Economic, social, and environmental

elements of development
Published: September 23, 2008, 3:16 pm
Edited: September 23, 2008, 3:16 pm
Lead Authors: Munasinghe Institute for Sustainable Develo, Mohan Munasinghe
Topics: Sustainable Development, Environmental Economics
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This article has been reviewed by the following Topic Editor: Cutler Cleveland
Note: The author welcomes comments, which may be sent to MIND.

Table of Contents

1 Need for integration

2 Optimality
3 Durability
4 Complementarity and convergence of optimal and durable approaches
5 Poverty, equity, population and sustainable natural resource use
5.1 Dimensions of equity and poverty
5.2 Population and natural resource use
6 Notes
7 Further Reading

Need for integration

It is important to integrate and reconcile the economic, social and environmental aspects
within a holistic and balanced sustainable development framework. Economic analysis
has a special role in contemporary national policy making, since many important
decisions fall within the economic domain. Unfortunately, mainstream economics which
is used for practical policy making has often ignored the environmental and social
dimensions of sustainable development. However, there is a small but growing body of
literature which seeks to address such shortcomings – e.g., Ecological Economics, and
Conservation Ecology.
Figure 1: Sustainable development triangle – key elements and interconnections (corners,
sides, center). (Source: adapted from Munasinghe [1992a, 1994a])

As a prelude to integration, it is useful to compare the concepts of ecological, social and

economic sustainability. One useful idea is that of the maintenance of the set of
opportunities, as opposed to the preservation of the value of the asset base [1]. In fact, if
preferences and technology vary through successive generations, merely preserving a
constant value of the asset base becomes less meaningful. By concentrating on the size of
the opportunity set, the importance of biodiversity conservation becomes more evident,
for the sustainability of an ecosystem. The preservation of biodiversity allows the system
to retain resilience by protecting it from external shocks, while the maintenance of stocks
of manufactured capital protects future consumption. Differences emerge because
economics indicates that a society which consumes its fixed capital without replacement
is not sustainable, whereas using an ecological approach, unsustainable loss of
biodiversity and resilience implies a reduction in the self-organization of the system, but
not necessarily a loss in productivity. In the case of social systems, resilience depends to
a certain extent on the capacity of human societies to adapt and continue functioning in
the face of stress and shocks. Thus, linkages between socio-cultural and ecological
sustainability emerge through their interactions, organizational similarities between
human societies and ecological systems, and the parallels between biodiversity and
cultural diversity. From a longer term perspective, the concept of co-evolution of social,
economic and ecological systems within a larger, more complex adaptive system,
provides useful insights regarding the harmonious integration of the various elements of
sustainable development – Figure 1 and Chapter 4 [2].

Optimality and durability are two broad approaches that help to integrate the economic,
environmental and social dimensions of sustainable development. While there are
overlaps between the two methods, the main thrust is somewhat different in each case.
Uncertainty often plays a key role in determining which approach would be preferred.
For example, a system modeler expecting relatively steady and well-ordered conditions
may pursue an optimal solution that attempts to control and even fine-tune theoretical
outcomes. Meanwhile, a subsistence farmer facing chaotic and unpredictable
circumstances might opt for a more durable and practical response that simply enhances
survival prospects.

Optimality
The optimality-based approach has been widely used in economic analysis to generally
maximize welfare (or utility), subject to the requirement that the stock of productive
assets (or welfare itself) is non-decreasing in the long term This assumption is common to
most sustainable economic growth models, as reviewed by Pezzey [3] and Islam [4]. The
essence of the approach is illustrated by the simple example of maximization of the flow
of aggregate welfare (W), cumulatively discounted over infinite time (t), as represented
by the expression:

<math>Max int_{0}^{infty} W(C,Z) e^{-rt}, dt</math>

Here, W is a function of C (the consumption rate), Z (a set of other relevant variables),

and r is the discount rate. Further side constraints may be imposed to satisfy sustainability
needs – e.g., non-decreasing stocks of productive assets (including natural resources).
The welfare maximizing, optimality-based approach underlies commonly used economic
techniques like shadow pricing and cost-benefit analysis.

Some ecological models also optimize variables like energy use, nutrient flow, or
biomass production – giving more weight to system vigor as a measure of sustainability.
In economic models, utility is measured mainly in terms of the net benefits of economic
activities, i.e., the benefits minus the costs [5] (Chapter 3). More advanced economic
optimization methods seek to include environmental and social variables (e.g., by valuing
environmental externalities, system resilience, etc.). However, given the difficulties of
valuing such ‘non-economic’ assets, the costs and benefits associated with market-based
activities dominate in most economic optimization models.

Within this framework, the optimal growth path maximizes economic output, while
sustainability rules are met by ensuring non-decreasing stocks of assets (or capital). Some
analysts support a ‘strong sustainability’, which requires separate preservation of each
type of critical asset (e.g., manufactured, natural, socio-cultural and human capital),
assuming that they are complements rather than substitutes [6]. Others have argued for
‘weak sustainability,’ which seeks to maintain the aggregate monetary value of total
stocks of all assets, assuming that various asset types may be valued and that there is
some degree of substitutability among them [7].

Side constraints are often necessary, because the underlying basis of economic valuation,
optimization and efficient use of resources may not be easily applied to ecological
objectives like protecting biodiversity and improving resilience, or to social goals such as
promoting equity, public participation and empowerment. Thus, such environmental and
social variables cannot be easily combined into a single valued objective function with
other measures of economic costs and benefits. Moreover, the price system (which has
time lags) might fail to anticipate reliably irreversible environmental and social harm, and
non-linear system responses that could lead to catastrophic collapse. In such cases, non-
economic measures of environmental and social status would be helpful – e.g., area under
forest cover, and incidence of conflict [8]. The constraints on critical environmental and
social indicators are proxies representing safe thresholds, which help to maintain the
viability of those systems. Multi-criteria analysis facilitates trade-offs among a variety of
non-commensurable variables and objectives. Risk and uncertainty will also necessitate
the use of decision analysis tools. Recent work has underlined the social dimension of
decision science, by pointing out that risk perceptions are subjective and depend on the
risk measures used, as well as other factors such as ethno-cultural background, socio-
economic status, and gender [9].

Durability
The second broad integrative approach focuses primarily on sustaining the quality of life
– e.g., by satisfying environmental, social and economic sustainability requirements.
Such a framework favors ‘durable’ development paths that permit growth, but are not
necessarily economically optimal. There is more willingness to trade off some economic
optimality for the sake of greater safety, in order to stay within critical environmental and
social limits – e.g., among increasingly risk-averse and vulnerable societies or individuals
who face chaotic and unpredictable conditions. The economic constraint might be framed
in terms of maintaining consumption levels (defined broadly to include environmental
services, leisure and other ‘non-economic’ benefits) – i.e., per capita consumption that
never falls below some minimum level, or is non-declining. The environmental and social
sustainability requirements may be measured by indicators of ‘state’ relating to the
durability or health (resilience, vigor and organization) of ecological and socio-economic
systems. For example, consider a simple durability index (D) for an ecosystem measured
in terms of its expected lifespan (in a healthy state), as a fraction of the normal lifespan.
We might specify: D = D(R,V,O,S) ; to indicate the dependence of durability on
resilience (R), vigor (V), organization (O), and the state of the external environment (S) –
especially in relation to potentially damaging shocks. Further interaction between the
sustainability of social and ecological systems may be relevant – e.g., social conflict
could exacerbate damage to ecosystems, and vice versa. For example, long-standing
social norms in many traditional societies have helped to protect the environment [10].

Durability encourages a holistic systemic viewpoint, which is important in sustainomics

analysis. The self-organizing and internal structure of ecological and socioeconomic
systems makes ‘the whole more durable (and valuable) than the sum of the parts’
(Chapter 4). A narrow measure of merit based on marginal analysis of individual
components may be misleading [11]. For example, it is more difficult to value the
integrated functional diversity in a forest ecosystem than the individual species of trees
and animals. Therefore, the former is more likely to fall victim to market failure (as an
externality). Furthermore, use of simple environmental shadow prices could lead to
homogenization and reductions in system diversity [12]. Systems analysis helps to identify
the benefits of cooperative structures and behavior, which a more partial analysis may
neglect. Durability is also linked to the well-known concept of “satisficing” behavior,
where individuals seek to reach a minimum level of satisfaction, without striving to
achieve the maximum possible value [13].

The possibility of many durable paths favors simulation-based methods, including

consideration of alternative world views and futures (rather than one optimal result). This
approach is consonant with recent research on integrating human actors into ecological
models [14]. Key elements include multiple-agent modeling to account for heterogeneous
behavior, recognition of bounded rationality leading to different perceptions and biases,
and emphasis on social links which give rise to responses like imitation, reciprocity and
comparison.

In the durability approach, sustainability constraints could be met by maintaining stocks

of assets (as for optimality). Here, the various forms of capital are viewed as a bulwark
that decreases vulnerability to external shocks and reduces irreversible harm, rather than
mere accumulations of assets that produce economic outputs. System resilience, vigor,
organization and ability to adapt will depend dynamically on the capital endowment as
well as the magnitude and rate of change of a shock.

Complementarity and convergence of optimal and

durable approaches
National economic management provides good examples of how the two approaches
complement one another. For example, economy-wide policies involving both fiscal and
monetary measures (e.g., taxes, subsidies, interest rates and foreign exchange rates) might
be optimized on the basis of quantitative macroeconomic models. Nevertheless, decision
makers inevitably modify these economically ‘optimal’ policies before implementing
them, to take into account other sociopolitical considerations based more on durability
(e.g., protection of the poor, regional factors), which facilitate governance and stability.
Setting an appropriate target for future global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (and
corresponding GHG concentration) provides another useful illustration of the interplay of
the durability and optimality approaches [15] (Chapter 5}.

The complementarity and convergence of the two approaches may be practically realized
in several ways. First, waste generation should be limited tot rates less than or equal to
the assimilative capacity of the environment. Second, the utilization of scarce renewable
resources should be limited to rates less than or equal to their natural rate of regeneration.
Third, non-renewable resources need to be managed in relation to the substitutability
between these resources and technological progress. Both wastes and natural resource
input use might be reduced, by moving from the linear throughput to the closed loop
mode. Thus, factory complexes could be designed in clusters – based on the industrial
ecology concept – to maximize the circular flow of materials and recycling of wastes
among plants. Finally, additional aspects should be considered (at least in the form of
safe limits or constraints), including inter- and intra-generational equity (poverty
alleviation), pluralistic and consultative decision making, and enhanced social values and
institutions.
Greenhouse gas mitigation provides one example of how such an integrative framework
could help to incorporate climate change policies within a national sustainable
development strategy. The rate of total GHG emissions (G) may be decomposed by
means of the following identity:

G = [Q/P] x [Y/Q] x [G/Y] x P -- (2.1)

where [Q/P] is quality of life per capita; [Y/Q] is the material consumption required per
unit of quality of life; [G/Y] is the GHG emission per unit of consumption; and P is the
population. A high quality of life [Q/P] can be consistent with low total GHG emissions
[G], provided that each of the other three terms on the right hand side of the identity
could be minimized (see ‘tunnelling’ in "Restructuring development and growth for
greater sustainability"). Reducing [Y/Q] implies ‘social decoupling’ (or
‘dematerialization’) whereby satisfaction becomes less dependent on material
consumption, through changes in tastes, behavior and values – more sustainable
consumption. Similarly [G/Y] may be reduced by ‘technological decoupling’ (or
‘decarbonization’) that reduces the intensity of GHG emissions in both consumption and
production. Finally, population growth needs to be reduced, especially where emissions
per capita are already high. The links between social and technological decoupling need
to be explored [16] – changes in public perceptions and tastes could affect the directions of
technological progress, and influence the effectiveness of mitigation and adaptation
capacity and policies. A range of economic and social policy instruments may be used to
make both consumption and production patterns more sustainable. Policy tools include
market incentives and pricing, legislation and controls, improved technological
alternatives, and consumer education (Chapters 5 and 14).

Climate change researchers are currently exploring the application of large and complex
integrated assessment models or IAMs, which contain coupled submodels that represent a
variety of ecological, geophysical and socioeconomic systems [17]. Both optimality and
durability might be appropriately applied to the various submodels within an IAM.

Poverty, equity, population and sustainable natural

resource use
This section examines key issues in the nexus of poverty-equity-population-natural
resources, from a holistic sustainomics perspective.

Dimensions of equity and poverty

Equity and poverty are two important issues, which have mainly social and economic
dimensions, and also some environmental aspects. Compelling worldwide statistics were
given in "Rationale and motivations for sustainomics". Meanwhile, income disparities are
worsening – the per capita ratio between the richest and the poorest 20 percentile groups
was 30 to 1 in 1960 and over 60 to 1 by 2000.
Equity is an ethical and people-oriented concept with primarily social, and some
economic and environmental dimensions. It focuses on the fairness of both the processes
and outcomes of decision making. The equity of an action may be assessed in terms of
several approaches, including parity, proportionality, priority, utilitarianism, and
Rawlsian distributive justice. Rawls stated that “Justice is the first virtue of social
institutions, as truth is of systems of thought” [18]|. Societies seek to achieve equity by
balancing and combining several of these criteria.

Economic policies aiming to increase overall human welfare have been used for poverty
alleviation, improved income distribution and intra-generational (or spatial) equity [19].
Brown points out shortcomings in the utilitarian approach, which underlies the economic
approach to equity [20]. Broadly speaking, economic rules provide guidance on producing
and consuming goods and services more efficiently, but are unable to choose the most
equitable outcome among alternative patterns of efficient consumption. Equity principles
provide better tools for making judgments about such choices.

Social equity is also linked to sustainability, because highly skewed or unfair

distributions of income and social benefits are less likely to be acceptable or lasting in the
long run. Equity will be strengthened by enhancing pluralism and grass-roots
participation in decision making, as well as by empowering disadvantaged groups
(defined by income, gender, ethnicity, religion, caste, etc.) [21]. In the long term,
considerations involving inter-generational equity and safeguarding the rights of future
generations, are key factors. In particular, the economic discount rate plays a key role
with respect to both equity and efficiency aspects [22].

Equity in the environmental sense has received more attention recently, because of the
disproportionately greater environmental damages suffered by disadvantaged groups.
Thus, poverty alleviation efforts (that traditionally focused on raising monetary incomes)
are being broadened to address the degraded environmental and social conditions facing
the poor. Martinez-Allier argues that the poor who rely more directly on natural resources
are often good environmental managers, whereas the rich impose a more harmful
environmental footprint through the indirect effects of their consumption [23]. Munasinghe
challenges the common belief that poverty and population growth per se are harmful to
nature [24], which conceals a crucial equity issue – the poor although more numerous
consume far less than the rich (see below).

In summary, both equity and poverty have not only economic, but also social and
environmental dimensions, and therefore, they need to be assessed using a
comprehensive set of indicators (rather than income distribution alone). From an
economic policy perspective, emphasis needs to be placed on expanding employment and
gainful opportunities for poor people through growth, improving access to markets, and
increasing both assets and education. Social policies would focus on empowerment and
inclusion, by making institutions more responsive to the poor, and removing barriers that
exclude disadvantaged groups. Environmentally related measures to help poor people
might seek to reduce their vulnerability to disasters and extreme weather events, crop
failures, loss of employment, sickness, economic shocks, etc. Thus, an important
objective of poverty alleviation is to provide poor people with assets (e.g., enhanced
physical, human and financial resources) that will reduce their vulnerability. Such assets
increase the capacity for both coping (i.e., making short-run changes) and adapting (i.e.,
making permanent adjustments) to external shocks [25].

The foregoing ideas merge quite naturally with the sustainable livelihoods approach to
poverty alleviation. We identify three key aspects of livelihoods that are important for the
sustainability of poverty programs [26]. First, there are gainful activities that people engage
in, ranging from formal, full-time employment to seasonal, informal and ad-hoc jobs,
which provide only a bare subsistence income in both urban and rural settings. Second,
access to productive assets and the services they provide are important. Economic assets
consist of the familiar manufactured capital like machines and buildings. Key
environmental assets, which draw on the base of natural capital are often overlooked.
Social capital is equally important and includes social, political and other processes and
institutions, which facilitate human interactions, and are linked to values, culture and
behavioral norms. Third, there are rights and entitlements, which are especially important
for poor and destitute groups to meet basic needs for survival [27]. Other authors have
identified five types of assets that are important for sustainable livelihoods: human,
social, natural, physical and financial [28].

An even broader non-anthropocentric approach to equity involves the concept of fairness

in the treatment of non-human forms of life or even inanimate nature. One view asserts
that humans have the responsibility of prudent ‘stewardship’ (or ‘trusteeship’) over
nature, which goes beyond mere rights of usage [29].

Population and natural resource use

The linkage between population and natural resource use is also complex, and needs to be
studied in the context of poverty and equity [30]. Sustainomics encourages us to take a
balanced view, where people are seen as a resource, and not necessarily an unsustainable
burden. One general belief is that the growth of poor population is harmful to natural
resources, starting with Malthus [31]. For example, a widely cited article on conservation
of wild living resources [32] asserts provocatively that “the only practicable way to reduce
human per capita resource demand is to stabilize and then decrease the human
population”. This proposition is misleading and detracts from the overall content of an
otherwise authoritative and comprehensive paper. No convincing evidence exists to link
per capita natural resource demand with population size. Even the link between total
resource use and population is complex and cannot be captured adequately by a simple
statement.

Consider the earlier equation, rewritten to show total natural resource use as: N = [N/P] x
P. Here P is the population, and [N/P] is per capita natural resource use. An exclusive
focus on population control is one-sided, because high levels of per capita consumption
are as much to blame for resource depletion as is simple population growth. Currently, a
mere 15 percent of the world’s rich population consume over sixteen times as much as
the almost 60 percent of the poor population (and will do so for the foreseeable future). A
more equitable and balanced viewpoint would recognize the implications of both
population and per capita consumption for sustainability. Furthermore, the growth rates
of per capita consumption and population among the rich should be matters of greater
concern, than the same indices among the poor.

Environmental degradation, population and poverty are known to form a nexus with
complex interactions. The poor are the most frequent victims of both pollution and
resource degradation usually caused by the rich – which is inequitable. At the same time,
there are macro-circumstances in which the landless poor are forced to encroach on
fragile lands, eventually degrading their own environment [33]. A comprehensive multi-
agency report argued recently that poverty alleviation requires environmental protection,
and that both objectives should be pursued simultaneously [34]. Grima et al. discuss
reconciliation of the opposing viewpoints of ecologists favoring natural resource
sustainability [35], and economists promoting development and poverty alleviation, under
four different themes – institutions, ecotourism, measurement indicators, and fragile
lands. Meanwhile, population growth itself depends on many factors, including not only
the highly visible elements like family planning programs, but also deeper underlying
factors such as education level (especially of women), the status of women, family
income, access to basic needs and financial security [36].

A simple mathematical exposition suggests that the common wisdom linking population
growth with natural resource depletion is not necessarily as straightforward as it seems
[37]
. Consider a society which has a population P and a stock of natural resources N. One
useful indicator of the sustainability of natural resource stocks would be the ratio R =
N/P. More specifically, one might seek a development path in which this ratio was non-
decreasing. Thus, sustainability would require that dR/dt ≥ 0. A more convenient
sustainability rule may be defined as:

S = (dR/dt) / R = [(d/dt) (W/P)] / [W/P] ≥ 0

It is possible to decompose the measure S to show the distinct effects of growth in natural
resource stocks and growth in population. Assuming that N = N(P,t) and P = P(t), we
obtain:

S = [(∂W/∂t)/N ] – {[(dP/dt)/P] [1 – e]}; where e = (∂N/∂P)/(W/P)

Clearly, the first term […] is positive if (∂W/∂t) > 0; that is, S rises as natural resource
stocks increase over time, holding population constant. However, the sign of the second
term {…} depends on the sign of both (dP/dt) and (1 – e). Thus, reducing the population
(dP/dt < 0) will increase sustainability S, only if e < 1. The opposite condition e > 1 is
more likely to prevail if N/P is low to begin with and ∂N/∂P is relatively high: for
example, if mild population growth stimulates greater efforts towards protecting and
increasing resource stocks. One example might be a community living in an arid area. If
the human population dwindles, the natural progress of desertification could well proceed
unimpeded. By contrast, a growing and thriving population (with increasing income
levels) is likely to devote more efforts towards environmental protection, ensuring that
the condition e > 1 is maintained.

Rapid declines in population growth rates have serious demographic implications – as

many countries are discovering today. The base of the population pyramid shrinks as
birth rates drop and the population ages, leaving a smaller group of productive young
people to support an increasing fraction of elderly and dependent persons. Some
countries have responded by encouraging immigration to increase the labor force. The
policy implications of an aging population include a radical rethinking of many serious
issues including the retirement age, encouraging more productive activity among the
elderly, rebalancing social insurance contributions and pension payments, etc.

The foregoing argument may be summarized as follows. While it is ‘fashionable’ to

automatically assume that people are a threat to natural resources and sustainability, a
good case may be made for considering human beings as a valuable resource for
sustainable development (see "Environmental and social assessment"). Human and
natural resources are complementary. Furthermore, human attitudes towards the
environment and their patterns of economic activity are at least as important as the
number of people. From a sustainomics perspective, if scarce environmental resource
stocks are at risk, building human and social capital through enhanced education,
training, health, and other social services could be the key to unlocking the potential of
poor people and converting a perceived liability into an asset. The third element of the
sustainable development triangle (economic resources) could also play a role through
improved technology to reduce the pressure on mineral and living wild resources.

To conclude, if both per capita resource demand and population are examined more even-
handedly, some promising options for conservation of natural resources will emerge. A
background factor that cannot be ignored is that economic growth is a prime imperative
for developing countries, especially ones with large numbers of poor and destitute people.
The discussion in "Restructuring development and growth for greater sustainability"
shows how growth could be re-structured to make development more sustainable, and
how policies might be tailored to find a more sustainable path or “tunnel”.

What is Development?
Volunteering & Development > What is Development?
Development is a complex issue, with many different and sometimes contentious definitions. A basic
perspective equates development with economic growth. The United Nations Development
Programme uses a more detailed definition- according to them development is 'to lead long and
healthy lives, to be knowledgeable, to have access to the resources needed for a decent
standard of living and to be able to participate in the life of the community.'
Achieving human development is linked to a third perspective of development which views it as
freeing people from obstacles that affect their ability to develop their own lives and communities.
Development, therefore, is empowerment: it is about local people taking control of their own
lives, expressing their own demands and finding their own solutions to their problems.
Why learn about Development?
Volunteers travel to developing countries to work on a huge variety of projects such as assisting in
under-resourced schools, offering expertise at under-equipped medical facilities, campaigning on
human rights issues, providing care for HIV/AIDS orphans, promoting improved agricultural practices
and so on. But why do these problems exist in the first place and why are they not easily solved
through our goodwill and charity?
Learning about development can help us understand more about the causes of and solutions to these
problems and can help us be better informed volunteers, addressing not just the superficial poverty
related issues but the deeper rooted causes as well. It can help us to have a more complex and
accurate impression of the developing world than what is commonly shown to us through charity
advertising. It can also help us when we return to educate others about the issues involved.
Question: What Is Development?
Answer: Development describes the growth of humans throughout the lifespan, from
conception to death. The scientific study of human development seeks to understand and
explain how and why people change throughout life. This includes all aspects of human
growth, including physical, emotional, intellectual, social, perceptual, and personality
development.

The scientific study of development is important not only to psychology, but also to sociology,
education, and health care. Development does not just involve the biological and physical
aspects of growth, but also the cognitive and social aspects associated with development
throughout life.

The study of human development is important in a number of subjects, including biology,

anthropology, sociology, education, history, and psychology. Most important, however, are the
practical applications of studying human development. By better understanding how and why
people change and grow, we can then apply this knowledge to helping people live up to their
full potential.