial fibers have
replaced the use of silk in much of the textile industry. The silk industry has a commercial value
of $200-$500 million annually. One cocoon is made of a single thread about 914 meters long.
About 3000 cocoons are needed to make a pound of silk. To gather silk from cocoons, boil intact
cocoons for five minutes in water turning them gently. Remove them from water. And using a
dissecting needle or similar tool, begin to pick up strands. When you find a single strand that
comes off easily, wind the silk onto a pencil. Several of these strands are combined to make a
thread.
Wild Silks are produced by a number of undomesticated silkworms. Aside from differences in
colours and textures, they all differ in one major respect from the domesticated varieties. The
cocoons, which are gathered in the wild, have usually already been chewed through by the pupa
or caterpillar ("silkworm") before the cocoons are gathered and thus the single thread which
makes up the cocoon has been cut into shorter lengths.A variety of wild silks have been known
and used in China, India and Europe from early times, although the scale of production has
always been far smaller than that of cultivated silks.
Wild silks are produced by caterpillars other than the mulberry silkworm (Bombyx mori). The
term "wild" implies that these silkworms are not capable of being domesticated and artificially
cultivated like the mulberry worms. Commercially reared silkworms are killed before the pupae
emerge by dipping them in boiling water or they are killed with a needle, thus allowing the
whole cocoon to be unravelled as one continuous thread. This allows a much stronger cloth to be
woven from the silk. Wild silks also tend to be more difficult to dye than silk from the cultivated
silkworm. There is ample evidence that small quantities of wild silk were already being produced
in the Mediterranean and Middle East by the time the superior, and stronger, cultivated silk from
China began to be imported.
The beautiful and expensive golden-coloured "wild" silk called "Muga" is produced only in the
Brahmaputra Valley - mainly Assam and adjoining parts ofBurma. This silk has always been
highly prized - not only for its beautiful natural golden sheen, which actually improves with
aging and washing - but for the fact that it is the strongest natural fibre known. Garments made
of it outlast those made of ordinary silk - commonly lasting fifty years or more.
In addition, it absorbs moisture better than ordinary silk and is, therefore, more comfortable to
wear. Nowadays, it is mainly sought after for the highest quality saries given as presents to
brides in India.
Silk in India Today Varanasi is one of the most important silk-weaving centers in India.
Originally it was known for its cotton weaves. Today no other center can match the standards set
by Varanasi. It has perfectly specialized the art of weaving and there is no style of weaving,
which it cannot reproduce.
A specialty of the area is the heavy gold brocade, which has an extra weft of rich gold thread
running right across the warp threads, with the motifs picked up in silk thread and jewel-like
colors worked in the style of meenakari, a term used for gold enamel jewellery and there it is
applied to woven gold brocades where the rich gold patterns are enlivened by introducing silk
threads very much like richly colored enamel designs worked in gold.
The all-over gold brocade was known as kimkhab, which has been interpreted to mean no less
than a dream, generally carried patterns of jal, a trellis, enclosing stylized buta, or traditional
circular roundel, known as ashrafi. Besides, there are the more complicated all-over patterns of
shikargah, the hunting scene. The complex pattern would often depict a flowing creeper
intermingling with animals, birds and elephants with howdahs, carrying a hunting party. These
designs can only be prepared by master jala workers, the designer and creators of the master
pattern, since they successfully camouflage the repeat in the pattern.
Another variety of gold cloth was the fine tissue, which had warp and weft of gold thread, with
patterns worked in silk and gold thread. Often the background material would be woven in silver
thread and the patterns in gold or vice-versa. These were known as Ganga-Yamuna: Ganga
standing for the gold thread and Yamuna for the silver. Varanasi has also woven for the past
many years the varying requirements of different countries. Rich brocades, with Central Asian
designs and even Tibetian character signifying happiness and long life, known as gyasar, were
woven by particular families of weavers of the Tibetian market.
Special weaves were also made by a few weaver families for South East Asia and Sri Lanka.
Here again they use the color and designs adopted from the traditions of that area. The most
exotic brocades, however, are those woven for Saudi Arabian royalty with large bold patterns of
flowers and the sun.
Another important weave is the tissue or the gold-and-silver lame. Sashes and scarves of tissue
used to be exported from Varanasi to other parts of India and even abroad. Examples of this
work dating back to the seventeenth century have been found in some museums and churches.
The silk brocades of Varanasi are no less rich and varied. The pure silk brocades use a variety of
silk threads for creating numerous complicated patterns. The Amru silk brocades of Varanasi are
famous. The Amru sarees are the butider once enclosed by a border and a heavy pallu of
flowering bushes or the kalga, the flowing mango pattern.
The Baluchar technique of weaving brocaded with untwisted silk thread was developed in the
Murshidabad district of West Bangal. It is perhaps the only form of weaving where the patterns
are based on miniature paintings. The woven scenes are framed and sometimes depict a woman
riding a horse, or a traditionally dressed man seated against a large cushion smoking a huqqa,
with a maid -servant offering him a wine, or the scene of a boat arriving at a harbor and
Portuguese faces mingling with the Indians. There is also depiction of lovers seated in a pleasure
boat with two love birds above. The outline appears to be made from a khaka, the outline
drawings, on which miniatures were based. The sarees appears to tell the story of past era.
The high cost of weaving the fabric and lack of patronage led to the decline of this technique in
West Bangal. The last of the weavers of the Baluchari saree, Dhrub Raj was an old man. In 1890
with his death, the tradition also died. Subsequently, it was successfully revived by the
Handicrafts Board at Varanasi in 1956 by a great master designer Ali Hassan. Although West
Bangal began to produce Baluchar in Murshidabad, the Varanasi weavers were weaving
Baluchari sarees so well that the West Bengal sarees could not complete with them either in
texture or in quality. They continue to be woven in Varanasi by Ali Hasans great-grandson,
Naseem, who is a brilliant young man.
Gujarat was an important brocade center with a distinctive style of its own. It is believed that the
extra weft brocade began in Gujarat with the help of weavers who migrated from Central Asia.
Here the extra weft patterns were woven with the use of the twill weave. The design traditions
were based on the Western Indian style of painting, and figurative design was common. Some of
the oldest silk brocades carry riders on horseback. Brocaded ghaghras, dating to the beginning of
this century, carry stylized forms of dancing woven, mingling with peacocks, or women holding
fans in their hands, or complicated lotus patterns. Today only few centers in North Gujarat
continued this tradition. Some weaving continue to be done in Ridrol in the Mehsana district and
in Jamnagar in Saurashtra.
Besides weaving material for ghagras, long skirts, sarees, ordhnis, and cholis, a variety of objects
for religious purposes were also woven. These were the gaumukhi, which covered the hand of
the devotee carrying his rosary. They carried motifs of the sun, the swastika, the symbol of
Ganesha, and sometimes the sacred-cow associated with Krishna. Also small torans were made
depicting scene from Krishna Leela. These were possibly meant to be hung outside the family
temples. Another special item produced was the Nathdwara pechwai, depicting Shrinathji, meant
to be hung behind the image.
One of the most exquisite techniques combining gold and silk is known as Paithani, after the
name of the village where it survived. The technique is most complex. The patterns are created
by non-continuous colored threads wrapped on bamboo needles, which are woven in to the warp
only where a particular color is needed and then interlocked with the thread of the next color.
This technique is known as the tapestry technique. This was also revived in Yeola in
Maharashtra.
The silk sarees of southern India are a class by themselves. They use heavy Iustrous silk and
broad borders and elaborate pallus, with contrasting color combinations, which result in
harmonious color blends. Traditionally the patterning is part of the woven fabric and not an extra
weft. The checks and stripes are woven into the warp and weft. The delicate buds known as
mallimogu, jasmine buds, form a part of the weave itself and accentuate the texture, and woven
into the body of the saree in contrasted colors.
Kancheepuram, Tanjore and Kumbakonam, which are the important pilgrim centers, are also
important textile centers of Tamil Nadu. Sangarneddy and Dharmaswaram in Andhra Pradesh,
Kolegal and Molkalmoru in Mysore are also famous silk-weaving centers.
Tanjore specialized in weaving the all over gold-work sarees used for weddings and for offering
to temples. These carried rich broad borders in gold work and pallus with patterns derived from
temple frieze. The youli, the stylized lion form, the hamsa, swan, and the shardul, tiger were
common motifs. Molkalmoru in Mysore had its own distinctive tradition of simple ikat weave,
combined with a rich silk or gold border carrying stylized motifs of parrots. The ikat was always
in white.Care of your silk garment It is best to dry clean your silk garment either by individual or
bulk method, in order to maintain the characteristic of the silk.
Dry clean: Sending it to the dry cleaners may be done but make sure that you inform the dry
cleaner that your garment is made of silk.
Hand wash
• Make sure you wash in cool water.
• Use a small amount of soap or mild detergent to wash the silk.
• After washing it, rinse in cold water.
• Hang it or lay it flat in a shaded area to dry.
• If pressing is needed, use an all cotton iron board cover, a low or moderate steam setting,
and press on the wrong side of the fabric while ironing.
Other Tips
• To keep white silk white, add peroxide and ammonia to the wash.
• Do not use bleach or any washing detergent with bleach
• To remove yellow from white silk, add a few teaspoons of white vinegar to the wash.
Properties of the silk
• It is versatile and very comfortable.
• It absorbs moisture.
• It is cool to wear in the summer yet warm to wear in winter.
• It can be easily dyed.
• It retains its shape and is relatively smooth.
• It has a poor resistance to sunlight exposure.
• It is the strongest natural fiber and is lustrous.
Uses of Silk
Silk is used to make blouses, dresses, scarves, pants and ties. It can also be made into curtains,
draperies, cushion covers and sofa covers. In addition to this, silk is also used for items like
parachutes, bicycle tires, comforter filling and artillary gunpowder bags. Early bulletproof vests
were also made from silk in the era of blackpowder weapons until roughly World War I. Silk
undergoes a special manufacturing process to make it adequate for its use in surgery as non-
absorbable sutures. Chinese doctors have also used it to make prosthetic arteries. Silk cloth is
also used as a material to write on.
Jute is one of the cheapest natural fibres, and is second only to cotton in amount produced and
variety of uses. Jute fibres are composed primarily of the plant materials cellulose and lignin.
Jute is a rainy season crop, growing best in warm, humid climates. Worlds finest Jute is
produced in Bengal Delta Plain, mostly in Bangladesh and India.China also produces large
number of Jute while Pakistan grows relatively small number.
To grow jute, farmers scatter the seeds on cultivated soil. When the plants are about 15-20 cm
tall, they are thinned out. About four months after planting, harvesting begins. The plants are
usually harvested after they flower, but before the flowers go to seed. The stalks are cut off close
to the ground. The stalks are tied into bundles and retted (soaked) in water for about 20 days.
This process softens the tissues and permits the fibres to be separated. The fibres are then
stripped from the stalks in long strands and washed in clear, running water. Then they are hung
up or spread on thatched roofs to dry. After 2-3 days of drying, the fibres are tied into
bundles.Jute is graded (rated) according to its colour, strength, and fibre length. The fibres are
off-white to brown, and 1-4 m long. Jute is pressed into bales for shipment to manufacturers. Jute
is used chiefly to make cloth for wrapping bales of raw cotton, and to make sacks and coarse
cloth.
The fibres are also woven into curtains, chair coverings, carpets, hessian cloth, and backing for
linoleum. However, jute is being replaced by synthetic materials for many of these uses, though
the importance of biodegradation in some situations where artificial fibres are unsuitable leaves
some uses open to jute. Examples of such uses include containers for planting young trees which
can be planted directly with the container without disturbing the roots, and land restoration
where jute cloth prevents erosion occurring while natural vegetation becomes established.
The fibres are used alone or blended with other types of fibres to make twine and rope. Jute
butts, the coarse ends of the plants, are used to make inexpensive cloth. Conversely, very fine
threads of jute can be separated out and made into imitation silk. Jute fibres can also be used to
make paper, and with increasing concern over forest destruction for the wood pulp used to make
most paper, the importance of jute for this purpose may increase.
Wool was probably the first animal fiber to be made into cloth. The art of spinning wool into
yarn developed about 4000 B.C. and encouraged trade among the nations in the region of the
Mediterranean Sea. The Romans established the first wool factory in England in 50 A.D. in
Winchester. In 1797, the British brought 13 Merino sheep to Australia and started the countrys
Merino sheep industry. There are 40 different breeds of sheep in the world producing a rough
estimate of 200 types of wool with varying standards. The major wool producers in the world are
Australia, Argentina, China and South Africa.
Production of Wool
The processing of wool involves four major steps. First comes shearing, followed by sorting and
grading, making yarn and lastly, making fabric. In most parts of the world, sheep are sheared
once a year, in early spring or early summer. The best wool comes from the shoulders and sides
of the sheep. Grading and sorting, where workers remove any stained, damaged or inferior wool
from each fleece and sort the rest of the wool according to the quality of the fibers, follow this.
Wool fibers are judged not only on the basis of their strength but also by their fineness
(diameter), length, crimp (waviness) and colour. The wool is then scoured with detergents to
remove the yolk and such impurities as sand and dust. After the wool dries, it is carded. The
carding process involves passing the wool through rollers that have thin wire teeth. The teeth
untangle the fibers and arrange them into a flat sheet called a web. The web is then formed into
narrow ropes known as silvers. After carding, the processes used in making yarn vary slightly,
depending on the length of the fibers. Carding length fibers are used to make woolen yarn.
Combing length fibers and French combing length fibers are made into worsted yarn.
Woolen yarn, which feels soft, has a fuzzy surface and is heavier as compared to worsted wool.
While worsted wool is lighter and highly twisted, it is also smoother, and is not as bulky, thus
making it easier to carry or transport about. Making worsted wool requires a greater number of
processes, during which the fibers are, arranged parallel to each other. The smoother the hard
surface worsted yarns, the smoother the wool it produces, meaning, less fuzziness. Fine worsted
wool can be used in the making of athletics attire, because it is not as hot as polyester, and the
weave of the fabric allows wool to absorb perspiration, allowing the body to "breathe". Wool
manufacturers knit or weave yarn into a variety of fabrics. Wool may also be dyed at various
stages of the manufacturing process and undergo finishing processes to give them the desired
look and feel. The finishing of fabrics made of woolen yarn begins with fulling. This process
involves wetting the fabric thoroughly with water and then passing it through the rollers. Fulling
makes the fibers interlock and mat together. It shrinks the material and gives it additional
strength and thickness. Worsteds go through a process called crabbing in which the fabric passes
through boiling water and then cold water. This procedure strengthens the fabric.
It is better to hand wash your woolen products. Shampoos can be used to wash such garments.
Use a good shampoo not one containing "crème rinse". If shampoo can clean your hair without
leaving residues, it can clean your woolen products too. Be careful of what softener you use
because softeners may add products to your wool. Some types of softeners may leave a coating
on the fiber making it feel softer and smoother, but at the same time causing your wool to lose its
absorbency.
Properties of the wool
• It is hard wearing and absorbs moisture.
• It does not burn over a flame but smolders instead.
• It is lightweight and versatile.
• Wool does not wrinkle easily.
• It is resistant to dirt and wear and tear.
Uses of Wool Fabric
Wool is used to make sweaters, dresses, coats, suits, jackets, pants and the lining of boots. It can
also be made into blankets and carpets.