c




      




A 
 is any organic molecule that is produced by a living organism, including large polymeric molecules such as proteins,
polysaccharides, and nucleic acids as well as small molecules such as primary metabolites, secondary metabolites, and natural
products. A more general name for this class of molecules is a biogenic substance.

As organic molecules, biomolecules consist primarily of carbon and hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, and, to a smaller extent,
phosphorus and sulfur. Other elements sometimes are incorporated but are much less common.




A diverse range of biomolecules exist, including:

j| Omall molecules:
›| „ipids, phospholipids, glycolipids, sterols, glycerolipids
›| arbohydrates, sugars
›| ëitamins
›| ormones, neurotransmitters
›| Yetabolites

j| Yonomers:
›| Amino acids
›| cucleotides
›| Yonosaccharides

j| áolymers:
›| áeptides, oligopeptides, polypeptides, proteins
›| cucleic acids, DcA, RcA
›| Oligosaccharides, polysaccharides (including cellulose)
›| ellulose, lignin
›| emoglobin

c 

c are molecules formed by attaching a nucleobase to a ribose ring. Examples of these include cytidine, uridine,
adenosine, guanosine, thymidine and inosine.

cucleosides can be phosphorylated by specific kinases in the cell, producing nucleotides. Both DcA and RcA are polymers,
consisting of long, linear molecules. The repeating structural units, or monomers, of the nucleic acids are called nucleotides.[1]

Each nucleotide is made of an acyclic nitrogenous base, a pentose and one to three phosphate groups. They contain carbon,
nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen and phosphorus. They serve as sources of chemical energy (adenosine triphosphate and guanosine
triphosphate), participate in cellular signaling (cyclic guanosine monophosphate and cyclic adenosine monophosphate), and are
incorporated into important cofactors of enzymatic reactions (coenzyme A, flavin adenine dinucleotide, flavin mononucleotide, and
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate).
 c are molecules formed by attaching a nucleobase to a ribose ring. Examples of these include cytidine, uridine,
adenosine, guanosine, thymidine and inosine.

cucleosides can be phosphorylated by specific kinases in the cell, producing nucleotides. Both DcA and RcA are polymers,
consisting of long, linear molecules. The repeating structural units, or monomers, of the nucleic acids are called nucleotides.[1]

Each nucleotide is made of an acyclic nitrogenous base, a pentose and one to three phosphate groups. They contain carbon,
nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen and phosphorus. They serve as sources of chemical energy (adenosine triphosphate and guanosine
triphosphate), participate in cellular signaling (cyclic guanosine monophosphate and cyclic adenosine monophosphate), and are
incorporated into important cofactors of enzymatic reactions (coenzyme A, flavin adenine dinucleotide, flavin mononucleotide, and
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate).



„ipids are chiefly   , and are the basic building blocks of biological membranes. Another biological role is energy
storage (e.g., triglycerides). Yost lipids consist of a polar or hydrophilic head (typically glycerol) and one to three nonpolar or
hydrophobic fatty acid tails, and therefore they are amphiphilic. Fatty acids consist of unbranched chains of carbon atoms that are
connected by single bonds alone (   fatty acids) or by both single and double bonds (   fatty acids). The chains
are usually 14-24 carbon groups long, but it is always an even number.

For lipids present in biological membranes, the hydrophilic head is from one of three classes:

j| -lycolipids, whose heads contain an oligosaccharide with 1-15 saccharide residues.

j| áhospholipids, whose heads contain a positively charged group that is linked to the tail by a negatively charged phosphate
group.
j| Oterols, whose heads contain a planar steroid ring, for example, cholesterol.

Other lipids include prostaglandins and leukotrienes which are both 20-carbon fatty acyl units synthesized from arachidonic acid.
They are also known as fatty acids

!
 

Amino acids contain both amino and carboxylic acid functional groups. (In biochemistry, the term amino acid is used when referring
to those amino acids in which the amino and carboxylate functionalities are attached to the same carbon, plus proline which is not
actually an amino acid).

Amino acids are the building blocks of long polymer chains. With 2-10 amino acids such chains are called peptides, with 10-100 they
are often called polypeptides, and longer chains are known as proteins. These protein structures have many structural and
enzymatic roles in organisms.

There are twenty amino acids that are encoded by the standard genetic code, but there are more than 500 natural amino acids.
When amino acids other than the set of twenty are observed in proteins, this is usually the result of modification after translation
(protein synthesis). Only two amino acids other than the standard twenty are known to be incorporated into proteins during
translation, in certain organisms:
 j| Oelenocysteine is incorporated into some proteins at a U-A codon, which is normally a stop codon.
j| áyrrolysine is incorporated into some proteins at a UA- codon. For instance, in some methanogens in enzymes that are
used to produce methane.

Besides those used in protein synthesis, other biologically important amino acids include carnitine (used in lipid transport within a
cell), ornithine, -ABA and taurine.



The particular series of amino acids that form a protein is known as that protein's primary structure. This sequence is determined
by the genetic makeup of the individual. ároteins have several, well-classified, elements of local structure formed by intermolecular
attraction, this forms the secondary structure of protein. They are broadly divided in two, alpha helix and beta sheet, also called
beta pleated sheets. Alpha helices are formed of coiling of protein due to attraction between amine group of one amino acid with
carboxylic acid group of other. The coil contains about 3.6 amino acids per turn and the alkyl group of amino acid lie outside the
plane of coil. Beta pleated sheets are formed by strong continuous hydrogen bond over the length of protein chain. Bonding may be
parallel or antiparallel in nature. Otructurally, natural silk is formed of beta pleated sheets. Usually, a protein is formed by action of
both these structures in variable ratios. oiling may also be random. The overall 3D structure of a protein is termed its tertiary
structure. It is formed as result of various forces like hydrogen bonding, disulfide bridges, hydrophobic interactions, hydrophilic
interactions, van der Waals force etc. When two or more different polypeptide chains cluster to form a protein, quaternary
structure of protein is formed. Quaternary structure is a unique attribute of polymeric and heteromeric proteins like hemoglobin,
which consists of two alpha and two beta peptide chains.

!


An apoenzyme is the inactive storage and generally secretory form of a protein. This is required to protect the secretory cell from
the activity of that protein. Apoenzymes becomes active enzyme on addition of a cofactor. ofactors can be either inorganic (e.g.,
metal ions and iron-sulfur clusters) or organic compounds, (e.g., flavin and heme). Organic cofactors can be either prosthetic
groups, which are tightly bound to an enzyme, or coenzymes, which are released from the enzyme's active site during the reaction.

"!


Isoenzymes are enzymes with similar function but different structure. They are products of different genes. They are produced in
different organs to perform the same function. „D are examples of such enzymes. Their varied levels in blood are used to
determine any deformity in the organ of secretion.

#


A vitamin is a compound that is generally not synthesized by a given organism but is nonetheless vital to its survival or health (for
example coenzymes). These compounds must be absorbed, or eaten, but typically only in trace quantities. When originally proposed
by asimir Funk, a áolish biochemist, he believed them to all be basic and therefore named them vital amines. The "l" was later
dropped to form the word vitamines.
c

 
        

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Yicrobiology is the branch of biological sciences involving study of all infectious diseases caused by bacteria, viruses and fungal
infections. It involves the study of microbes under the microscope which are invisible to the naked eye. The only exception is the
study of virus. Epidemiology, cell biology,mycology, ëirology and immunology is together known as microbiology.

The branches of microbiology include:

1.Yedical Yicrobiology- This branch involves study of microbes that causes diseases in humans.It involves identification of the
causative microbe,prevention,and study of antibiotic sensitivity to various diseases in humans like tuberculosis, typhoid,
sexually transmitted diseases and other illnesses. The experts in this field work in hospitals, public and private diagnostic labs and
even pharmaceutical companies for quality control analysis.

2.Food Yicrobiology- This branch involves study of microbes involved in fermentation and and performs quality control tests in the
food manufacturing and packaging industry. The expert studies all possible sources of food poisoning and performs tests on all food
stuffs randomly. Oalmonella, was recently found to be a contaminant in packaged peanut butter. An expert ensures that all food
stuffs is free of disease causing pathogens.

3.Agricultural Yicrobiology- This branch involves the study of various microbes aiding the growth of plants and microbes that
causes diseases in plants. A veterinary microbiologist conducts testing and research of microbes and pesticides that can keep
harmful microbes under check.

4.Environmental Yicrobiology-This branch involves study of microbes in air,water and environment. Detection, checking the possible
threat of humans and other living beings and finding ways to prevent a microbial infection.This field involves study of aquatic, soil,
waste water, drinking water, marine, fresh water, biotechnology and other similar fields in the environment.

Yicrobiology is a field with greater scope of research and those interested has a greater future as we live in a world of emerging
diseases looking for ways to prevent and treat all infections. Remember, antibiotics which has revolutionized medicine and the field
of microbiology as such was a chance discovery . áerhaps, you may become a future scientist if you decide to make it your field of
study today!

5. IcDUOTRIA„ YIROBIO„O-
It studies the transformation process in which bacteria, fungi or yeasts can be used for industrial purposes, to produce various
chemicals (alcohol, vitamins, antibiotics, enzymes, organic substances).
In many cases, the micro-organisms used for these industrial productions are genetically modified, to allow them to produce
particular substances.
One example is IcOU„Ic, produced by means of a genetically modified stock of Oaccharomyces cerevisiae (the yeast largely used to
produce bread, wine and beer), with a gene inserted to codify the informations for the synthesis of human insulin.

But the most universally known of these process is that of A„OO„ production, for drinks like wine and beer or as a pure product.
Alcohol is mainly produced by selected stocks of Oaccharomyces cerevisiae, fermenting grape musts in scarcity of O2.

Another example is ITRI AID, not anymore extracted from lemons, that contain only 7-8% of this acid, but produced by means of
coltures in fermentation processes of sugar matters.
This branch also studies the treatments and preservation of products from agriculture or animals against bacteria and fungi
contaminations.

In all these branches, the most important technique for study and production of micro-organisms is their colture, made on
particular nutritious substrates in controlled conditions of temperature and insulation.
In many cases, particular metallic ions are added to the colture to drive the colture development and activity toward a certain
direction.

All these conditions must be rigorously controlled, especially, in the field of medical microbiology, to cope with dangerous micro-
organisms, able to cause dangerous infective diseases.

In the industrial microbiology, the most studied and practiced process is the FERYEcTATIOc, already mentioned in the examples
above.
This chemical process can be AcAEROBI, when the organic substances are demolished by fungi and bacteria in simpler molecules
(but without a drastic demolition) in absence of O2; it can be AEROBI when these processes occur in presence of O2 and are a
typical biological oxidation.

è

The field of microbiology can be generally divided into several subdisciplines:

j|  $%: The study of how the microbial cell functions biochemically. Includes the study of microbial growth,
microbial metabolism and microbial cell structure.
j|  %: The study of how genes are organized and regulated in microbes in relation to their cellular functions.
losely related to the field of molecular biology.
j|  
%: A discipline bridging microbiology and cell biology.
j|  
%: The study of the pathogenic microbes and the role of microbes in human illness. Includes the study
of microbial pathogenesis and epidemiology and is related to the study of disease pathology and immunology.
j| ë 
%: The study of the role in microbes in veterinary medicine or animal taxonomy.
j| u&
 
%: The study of the function and diversity of microbes in their natural environments. Includes
the study of microbial ecology, microbially-mediated nutrient cycling, geomicrobiology, microbial diversity and
bioremediation. haracterisation of key bacterial habitats such as the rhizosphere and phyllosphere, soil and groundwater
ecosystems, open oceans or extreme environments (extremophiles).
j| u& 
%: The study of the evolution of microbes. Includes the study of bacterial systematics and
taxonomy.
j| r 
%: The exploitation of microbes for use in industrial processes. Examples include industrial
fermentation and wastewater treatment. losely linked to the biotechnology industry. This field also includes brewing, an
important application of microbiology.
j| !
%: The study of airborne microorganisms.
j| è
%: The study of microorganisms causing food spoilage and foodborne illness. Using microorganisms to
produce foods, for example by fermentation.
j| $ 
 
%: the study of microorganisms causing pharmaceutical contamination and spoil
j| !% 
%: The study of agriculturaly important microorganisms.

(Jobs with the enter For Disease ontrol and árevention requires a degree in microbiology for most positions)

j| %: The study of those microorganisms which are found in soil.
 j| ‰ 
%: The study of those micoorganims thats are found in water.
j| - 
%: The study of those micoorganims thats have same characters as their parents.
j| c 
%: The study of those micoorganims at nano level.

 

   
 is that field in botany that needs to cut into plants to be able to study its subject, as opposed to "plant morphology"
(see category:álant morphology) that can study its subject without resorting to a knife.

agrostology
the branch of systematic botany that studies grasses. Also called %
% ³ %%, n. ³ %%,
%% , adj.
algology
the branch of botany that studies seaweeds and algae. Also called $%. ³ %%, n. ³ %% , adj.
ampelography
the branch of botany that studies the cultivation of grapes. ³
% $, n.
anamorphosis
an abnormal change in the form of a plant that falsely gives it the appearance of a different species. ³ 
$, adj.
anisotropy
the state or condition of certain flowers or plants of having different dimensions along different axes. Oee also physics. ³
, adj.
batology
the branch of botany that studies brambles. ³  %, n.
bisymmetry
in botany, the condition of having two planes of symmetry at right angles to one another. ³ 

, 

 , adj.
botany
a major division of biology that studies all plant life. Also called $% ³   n. ³    adj.
bryology
the branch of botany that studies mosses and liverworts. ³ % n.
caprification
the pollination process of figs, in which fig wasps, attracted by the caprifigs, or inedible fig-fruit, pollinate the figs. ³    

caricologist
a person who specializes in the study of sedges.
carpology
the branch of botany that studies the structure of fruits and seeds. ³  %  ³  %  adj.
chromatism
abnormal coloration in parts of a plant that are usually green. Oee also color.
cryptogamist
one proficient in cryptogamic botany, i.e., the study of plants, as ferns and mosses, that have no true flowers or seeds.
dendrology
the branch of botany that studies trees. ³ % n. ³ % %  adj.
epiphytology
the study of the character, ecology, and causes of plant diseases, as blight, which destroy a large number of susceptible plants in a
large area simultaneously. ³ $% n.
ethnobotany
a specialty in botany that studies the lore and uses of plants as illustrative of the customs of a (usually primitive) society. ³
$  n. ³ $  $   adj.
filicology
the study of ferns. % ³ %
fungology
the scientific study of fungi. ³ %%  ³ %%  adj.
graminology
agrostology. ³ %
% n. ³ %
% %
%  adj.
herbalist
Obsolete, a descriptive botanist. Oee also plants.
herbarian, herbarist
Obsolete, a herbalist.
herbarism
Obsolete, botany.
herbarium
a collection of dried plants, assembled and arranged for botanical study.
lichenology
the study of lichens. ³ $% n. ³ $% $%  adj.
„inneanism
a system of botanical nomenclature following the binomial procedures established by Owedish botanist arl von „inné. ³
   

  adj.
muscology
the study of mosses. ³
% 
mycology
 the branch of botany that studies fungi.
' a catalogue of the fungi found in a specific area. ³
%  ³
% 
%  adj.
orchidology
the branch of botany or horticulture that studies orchids. ³ $%, n.
phycography
a scientific description of seaweed. ³ $% $, adj.
phycology
algology. ³ $%, n.
phylum
any of the basic divisions of the plant or animal kingdom. $.
phytogenesis
the science and history of the development of plants. Also $%($% $% , adj.
phytogeography
the study of plants according to their geographical distribution. ³ $%% $, n. ³ $%% $ $%% $ ,
adj.
phytography
the branch of botany that studies plant measurement and plant taxonomy. ³ $% $ $% $, n. ³ $% $ 
$% $ , adj.
phytology
botany.
phytosociology
the branch of ecology that studies the interrelations of plants and plant communities. ³ $%, n. ³ $% 
$% . adj.
pomology
 the branch of botany that studies the cultivation of fruit.
' the science of growing, storing, and processing fruit. ³ 
%, n.
pteridography
the systematic description of ferns.
pteridology
the branch of botany that studies ferns. %. ³ %, n.
Ochwendenerism
the theory that lichens are parasitic fungi growing upon algae, first advanced by the -erman botanist O. Ochwendener.
sphagnology
the study of the sphagnum mosses. ³ $ %%, n.
stirpiculture
selective breeding to develop strains with particular characteristics. ³  , adj.
symphyogenesis
production by union of elements that were formerly separate. ³ 
$%, adj.
tautonym
a botanical or zoological name in which two terms are combined, the generic name and the specific, with both being the same. (a
practice no longer approved by the International ode of Botanical comenclature.)
uredinology
a branch of mycology that studies rusts. ³ %, n.