UNIT - I

COMPONENTS OF ENVIRONMENT
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The term environment is a Greek word meaning ‘surroundings’. The air, soil, water,
trees, lakes, rivers, sky and the various systems existing in the nature are called
Environment. All the above nature is seed have used to meet human life. We get food to
eat water to drink, to breath and all necessities of day to day life from the Environment.
DEFINITION
Environment can be defined in a number of ways. Some of the definitions are:
I. The sum of all social, biological and physical or chemical factors which compose the
surrounding of man.
2. Environment is the representative of physical and chemical components of the earth
wherein man is the important factor influencing the surroundings.
3. The sum of all living and non-living factors makes the environment of an organism.

MACRO ENVIRONMENT
A general environment to which an individual is exposed. Air, Noise, Soil, Water.
MICRO ENVIRONMENT
It can be defined as the specific environment of an individual which he lives or an
immediate environment of an individual.
E.g.: Garden, Park, House, Occupation
1.2 COMPONENTS OF ENVIRONMENT:
The life supporting environment of planet Earth (which is called as biosphere) is
composed of the following three media.
1. Air (Atmosphere).
2. Water (Hydrosphere).

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 3. Land (Lithosphere).
1.2.1 Atmosphere:
 Atmosphere is a thin layer of mixed gases covered over the earth. It is
composed of mixed gases which make up the air we breathe.
 The main function of the atmosphere is to filter the sunlight reaching the
earth. The atmosphere screens the dangerous UV radiations from the sun
and allows radiations only in the range of 300nm to 2500nm (near UV to
near IR) and radio waves.
 The atmosphere plays a major role in maintaining the heat balance of the
Earth by absorbing the reemitted radiation from the earth.
 Atmosphere protects the earth from cosmic radiations and provides life
sustaining Oxygen, the macronutrient N2 and CO2 needed for
photosynthesis.
 The mass of the atmosphere amounts to about 5.7 x 1015 tonnes of air.
 Most of the biogeochemical cycles operate between the organisms and the
atmosphere.
 The processes of evaporation, transpiration and precipitation of water
occur between the atmosphere and Earth’s surface.
Composition of air:
COMPONENT % BY VOLUME
Nitrogen 78.08
Oxygen 20.93
Argon 0.93
Carbon dioxide 0.03
Miscellaneous 0.03
Small amounts of H2, He, O3, Ra, Ne, Xe, Kr, SO2, NH3, CH4, H2S etc are part of
the miscellaneous components of the air.
Structure of atmosphere:
The vertical structure of the atmosphere consists of the following layers.
1. Troposphere
2. Stratosphere

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3. Mesosphere
4. Thermosphere
5. Exosphere
1. Troposphere:
 It is the lower most layer of the atmosphere.
 This portion extends about 8km over the Earth at the poles and 16km over the
Earth at the Equator.
 Living organisms exists in this region and has strong air movement and cloud
formation.
 The temperature in this region drops rapidly from -50 to -60oC.
 The variation of temperature in this region is inversely proportional to the
altitude.
 Nitrogen (78.08%), Oxygen (20.93%) are the major composition of
troposphere air.
 The pollutants in this region are easily diluted or removed by means of rainfall
and settling.
 The narrow boundary of the troposphere is called as troposphere. The
troposphere has constant temperature.
2. Stratosphere:
 The word stratosphere is related to ‘Stratification’ or ‘layering’.
 It has a fairly constant temperature of about 0 oC.
 This region has sufficient amount of ozone. Hence it is also called as
ozonosphere. The amount of ozone varies from time to time.
 The ozone layer absorbs short wavelength ultra violet solar radiation from the
sun. That increases the temperature of the stratosphere with altitude.
 This region is free from clouds and airplanes usually fly in the lower zone.
 Unlike the troposphere, which cools with altitude, the stratosphere warms with
altitude.
3. Mesosphere:
 It is the portion above the stratosphere.
 It extends about 90 to 100km above the Earth’s surface.

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  In this portion the temperature decreases with altitude.
 This region has cold temperature and low atmospheric pressure.
 The temperature drops about -75 oC.
 The outer portion is called as Mesopause.
4. Thermosphere:
 It extends about 500km above the Earth’s surface.
 This region has more temperature than the mesopause.
 In this portion the temperature increases with altitude.
 It contains mixture of N2 and O2 in the ratio of 1:1.
 The outer portion of the thermosphere is called as ionosphere.
 In the ionosphere, the temperature is about 2000oC and it is characterized by
ionization of O2 molecules.
5. Exosphere:
 It is the upper most layer of the Earth’s atmosphere.
 It extends about 32000km from the surface of the Earth.
 In this region, the atoms and particles are away from each other and the
collision of particles occurs vary rarely.
 The density of air is very low in this region.
 In this region of atmosphere, H2, He is the dominant element.
1.2.2 Lithosphere:
The Earth is a cooled, spherical, solid planet of solar system, which rotates on its
own axis as well as revolves around the sun at a certain constant distance.
The solid component of the Earth is called Lithosphere. Land is major portion of
the lithosphere.
STRUCTURE OF EARTH:
The Earth consists of different layers. The main layers are
1) Crust
2) Mantle
3) Core

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1. Core:
 It is the central fluid or vaporized sphere of lithosphere.
 Radius of the core is about 3440km from the centre of the Earth.
 Inner core and outer core are the two subdivisions of the core.
 The outer core is in liquid state and inner core is in solid state.
 The major components existing in this layer are Nickel and Iron.
 The inner core contains nearly pure iron, where as the outer core contains
predominantly iron.
 The thickness of the outer core is about 2140km and the inner core is about
1300km.
2. Mantle:
 It extends about 2900km above the core.
 This is in molten state.
 It consists of three portions such as upper mantle (400km), transition zone
(300km) and lower mantle (2200km).
 The density of the lower mantle is more or less equal to that of the upper
mantle.

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  The components of upper mantle are Olivine, Pyroxene and garnet, all are
silicate materials.
 The transition zone consists of chemically modified forms of Olivine,
Pyroxene and garnet.
 Oxygen is the most predominant element and silicon is the second most
abundant element in the mantle.
 In the lower mantle, oxygen is available in oxides.
 The components of the lower mantle are silica (SiO2), Magnesium oxide
(MgO) and iron oxide (FeO).
3. Crust:
 It is the outer most solid layer of the Earth. Its surface is covered with soil.
 It is the only part that is supporting rich and varied biotic communities.
 The crust and the upper mantle together constitute the lithosphere.
 It is about 30km above the mantle.
 Oxygen is the most predominant element and silicon is the second most
abundant element.
 Silicates of Al, Ca, Fe, Mg, K and Na are abundantly available in the crust.
1.2.3 Hydrosphere:
Leonardo da Vinci said, “Water is the driver of life on the Earth”. The human body
consists about 65% of water. Among many essential elements for the existence of living
beings water is rated as the most important. cannot Being a universal solvent, it is the
important factor in determining the structure, function and distribution of ecosystems.
The process of growth, respiratory mechanism and reproduction are the vital
processes that are affected by water availability.
The original source of water is precipitation from the atmosphere. About 75% of the
Earth’s surface is covered by hydrosphere.

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Hydrologic cycle:

Hydrologic cycle is defined as the interchange of water between the atmosphere

and the Earth’s surface.
Evaporation of water from water bodies (like oceans and lakes) and transpiration
of water from green plants form clouds in the atmosphere. By cooling of the clouds,
precipitation of the water is produced. It makes runoff over the Earth’s surface. The
runoff is taken by the soil ands the plants for photosynthesis and the excess water flows
in to the streams, rivers, lakes and oceans. Approximately about 2/3 of the precipitation
evaporates quickly or transpired by vegetations. Flood and drought are caused by natural
variations in precipitation.
Fresh water Environment:
Fresh water is the home for numerous organisms and it can be divided into two
groups.
1. Standing water (or) Lentic water. Eg: Lake, pond, swamp etc.
2. Running water (or) Lotic water. Eg: Spring, stream, river etc.
Zones of Aquatic environment:
The aquatic environment can be divided into three zones.
1. Littoral zone.
2. Limnetic zone.
3. Profundal zone.
1. Littoral zone:

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 It is the top layer of the lake. Light can reach up to the bottom of this layer.
Rooted plants occupy this portion and they have projected leaves above the water
surface for photosynthesis. Mesophytic plants and phytoplanktons are usually found
in this zone. In this region frog, turtles and water snakes are also found.
2. Limnetic zone:
This is the intermediate zone of a lake. The depth of this zone is up to the depth of
effective light penetration. Plankton, nektons and neustons are the biotic community
in this zone. This zone includes floating hydrophytes and submerged hydrophytes.
The primary produces of this zone are hydrophytes and phytoplanktons. The
consumers of this zone are zooplankton, fish and others.

3. Profundal zone: it is the bottom and deep most portion of the lake. The
sunlight does not penetrate in this zone. Hence producer organisms are
present in this zone. The organisms living in the bottom sediments are called
as benthos.
Fresh water organisms:
Benthos → organisms living in bottom sediments.
Periphyton → organisms living on stems and leaves.
Plankton → organisms flying with the water current.
Nekton → organisms swimming and navigating in water.
Neuston → organisms resting or swimming on the water surface.

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1.3 INTER RELATION BETWEEN COMPONENTS:
There exists an intimate relationship between the various components of environment
such as air, land or soil and water. There is a constant and continuous exchange of
essential elements between the living organisms and environment. The essential chemical
elements such as Nitrogen, Oxygen, Carbon, Phosphorus and Sulphur which form the
basic constituents of protoplasm of all living organisms are only derived from the
external environment. Primarily interrelationship between the various environmental
components is necessarily constituted by two important processes.
Example: biogeochemical cycles and photosynthetic mechanism.
1.3.1 Photosynthesis:
The biochemical mechanism involving the formation of starch in green plants in
the presence of chlorophyll pigments and sunlight is called photosynthesis.
CO2 + H2O Sunlight Starch + O2 ↑
Chlorophyll
The repeated sequences of both light and dark reactions result in the subsequent
generation of starch as final source of energy for the green plants.
1.4 ECOSYSTEM
The term eco means ‘environment’ and system means ‘coordinated complex’. The
ecosystem is the basic functional unit in ecology.
It consists of living organisms (biotic) and non-living substances (Abiotic) and their
interactions.
Definition
According to Odum Ecosystem is the basic fundamental unit in ecology which
includes both the organisms and the non-living environment, each influencing the
properties of other and interact necessary for the maintenance of life.
1.4.1 TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM
Ecosystem is broadly classified into 2 major types Natural and artificial. Natural
ecosystem is the one which is formed by the nature without the dependence of man. It is
further divided in to two categories: Terrestrial Ecosystem and Aquatic system. Artificial
ecosystem is the one which is formed by the activity of man based on their needs.
Eg: Crop fields and Gardens.

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 Ecosystem

Natural Artificial
E.g. cropping of lands

Terrestrial Aquatic
E.g. Forest,
Grassland,
Desert

Fresh water Marine water

Lentic Lotic
(Stagnant) (Free flowing)

Terrestrial Ecosystem
It is the study of the ecosystem on the land area. Eg: Grassland ecosystem, Desert
ecosystem, forest ecosystem.
Aquatic Ecosystem
It is the study of the ecosystem on water. It is further classified into the following two
types on the basis salt contents in water.
1. Fresh water ecosystem, e.g., Pond, Lake, River.
2. Marine or Oceanic ecosystem e.g., Ocean ecosystem
1.4.2 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF AN ECOSYSTEM
An ecosystem has two major components.
I. Abiotic components,
2. Biotic components.

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1. ABIOTIC COMPONENTS
They are non-living components composed of inorganic substances such as water,
oxygen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, etc. and the organic
substances like proteins, carbohydrates, fats, amino acids, and the physical factors like
light, temperature, wind and humidity.
2. BIOTIC COMPONENTS
They are living organisms.
(a) Autotrophs Producers Mainly Green Plants
(b) Heterotrophs: Consumers Mainly animals
(c) Decomposer: Mainly bacteria and fungi
a) AUTOTROPHS (or) PRODUCERS:
Producers are autotrophic organisms like chemosynthetic and Photosynthetic bacteria,
blue green algae, and other green plants. These organisms capture solar energy from
sunlight and with the help of the abiotic factors they will prepare the food materials in the
form of carbohydrate, proteins, lipids and fats by the process of photosynthesis.
b) HETEROTROPHS (or) CONSUMERS
Heterotrophs are the organisms which depend directly or indirectly upon the
autotrophs for their food and they are called Consumers. They are again further
subdivided in to three types. They are
(a) Primary Consumers
They are Herbivorous animals that depend directly on green plants for their food. e.g.,
rabbit, goat, deer, cow, horse.
(b) Secondary Consumers
They are Carnivores which feed on the primary consumers. They are chiefly insects,
beetles, mites, termites and fish.
(c) Tertiary Consumers
These are the top carnivores which feed upon the secondary consumer for their food.
e.g., lion, tiger.
c) DECOMPOSERS
Bacteria and fungi are the prime factors of this decomposition process. Enzymes are
secreted from plant and animal debris. The enzymes convert the complex form of the

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dead organism into small molecules which can be absorbed by the fungi. Finally organic
and inorganic salts are the final end product of this decomposition process and it is again
taken up by the plants for photosynthesis.
1.5 FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM
1) In the ecosystem, biotic components and other materials like N2, C, H2, P and S
circulated within and outside of the system.
2) The energy is transferred from one trophic level to the other in the form of a chain
called as food chain.
3) The important source of energy is the sun.
4) Some factors which are responsible for high productivity are high temperature,
rainfall and decomposition of dead organic matter.
5) Climatic changes on functioning of ecosystems.
6) Production, consumption, and Decomposition are functions of ecosystem.
FOOD CHAIN AND FOOD WEBS
FOOD CHAIN
Organisms of an ecosystem are linked together in food chains. A may eat some grass
and the sheep is eaten by an owl or fox.
In food chain, plants are the only link between the biotic and abiotic components of
ecosystem. In any ecosystem a food chain usually starts with green plants. This
sequence is called ‘Food chain’.

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Food Web
In any natural ecosystem depending on the variety of organisms and their food habits and
number of food chains operate simultaneously. Food chains do not operate individually;
they are again interlinked at several points. This type of interlinking pattern of food chain
is called “Food Web’

Ecological Pyramids
In ecosystem food chain process starting from the producer the consumers a regular
decrease in the properties or character (such as number, energy and biomass) of the
organisms. Since energy is lost as heat in each steps becomes progressively sma1ler the
top. This relationship is some times called ecological pyramid.
The pyramids are generally of
(a) Pyramid of numbers,
(b) Pyramid of energy,
(c) Pyramid of biomass.

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PYRAMID OF NUMBERS
In this pyramid there is decrease in the number of individuals from the lower level to the
higher trophic levels. This can be found in. grass land. In the grass land ecosystem, the
grasses occupy the trophic level and they are abundantly present. The second level has
occupied by the deer. The number of deer are less when compared o the grasses. The next
level is wolves. They feed on the deer and are less in number compared with deer. The
lions occupy the next trophic level. They feed on wolves in the last trophic level the
number of individual is the lowest

Pyramid Of Energy
The rate of energy flow and productivity at each successive trophic level is shown below.
In this case there will be decrease in the availability of energy from autotrophs to higher
U levels. In the course of energy flow from one organism to the there is considerable loss
of energy in the form of heat.

Pyramid of Biomass:
The amount of living or organic matter present in an organism is called biomass.
It is a measure of both as fresh and dry weight. Pyramid of biomass is a graphic

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 representation of biomass present sequence wise per unit area of different trophic
levels with producers at the base and top carnivores kept at the tip.
Pyramid of biomass is more real than the pyramid of numbers because the latter
does not take in to consideration the size of the individual.
1.6 ENERGY FLOW AND MATERIALS CYCLING IN ECOSYSTEM
1. It plays an important role in an ecosystem.
2. The efficiency of the producers in absorption and conversion of sunlight
3. Chemical energy is used up by the plants for their activities.
4. The loss through respiration as heat, etc., is called producers because they
manufacture the high molecules. These molecules are used by animals. so
they are consumers.
5. Plants and animals produce wastes and eventually are forming a matter known
as detritus. In the ecosystem the organism use this detritus are known as
decomposers.
6. There are three main groups of organisms within an ecosystem.

1.6.1 BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES / MATERIAL CYCLES:

The characteristic pathway of macro and micronutrients circulation between the
organisms and its environment in the biosphere is called as biogeochemical cycles. (Bio–
Living organisms, Geo – Soil / Rock, Chemical – Nutrients, Cycles – circular
movement).
These cycles are basically of two types.
(i) Gaseous cycle (Like C, O2, N2 cycle)
(ii) Sedimentary cycle (Like P, S cycle)

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 In case of the gaseous cycle, the atmosphere or the hydrosphere is the reservoir of
elements and in the sedimentary cycle, the Earth’s crust or lithosphere is the reservoir of
elements.

CARBON CYCLE
In all the organic compounds, carbon is the basic component. It is consent in the food
components as carbohydrates, proteins, fats and amino acids.
Carbon cycle is an example of gaseous cycle.
The main steps of carbon cycle are,
1. During photosynthesis process plants utilize carbon dioxide to prepare carbohydrates
and liberate oxygen in the presence of sun light. This oxygen is utilized by animals.
2.The green plants are eaten by animal as food. So carbon in the form of plant
carbohydrates passes as food to animals.

S
3. When plant and animals respiration process liberates CO in the atmosphere
4. Combustion of coal and weathering of rocks also release CO to the reservoir pool.
5. Some of the dead plants and animals when this fuel CO is added to the atmosphere.
6. Volcanic eruptions also release CO in atmosphere.
7. The carbon of CO is used again and again by living goes on continuously.

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NITROGEN CYCLE: Nitrogen (N constitutes 78% volume of air.
1. Natural Fixation
(a) Gaseous nitrogen which is converted into nitrates by fixing bacteria and
certain blue green algae.
(b) Lightning also converts gaseous nitrogen and convert the same into nitrates.

2. The nitrogen containing proteins foods are passed to animals.

3. The decomposition of dead plants and animals releases ammonia by the
process called ammonification.
4. Ammonia becomes converted into nitrates or free nitrogen.
These processes are done by bacterial activities.

SEDIMENTARY CYCLE
PHOSPHORUS CYCLE:
Phosphorus cycle is a typical sedimentary cycle without the atmospheric phase. In natural
environment, phosphorus occurs in the form of hydrogen phosphate (HPO4-) or
phosphoric acid (H2PO4). Rocks constitute the major sources of phosphate. These
phosphate forms are formed in the soil by the process of erosion and weathering. The free
phosphate ions enter into the plant bodies through root system by absorption.

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 The phosphate ions pass onto the grazing food chain through herbivores, when
they feed on the plants and subsequently enter into the body of carnivores. The
decomposition of dead plants and animals results in the liberation of inorganic phosphate
ions that are once again utilized by the plants. Bones and teeth from dead body of the
consumers will sediment and again form the phosphate rocks. The faecal excretion of
some animals also contributes to the sources of phosphate ions in the soil. The Guano
deposits built by the birds which live in the deserts of West coast of South America, is a
good example to this.
SULPHUR CYCLE:
Sulphur is available in both gaseous and solid form. In gaseous state it is available
in the form of H2S, SO2 and in the solid form it is available as SO4, SO3 and organic
Sulphur. Like nitrogen, Sulphur is an essential part of proteins and amino acids.
By the process of weathering and erosion, Sulphur is found in the rocks are made
available in the form of inorganic sulphates. These are absorbed from the soil by the
plants through the root system and are utilized for the formation of amino acids and
proteins. The Sulphur in the amino acids finds their way into the bodies of consumers
when they feed on the

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 The excretion and decomposition of dead plants and animals transfer the
Sulphur containing organic compounds back to the soil and aquatic ecosystems from
biotic system. The fungi responsible for decomposition of dead plants include Aspergillus
and Neurospora, bacteria responsible for decomposition are Escherichia and Proteus.
These organic compounds enter into the detritus food chain and are acted on by anaerobic
bacteria resulting in the formation of H2S. These are later oxidized to SO4 by specific
photosynthetic bacteria and are utilized by the autotrophs.
The Sulphur which is removed from the organic phase on the form of inorganic
elemental Sulphur, remain insoluble and become sediment. The iron present in the
sediment reacts with Sulphur to form iron Sulphide and also ferrous Sulphide. Thus,
these Sulphide compounds become heavily incorporated in the sedimentary rocks. Hence
Sulphur cycle continuously operates between the living animals and environment

1.6.2 ENERGY FLOW

Energy is defined as the capacity to do work. Biological activity requires
neutralization of energy which ultimately comes from the sun. a fraction is about
1/50millionth of the total radiation reaches the Earth’s atmosphere. Solar radiation travels
through the space in the form of waves, most radiations are lost in space.
In ecological energetics, we study
(i) Quantity of solar energy reaching an ecosystem.
(ii) Quantity of energy used by green pants for photosynthesis.
(iii) Quantity and path of energy flow from producers to consumers.

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 About 34% of the sunlight reaching the earth’s atmosphere is reflected back into
its atmosphere, 10% is held by ozone layer, water vapour and other atmospheric gases.
The rest 56% reaches the earth’s surface.
Only a fraction of this energy reaches the earth’s surface is used by green plants
for photosynthesis and the rest is absorbed as heat by ground vegetation or water. Infact,
only about 0.02% of the sunlight reaching the atmosphere is used in photosynthesis.
Nevertheless, it is this small fraction on which all the organisms of the ecosystem depend.
The green plants convert the radiant energy received in the form of
electromagnetic waves released from the sun during the transmutation of H2 and He. The
light energy is fixed by the green plants through their chlorophyll pigments by the
process of photosynthesis.
6CO2 + 12H2O chlorophyll C6H12O6+ 6H2O
In the process of photosynthesis 673k.cal energy is fixed for the synthesis of each
molecule of carbohydrate. This is the first step in the production of food and is called as
Gross primary productivity or Gross photosynthesis. Out of the total amount of energy
fixed by the plants, some is released again in respiration. The remaining energy is used in
building up of the tissue and organs. It is called Net primary production or Net
photosynthesis. The chemical energy is stored in the plants are then transfers to
subsequent consumers through the food chain and food web by ‘eating’ and ‘eaten
process’. The behavior of energy in an ecosystem can be termed as energy flow.
The flow of energy is always unidirectional and described by two basic principles
of thermodynamics.
1. Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed but can only be transformed
from one form to another. This is known as the first law of thermodynamics.
The conclusion of this law is energy flow is unidirectional. i.e. the energy
captured by autotrophs does not revert to the solar input. Due to the one way
flow of energy, the system would collapse if the primary source, the sun were
cut off.
2. Energy transfer is always accompanied by dispersion of energy into
unavailable heat (i.e. entropy). This law is known as the second law of
thermodynamics or the law of entropy. From this law, there is a progressive

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 decrease in energy content at each trophic level. This happens due to
dissipation of heat in metabolic activities and is measured as respiration
coupled with unutilized energy.
Energy flow diagram for a lake (Fresh water Ecosystem) in gcal/cm2/yr
(Odum, 1972)

Solar radiation 118.872 Decomposi Decomposi

tion 3.0 tion 0.5 Decomposi
tion trace
Autotrophs
Herbivores Carnivores
Gross Not utilized
GP 15.0 GP 3.0 1.2
production
GP 111.0
Not utilized Not utilized
70.0 7.0

Respiration Respiration Respiration

23.0 4.5 1.8

1.7 DEVELOPMENT AND EVOLUTION OF ECOSYSTEM

Ecosystem development refers to the gradual changes in structure of species and
community processes within an environment. It is also termed as ecological succession.
An unstable community with in a specific environment changes into other forms of
communities from time to time. Conversion of pond community into marshy – land
community is an example for ecological succession.
Basically there are two types of ecological succession:
1) When the changes are caused and induced by the internal factors, the
process is called autogenic succession.
2) When eternal factors outside environment such as storms and fires, force
the changes, the process is called allogenic succession.
In terms of communities, succession is grouped in to two categories.

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 1) Primary Succession: when a new community develops on a sterile area that has
not been previously occupied, it is called primary succession.
2) Secondary succession: When a community starts developing on areas which are
already inhabited by well known communities, it is called secondary succession.
Various developmental stages involved in the development and succession of a
community are called sere. Each of these developmental stages is called serial stage. The
stable community that is finally formed is called climax community. The first groups of
organisms that initiate the sequences of changes of ecosystem development or succession
are known as pioneer species.
1.7.1 Internal and external influences:
Inflow of materials and energy, geological forces and human disturbances are
found to cause serious alterations on the development of an ecosystem. When nutrients
and soil materials enter the lake from outside such as watershed, the process of
eutrophication of Lake Ecosystem occurs. As a result, autogenic succession is converted
in to allergenic succession.
Periodical disturbances would definitely affect successional process when the
ecosystem development occurs for a long duration of time as in the case of forest
development from a bare ground. Abundant storage of nutrient materials and an enhanced
nutrient cycling are very important for the development of an ecosystem.
1.7.2 Evolution of biosphere:
The long termed evolution of ecosystem as biosphere is mostly determined by
external forces called allogenic forces such as geological and climatic changes and
internal processes called autogenic processes that are formed by the activities of the
organisms of the ecosystem. The primitive ecosystems that originated 3 billion years ago
contained mostly anaerobic heterotrophs which depend on the organic matter synthesized
from abiotic processes. This was followed by the massive evolution of algal autotrophs
which converted a reduced atmosphere in to an oxygenic one. From that time onwards,
there has been a steady evolution of organisms with complex and diverse systems
comprising highly organized multicellular bodies.
When life first originated on earth before 3 billion years ago, nitrogen, ammonia,
hydrogen, carbon monoxide, methane and water vapour were the important atmospheric

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constituents and there was no availability of any free oxygen resulted in the lacking of
ozone layer and the UV radiation directly diffused into the terrestrial and aquatic
surfaces. Surprisingly, the dissociation of water vapour formed from small amount of
non-biological oxygen molecules, formed the ozone shield to absorb UV radiation from
reaching Earth surface. This chemical evolution resulted in the generation of amino acids
and other basic organic molecules for the origin of primitive life.
The aquatic yeast anaerobic organisms were the first living organisms to have
evolved and derived their energy source from the anaerobic respiration. Because of non
availability of an effective oxidative respiratory mechanism, primitive life could evolve
into only non nucleated prokaryotes. This could further reveal the existence of life in a
precarious condition for several millions of years. In 1966, Marshall indicated that the
possible origin of life from the bottom of aquatic pools that were fed by the sources of
hot springs that where rich in nutrient cycles. The production of oxygen from the
photosynthetic sources and its subsequent diffusion into the atmosphere before 2 billion
years back laid the structural foundation for the evolution and development of complex
living systems. The increased oxygen concentration in the atmosphere formed a powerful
ozone mantle to filter the harmful ultraviolet radiations. This was followed by the
development of complex multicellular organisms through the process of aerobic
respiration before 1 billion years ago.
Various evolutionary data appears to confirm the fact that first multicellular
organisms called metazoans originated about 700 million ago, when the atmospheric
oxygen content reached about 8%. Subsequent evolution and development of green plants
tremendously increased the sources of oxygen supply that increased the population of
living organisms over the Earth and also favored the evolution of giant sized dinosaurs,
mammals and humans.
1.8 NATURAL AND MAN MADE IMPACTS ON ENVIRONMENT
Man uses the natural resources to make comfortable life to him and his generations. The
water we drink, the air we breathe and the places where we live are getting polluted every
where. In addition to his activities the nature has also made some destruction in the nature
environment. The two main sources of pollution are:
(1) Natural sources of pollution

23
(2) Man made (or) Anthropogenic sources of pollution
Types of Environmental pollution:
The five types of pollution are
1. Air pollution
2. Water pollution
3. Land or soil pollution
4. Radio active pollution
5. Noise pollution
Impacts of Natural sources of pollution:
Some of the natural sources of pollution are:
i) Forest fires produce more smoke and trace gases into the atmosphere.
ii) Explosive Volcanic eruptions can inject more SO2, smoke, particulate matter
and trace gases.
iii) Dust storms are the main cause for wind blow dust in the air.
iv) Natural contaminants present in the air like bacteria, spores, cysts and pollens
are more dangerous when inhaled.
v) Carbon monoxide will be produced from the breakdown of methane gas in the
marsh lands.
vi) Spraying of salts from oceans.
vii) Electrical storms produce oxides of nitrogen in the atmosphere which leads to
ozone depletion.
Impacts of Man made sources of pollution:
The pollution of water, air and land are created and developed every day. They are made
more complicated due to rapid growth of industries and population. Some of the
anthropogenic sources of pollution are
1. Industrial development
2. Rapid growth of Automobiles
3. Uncontrolled population growth
4. Deforestation
5. Over exploitation of natural resources
6. Use of fertilizers, pesticides etc., in agricultural activities

24
 7. Mining activities
8. Nuclear explosions
1.8.1 Impacts on Atmosphere:
 The dust and carbon particle make our cities dirty, spoil our material goods.
 Coal smog reduces visibility and is a major cause of traffic accidents.
 Inhalation of asbestos fibers causes a serious occupational and health problem
(asbestosis), which leads to cancer and even death.
 The exhaust gas of automobiles contains more amount of unburnt fuel with
more carbon monoxide. Inhalation of carbon monoxide in human beings leads
to carboxy hemoglobin, which carries the oxygen carrying capacity of blood.
 The emissions from various types of industries and automobiles contain
Sulphur-dioxide and nitrogen oxides. These gases combine with rain, smog and
fog form acid rain.
 Release of CFC into the atmosphere causes depletion of ozone layer. That
makes more health problems such as skin cancer and eye disorders in human
beings.
 The release of air pollutants into the atmosphere increase the atmospheric
temperature, known as global warming. The major effects are melting of ice
caps, rising in sea levels and variation in seasons.
1.8.2 Impacts on Land:
 Disposal of industrial effluents and domestic wastes on land causes loss of its
fertility.
 Removal of the top soil of land causes low fertility for crop production.
 Deforestation, the process of changing land use from forestry to a non forest use,
is threatening the existence of many species.
1.8.3 Impacts on Water:
 Change in colour will affect the usage of water and growth of plants and organism
of water.
 The dissolved oxygen content of the water body is reduced by organic substances.
 The water becomes unfit for drinking and other purposes because of inorganic
substances.

25
  Oil and other lubricants will affect the self purification of the water body.
 Enrichment of nutrients (Eutrophication) from surrounding watershed affects the
penetration of light through the water, causing damage to the characteristics of
that water and aquatic life.
 Sewage disposed into water bodies’ results in many water borne infectious
diseases to the human beings. The different types of organisms and water borne
diseases are
Water Borne Diseases Responsible Organism
Typhoid, paratyphoid, Diarrhoea, Cholera, Bacteria
Bacillary dysentery
Amoebiasis, Giardiasis Protozoa
ViralHepatitis (Jaundice), Poliomyelitis Virus
Round worm, hookworm, threadworm Helminths

 Disposal of coolant water used in industries increase the temperature of the

surface water. This increase in temperature affects the aquatic ecosystem.
 More amounts of nitrates in water due to the application of artificial fertilizer in
agricultural lands can cause methemoglobinemia known as blue baby disease.
1.8.4 Effects of pollution on the Environment
 The pollution of water, air and land adversely affect the health of human beings,
animals, plants and properties.
 Growth of plants is reduced by the pollutants. The different types of diseases
developed on vegetation are Necrosis, Chlorosis, Epinasty and abscission of
leaves.
 Disposal of radioactive wastes, either disposed on land or water, enter through he
biogeochemical cycles that can affect the health of ecosystem as well as the other
living beings in the ecosystems.
 Noise level above 60db strains the nervous system leading to the mental illness
and above 80db affects the ear drums.
 Improper handling and open dumping of solid waste causes health hazards and
damage the environment.

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1.9 CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Man is part of the nature and he is bound to obey the laws of
nature. He depends on his environment for food, water, air, space and shelter. His
intervention has made more significant changes in the natural environments for his
developmental activities like agriculture, urbanization, industrialization, mining,
transportation and technology. More developmental activities are adopted in order to
increase the quality of life. For that he uses the available resources. The Earth has limited
supply of resources and renewable resources. These are to be managed in a scientific
manner for availing the generation to come. Hence developmental activities are to be
taken with more care about the environment and its protection.
Over the past two decades, the World Commission on
Environment and Development (WCED) has come to understand the necessity of
developing a linkage between meeting the needs of people for natural resources and
conserving or protecting the natural resources and the environment. This ‘linkage’ has
been identified and named as “Sustainable Development”. The WCED’s report in 1987
provided a commonly accepted definition for sustainable development that was
reaffirmed at the Earth Summit in 1992.
In the year 1992, the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED) held at Rio de Janeiro, recognized the pressing
environment and development problems of the world. It produced a global program of
action for sustainable development into the 21st century by adapting Agenda 21.
According to the Agenda 21, the countries should adopt national strategies for sustainable
development, which should provide a balance in the needs of plans and policies of
society, the economy, and the environment of the country.
The first principle of Rio declaration is the sustainable
development. The Rio declaration states that, ‘human beings are at the centre of concern
for sustainable development. They are entitled to a healthy and productive life in
harmony with the nature. Every generation should leave air, water and soil resources
without any pollution as pure as it came to the Earth”.
Accordingly Sustainable Development is defined as ‘the
development to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future

27
generations to meet their own needs’. Sustainable Development must balance the needs
of society, the economy and the environment.
The natural resources must be used in such away that, its utility
will not limit their availability of water to the future generations. Sustainable
development of water resources require the use of renewable water resources that are not
diminished over the long term by that use.
The developed and most easily accessible renewable water
resources are streams, lakes, rivers and aquifers that recharge quickly. The process of
developing less accessible fresh water resources will be costly and is time consuming.
The environmental and human costs of these projects can also be very high.
The three important components of sustainable development are:
1) Economic development (like industrial development, creating job opportunities,
utilization of natural resources for developing the quality of life).
2) Community development (providing food, shelter, cloth, education and other
essentials for the human beings).
3) Environmental protection (providing clean air, water and environment for the
present and future generations and utilization of resources in a sustainable
manner).
The frame work for the integration of developmental strategies with
environmental protection is provided by the concept of sustainable development
which includes the following.
1) Use of excessive resources is to be reduced with increasing resource conservation.
2) Waste minimization should be adopted with more recycling and reusing of
materials.
3) Enhancing scientific, management of renewable resources.
1.9.1 Sustainability:
Sustainability can be defined as the ability of a society or
ecosystem to continue functioning into the indefinite future without being forced into
decline through complete loss of its strength or overloading of key resources on which
that system depends.

28
Stability has two aspects which are almost opposite in nature.
(i) Resistance stability.
(ii) Resilience stability.
Resistance stability is the ability of a system to remain stable in
the face of stresses and Resilience stability is the ability of the system to recover from the
disturbance occurred due to the activities happened.
1.9.2 Characteristics of a sustainable development:
If a sustainable society is developed in the future, it is likely to
have the following characteristics.
(i) All the material processes will be designed to be of cyclic nature.
(ii) There will not be any waste material or pollution of air, water, land and
environment.
(iii) The output from one system will be used as inputs to other systems.
(iv) Only renewable energy will be used in the society, either or in the forms of
hydro power, wind power, solar power and biomass.
(v) The human population will be either stable in size or gradually declining.
1.9.3 Major issues of Sustainable Development:
Most of the man made activities such as industrial pollution,
accumulation of toxic pesticides in soil; climatic changes, soil erosion and deforestation
are some of the well known environmental issues that pose a serious threat to concept of
sustainable development. Over exploitation of natural resources and uncontrolled desire
to lead a high standard of life style have been proved to be the strong obstacles in the
maintenance and restoration of sustainable development. Some of the vital issues of
environmental problems facing the developing countries are explained as follows:
(a) Land: Deforestation and desertification are the major terrestrial problems that
are drastically caused by the factors such as overgrazing, massive land clearing
and reduction in agricultural productivity. These factors in turn promote serious
environmental issues such as increased flooding, sedimentation and silting up of
dams and reservoirs. The problem is further complicated by the burning of
forest woods for fuel by the rural population who are not affordable for other
fuels thereby contributing for the rapid depletion of wild life reserves and

29
 ecological imbalance. The gradual extinction of plant and animal species that
occurs at an accelerated pace is yet another serious problem which might cause
multidimensional and irreparable loss to the future human society and also
biodiversity.
(b) Pollution: Environmental pollution that is mostly caused by urbanization and
industrialization provides growing concern n all developing countries. The
alarming status of air and water pollution in certain Indian metropolitan cities
like Calcutta, Mumbai and Delhi are similar to that of in other developing
countries. Improper waste disposal and unhygienic water resources along with
poor sanitary conditions further version and aggravate the environmental issues
in several developing countries.
Excess use of fertilizers and pesticides are the other crucial
agricultural problems that heavily contribute to environmental pollution. Acid
rain, ozone depletion and global warming have become the major global issues
that would result in catastrophic impact on environmental conditions.
Suggested measures for sustainable development:
1) It becomes meaningful to understand the uncertainties in totality, before
depending on the popular predictions made by the section of our scientists and
bureaucrats about the drastic consequences global warming. If it is not able to
conduct specific scientific studies for want to proper funding sources, it is
suggested that our country should involve and associate with the modeling
research programmes conducted by World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
and Global Environmental Monitoring system (GEMS).
2) Implementation of energy conservation procedures by reducing distribution losses
of electricity, increasing the operative efficiencies of agricultural pump sets and
switching over to sodium lamps for lighting.
3) Proper finding of alternate sources of energy such as nuclear, solar, wind energies
and natural gas.
4) Typical modifications in the agricultural techniques by minimizing the use of
synthetic fertilizers and switching over to organic farming.
5) Conservation of existing forests and creation of new forests by aforestation.

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 UNIT-II
SCIENCE OF ENVIRONMENT
The study of science of environment deals with the direct influences and impacts
of abiotic and biotic factors on growth, behavior and survival of living organisms.
2.1 PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL
CHARACTERISISTICS OF AIR:
I) PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
Atmospheric air remains as a multilayered or stratified structure on the basis
of interrelationships between temperatures and density.
Functional role of air:
i) The atmospheric air forms a protective blanket to protect the living organisms
from the harmful effects of atmospheric radiations.
ii) Atmospheric air has been the richest sources of CO2 and O2 for the processes of
photosynthetic and respiratory mechanisms respectively.
iii) It also filters out the harmful UV radiations thereby protecting the biotic life
and also maintains a stable the temperature of the earth.
The concentric layers of atmospheric air are as follows.
a. Troposphere:
It extends from sea level to the height of 8-15 km, containing all the living
organisms.
b. Stratosphere:
i) The layer of air mass that lies directly above the troposphere. It lies about
50 km above the earth’s surface.
ii) The temperature rises to a maximum of -2oC with increasing altitude due to
the presence of ozone layer.
c. Mesosphere:
i) It lies above the stratosphere at the height of 80-90 km from earth’s surface.
ii) It is characterized by cold temperatures and very low atmospheric pressure.
d. Thermosphere
i) It extends up to 500 km from earth’s surface in which there is a steady
increase in temperature.

31
 ii) The process of incoming solar radiation in atmospheric air is called
insulations.
iii) The transport of energy from the earth occurs by three processes namely
conduction, convection and radiation.
II) CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
The chemical composition of air is given below
i) Major components:
N2 - 78%;
O2 - 21%
ii) Minor components:
Argon - 0.93%;
CO2 - 0.35%
iii) Gases:
Neon - 1.82X10 -3 %;
Krypton - 1.4X 10-4 %;
Helium- 5.24X 10-4 %;
Xenon - 8.7 X 10 -6%.
III) BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
i) The three major constituents of air namely O2, CO2 and N2 undergo cycling
process between living organisms and non living environment through biogeochemical
cycles.
ii) Land living animals constantly utilize O2 for their respiratory mechanisms and
aquatic organisms utilize O2 that is dissolved in water.
iii) Temperature and salinity are the two important abiotic factors that directly
influence the solubility of O2 and CO2.
iv) The available amount of O2enters from atmospheric air into the bodies of animals
by the process of diffusion.
v) Gravitational force and evaporation are the other phenomenon in which air is
associated with living organisms.

32
vi) A very small number of micro organisms have occupied the air for their existence.
The dispersal of fruits and seeds of some flowering plants occurs by air current or
movement.
2.2PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL & BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
WATER:
I) PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Color:
 Color in water is caused due to the presence of organic matter in colloidal
condition.
 The two types of units to express colour in water are platinum-cobalt unit and
hazen unit.
 For domestic water, the permissible limit of colour is 20ppm on platinum- cobalt
unit.
 Adsorption, coagulation and filtration methods are generally
used in removal of colour.
2.Temperature:
 Generally, the temperature of ground water may be less or more than the
atmospheric temperature and that of surface water is equal to the atmospheric
temperature.
 The ideal temperature of public supply water is in the range of 4.4oC to 10 o C. In
public supply water with temperature above 26oC is undesirable and above 35oC
is unfit.
 The increase in temperature of water decreases its palatability.
3.Turbidity:
 Turbidity in water is a measure of the resistance of water to the Passage of light
through it.
 It is due to the presence of suspended and colloidal particles present in water.
 The value of turbidity of ground water is lesser than that of surface water.
 Turbidity was measured by using Nephlometric method and its unit is
NTU(nephlometric turbidity unit)
 In safe drinking water it must be between 10 to 25 NTU.

33
4.Taste and odour:
 Pure water does not produce any taste and odour.
 This may be due to the presence of most organic and inorganic chemicals and
microorganisms.
 Increase in temperature may change its taste.
 Taste and odour is generally expressed in terms of odour
density or threshold values.
II) CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
Some of the important chemical parameters which affect the portability of water
are:
1. Total solids:
a. Total solids in water are defined as the sum of total foreign matter present
in water.
b. If it is more than 750mg/l, then the water is not suitable for drinking
purposes.
c. Total solids present in water are three types.
i) Suspended (or) non-filterable solids – size >1µ
ii) Colloidal solids – size is between 1µm to 1µ
iii) Dissolved solids – size <1µm
2. Hardness:
Hardness of water is defined as the property of water which consumes more
soap to produce foam or lather. The two types of water hardness are temporary or
carbonate and permanent or non-carbonate hardness.
Temporary hardness is caused due to the presence of dissolved bicarbonates of
calcium, magnesium and other heavy metals and the carbonate of iron. It is mostly
destroyed by boiling.
Permanent hardness is caused due to the presence of chlorides and sulphates of
calcium, magnesium, iron and other heavy metals. This type of hardness is not destroyed
by boiling.

34
 According to Indian standards for drinking water; the water with hardness 200 to
300ppm is desirable. Hard water is unfit for industrial purposes, because of its ability to
form scales on boilers.

3. pH:
pH of water denotes the concentration of hydrogen ions present in it. pH
value of pure water is exactly equal to 7.pH value of treated drinking water is between
6.5 to 8.5.
4. Chlorides:
Chlorides in water may be due to the mixing of sewage and saline water.
Excessive chloride in water is dangerous and unfit for use. In drinking water, chlorides
above 250ppm are not permissible.
5. Iron and manganese:
Brownish red colour in water is due to the presence of iron and manganese. It
leads to the growth of microbial community and corrodes the water pipes. They also
cause taste and odour in the water. Generally its quantity more than 0.3ppm is not
suitable for domestic purposes.
III) BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
The biological water quality parameters include the pathogens like bacteria,
viruses, protozoa and helminthes.
i) Pathogens are those organisms capable of infecting and transmitting diseases to
human beings. The water borne pathogens include species like bacteria, viruses,
protozoa and helminthes.
ii) Bacteria: Bacteria are single cell microorganisms and are the lowest form of
cell life. Gastro intestinal problems are mainly due to water borne pathogenic
bacteria.
E.g. cholera transmitted by Vibrio cholerae causes vomiting and diarrhea,
Salmonella typhi transmits typhoid, which leads to high fever and ulceration of
intestines.
iii) Viruses:

35
 a) Viruses are small biological organisms, which can be seen only with the aid of
an electron microscope.
b) Water borne viral pathogens causes poliomyelitis and infectious hepatitis.
iv) Protozoa:
These are low form of animal life and are unicellular organisms.
Entameoeba histolytica and Giardia lamblia are example of waterborne protozoa
causing gastrointestinal disorders.
v) Helminths:
a) Helminthes are parasitic worms, which thrive on human or animal hosts.
b) These are effectively destroyed by modern water treatment processes.
c) Simple test have been developed for determining the presence of coliform
bacteria
d) The membrane filtration technique is also very popular to get the direct count
of coliform bacteria. The results are reported in number of organisms per 100
ml of water.
2.3 PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY AND BIOLOGY OF LAND OR SOIL:
Soil which is one of the most important ecological factors known as
edaphic factor is the most characteristic feature of terrestrial environment.
(I) PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
The physical characteristic of soil includes permeability, porosity, density
and temperature.
1. Soil density:
i. The soil density varies greatly depending upon the degree of weathering.
ii. The average density of soil is 2.65gm/ml.

2. Porosity:

36
 i. In a given volume of soil, the spaces present between the soils particles is
called as pore spaces. The percentage of soil volume occupied by pore
spaces is called as porosity of the soil.
ii. It increases with increase in the percentage of organic matter in the soil.
iii. The two types of pore spaces are:
a. Micro pore spaces and
b. Macro pore spaces.
iv. Micro pore spaces are also called as Capillary pore spaces. They can hold
more water.
v. The micro pore spaces restrict the free movement of water and air to a
considerable extent.
vi. The macro pore spaces have little water holding capacity and they allow
free movement of moisture and air in the soil under normal conditions.
3. Permeability:
i. The movement of water through the pore spaces is called as
permeability of soil.
ii. It always depends upon the size of the pore.
iii. Loose soils have higher value of permeability and the compact
soils have lesser permeability.

4. Temperature:
i. Soil temperature is also important in affecting the distribution and growth of
micro organisms, animals and plants which is affected by the following
different factors:
a) Color.
b) Texture.
c) Water content.
d) Climate and
e) Vegetation covers over the soil.
ii. The soil temperature influences root growth, the ability of roots to absorb
nutrients, and the movement of organisms.

37
 iii. Sandy soils absorb more heat and radiate it out quickly than clay or loam
soils, while soils absorb lesser heat than black soils.
II. CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTCS OF SOIL:
1. Inorganic elements and compounds of soil:
i. The chief inorganic constituents of soils are the elements of Al, Si, Ca, Mg,
Fe, K and Na.
ii. B, Mn, Cu, Zn, Fe etc are some of the other inorganic elements found in the
soils.
iii. Among the cations, Calcium is the most abundant in soils and its quantity
may be twice that of K, Na or Mg.
2. Organic matter of the soil:
i. Humus is the chief organic component of soil which is black colored,
odorless, homogeneous complex substance.
ii. The humus contains amino acids, proteins, purines, pyrimidines, aromatic
compounds, hexose sugars, sugar alcohols, methyl sugars, fats, waxes, resins,
tannins, lignin and some pigments.
iii. The presence of organic matter in soil helps to improve the Base Exchange
capacity, which determines fertilizer application.
3. Colloidal properties:
These exhibit absorption, electrical properties, coagulation, tidal
phenomenon, Brownian movement, dialysis etc.
4. Soil pH:
i. Generally the pH value of soil is between 2.2 to 9.6 and the optimum pH for
plant growth lies between 6.0 and 6.5.
ii. The acidic soils occur generally in the high rainfall areas. Highly acidic and
highly alkaline soils are injuries for plant growth and soil organisms.
iii. Some plants can grow well in neutral, alkaline and acidic soils.
iv. Acidic soils are deficient in Calcium and Magnesium.

III. BIOLOGY OF SOIL:

38
 i. Variety of plants and animals which inhibit the soil are called soil flora and
fauna.
ii. Micro fauna and micro flora, meso fauna and macro fauna are the classification
of soil organisms.
iii. The common nitrogen bacteria such as Rhizobium and Azotobacter are the
heterotrophic bacteria that are directly associated with degradation of organic
compounds in soil and
iv. It release considerable amount of Nitrogen, Phosphorus and other nutrients for
the absorption by plants.
2.3.1 BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND:
Biochemical Oxygen Demand is simply called as BOD. It is widely used
to determine the amount of organic pollution present in waste water and surface water. It
is generally carried out for a period of 5 days at a standard temperature of 20oC.
2.3.2 CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND:
Chemical Oxygen Demand is defined as the amount of oxygen required for
chemical oxidation of the organic matter and other reducing agents present in the waste
matter. To overcome the limitations of the BOD test, COD test is conducted to determine
the pollution strength of a sample.
2.4 ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS AND IMPACT ON WATER, AIR AND LAND:
2.4.1 ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS:
The measurable biological change caused by the influence of living
organisms on their surrounding environment is called environmental stress.
2.4.2 STRESSING AGENT:
1. The physical stress is caused by the volcanic eruption, wind storms, tidal
waves and earthquake.
2. The physical stress is also caused by the wild fire in an ecosystem as a rapid
combustion of biomass.
3. Abnormal concentrations of certain pollutants such as Lead, Mercury,
Cadmium, Sulphur dioxide and Nitrogen dioxide could cause environmental
stress by stimulating physiological effects on the living organisms.

39
 4. The release of heat energy from various industries causes thermal stress by
causing biological changes in an ecosystem.
5. The excess of load of ionizing energy from radioactive fallout cause
radioactive stress due to nuclear explosion.
6. Climatic stress is caused by an abnormal temperature and heat.
2.5 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS ON WATER:
I) MAJOR SOURCE OF WATER POLLUTION:
Point sources and non-point sources (diffused sources) are the two types of
sources.
a) Point sources:
The sources that pollute water bodies at a single location such as sewage
channels are called point sources.
b) Diffused sources:
The sources that pollute water at unknown locations or scattered places are
called diffused sources.
e.g. pesticides and fertilizers, mining and construction activities.
II) WATER POLLUTANTS:
a) suspended matter:
Domestic and industrial sewage are the main sources of suspended
matter.
e.g. detergents, soaps, lubricating grease products.
b) Inorganic and organic compounds:
Example:acids, alkalis, metals and synthetic organic compounds,
Industrial effluents from paper mills, tanneries and food-processing
units.
c) Pathogenic organisms:
Pathogenic organisms such as bacteria, viruses, protozoa forms and
helminthic worms are the important pathogenic pollutants that are
usually found in the polluted domestic sewage, agricultural runoff,
industrial effluents and waste water from animal- slaughtering houses,
thus causing environmental stress.

40
 d) Thermal discharges:
The heated water from several power plants and thermal
Industries are pumped into the nearby water bodies and also
wet lands.
III) PHYSIO-CHEMICAL IMPACTS:
a) Taste and odor:
Several water pollutants such as inorganic salts, excess concentration
of Mn and Fe, mineral elements, phenol compounds and hydrogen
sulphide alter the taste of water into bitter one with bad odor like that
of rotten eggs.
b) Turbidity:
Soaps and detergents in domestic sewage, soil particles and rock
sediments are the primary pollutants causing turbidity of water.
c) color:
The organic compounds such as tanneries and humic acid from the
decomposed leaves and woods alter the colorless condition of water into
brown or yellow color.
d) Hardness:
Several multivalent cations such as calcium, magnesium, iron and
aluminium from leather, chemical and metallurgical industries
contribute of water.
e) pH:
i. pH value is terribly altered by the gradual accumulation
of pollutants in water.
ii. Acidic water is supposed to cause problems such as
corrosion and tuberculation.
IV) BIOLOGICAL IMPACTS:
i. The decomposition of organic matter by aquatic and soil
bacteria cause various biological impacts through
ammonification and nitrification.

41
 ii. Several water borne diseases such as cholera, typhoid, polio and hepatitis
are caused by the pathogens found in the polluted water.
iii. Several other diseases such as malaria, yellow fever, filariasis and gastro
intestinal disorders such as amoebic and bacillary
dysentery are also transmitted by the pathogenic organisms in the polluted
water.
2.6 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS ON AIR:
(I) SOURCES:
Pollen grains, fungal spores, volcanic eruptions, forest fires and dust storms and
man-made sources.
(II) PHYSICO-CHEMICAL IMPACTS:
(A) Acid rain:
a) The burning of fossil fuels such as petroleum products and coal
releases huge amount of nitrogen and sulphur oxides.
b) The reaction of these oxides with water vapour produces
sulphuric acid and nitric acid.
c) These oxides are carried to the earth along with rainwater, fog or
snow in the form of acid rain which is very detrimental to the living
organisms and non-living matters.
(B) Photo chemical smog:
i) Nitrogen oxides react with hydrocarbons in the presence of
sunlight and O3
ii) A typical photo chemical oxidant to form the complex
compounds called peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) and aldehyde
compounds. This is called photochemical smog.
C) Greenhouse effect:
i. The green house gases such as CO2, O3, CH4 and CFC’S trap the short
wavelengths of IR radiations thereby adding more heat on earth’s surface.
ii. Due to this overall temperature of the earth is increased thus causing the
phenomenon called greenhouse effect.
This is also known as global warming.

42
(III) BIOLOGICAL IMPACTS:
i. Photochemical oxidants such as O3 and PAN damage and destroy the vegetative
plants by altering the cellular metabolic processes of the plants.
ii. This may lead to yellowing and premature fall of leaves.
iii. Respiratory disorders such as asthma and malignant cancers are also the other
human health hazards caused by the effect of air pollutants.
iv. Acid rain causes the sudden death of fishes, algal species and beneficial bacteria
in the water bodies.

2.7 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS ON LAND:

Land pollution is the major criteria that contribute adverse impact on land areas
through pesticide toxicity.
(I) SOURCES:
Domestic, commercial, industrial and agricultural wastes are the primary
contributors of land pollution.
(II) PYSICO-CHEMICAL IMPACTS:
i. The burning of organic solid wastes and plastic containers could also lead
to the release of toxic fumes that might cause various health hazards.
ii. The conversion of natural systems to agricultural and industrial purposes
and for the human uses called land-cover conversion has resulted in the
production of 30% of CO2 to the atmosphere.
iii. Land-cover conversion produces a direct influence on the climate and
water cycle of all regions.
(III) BIOLOGICAL IMPACTS:
i. Unhygienic and improper maintenance of land areas provide sheltering
habitats for animals such as rats and pigs.
ii. e.g. typhus fever, plague, rabies, malaria and filariasis are vector-borne
Disease.
iii. Leptospirosis which damages the human central nervous system also
found to be transmitted by the rats.

43
 iv. Acid mine drainage caused by surface land mining has a degrading
influence on the quality of water.
v. Coal-mining workers are also frequently susceptible to accidents such as
explosive fires and cave-ins.
2.8 OBJECTIVES AND GOALS FOR THE MAINTENANCE OF
ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY:
2.8.1. Environmental quality objectives:
a. An environmental quality objectives or EQO is generally a non-
enforceable goal, which specifies a target for environmental
quality.
b.It is envisaged, will be met in a specific environment, such as a
river, beach or industrial site.
A typical list of EQO of an apex administrative body can be as under:
 Reduce climate impact due to pollution
 Clean air
 No acid rain
 Protect ozone layer
 Non-toxic environment
 Total freedom from radiation
 No eutrophication
 Pollution free water bodies
 Sustainable forests and agriculture.
2.8.2. Role of International and national bodies in the maintenance of
Environmental quality:
 International environment management standards are formulated to enable the
various organizations to monitor the environmental quality.
 ISO-14000 standards are mainly intended to serve the organizations with
guidelines and objectives for sustained improvement of environmental
performance and quality
.

44
2.8.3. a) International efforts:
 UN conference on human environment, 1972 at Stockholm.
 World water conference of 1977
 Earth summit at Rio-de-jenairo in 1992
 Environmental education conference in 1977 at Georgia
 Manila declaration on green productivity manila in 1996
b) National efforts:
 the 42 nd constitutional amendment on environmental protection
 national committee an environmental planning and coordination
 Tiwari’s committee on department of environment in 1980
 Environmental protection act in 1986.
The ultimate goal of environmental acts and policies are to minimize the
environmental impacts and to achieve a pollution free atmosphere or environment. That
is beneficial for sustained survival of human society and other biotic communities.
2.9. POLICIES ON DEVELOPMENT PROJECT AND THEIR IMPACTS:
The two major criteria i.e. a project should maximize economic returns, and it
should to technically feasible.
There are two different aspects of impacts of development on environment.
i.e. Local and global impacts.
Every developmental activity be it the construction of hydel projects, thermal
power plants, urbanization, communication projects, industry, or agriculture has some
impacts on the environment.
2.9.1. INDUSTRY:
 The air, water, and hazardous waste pollution by industries has now become the
biggest environmental problem.
 The emission and effluents of some of the industries are extremely polluting and
dangerous such as industries, manufacturing pesticides, fertilizers, pulp and paper,
distilleries, dye manufacture etc.
 These pollutants could have several synergistic-long term effects.

45
2.9.2. THERMAL PLANTS:
 The thermal plants affect the occupational safety and health due to heat, noise,
dust and chemical pollutants.
 The immense quantities of fly ash produced by these thermal plants also cause
degradation of soil and conversion of useful agricultural land as dumping ground
of this fly ash.
 The thermal plants could affect the quality of life, habitat of endangered species
of wild life or plants, sites/monuments of historical and cultural importance up to
25 km radius.
 The cooling waters which have a temperature higher than that of natural water
bodies, when disposed off in these bodies, results in loss of dissolved oxygen and
thus, adversely affects aquatic life.
2.9.3. HYDEL PROJECTS:
Earlier hydel projects were considered to be least polluting and with
minimum environmental effects.
Some of the effects on environment are:
Heath effects:
Hydel projects result in formation of large reservoirs.
The large water bodies are known to result in introduction of water borne diseases
in an area such as malaria and schistosomiasis epidemics.
Plant genetic resources:
(i) The recent food plant like wheat, rice, maize, pulses, oilseeds, fruits
and vegetables have been developed from their wild and weedy
relatives.
(ii) The formation of reservoirs upstream dams results in inundation in
destruction of biotic resources of these areas for short term gain.
Aquatic resources:
 Most of the dams, generally, do not have an arrangement for fish ladders or
mechanisms or lift fish to reach their breeding spots.
 The dams have therefore, adversely affected the fish production, a rich
protein source.

46
  Water logging and salinity problems in irrigated soils:
 About 10 million hectare irrigated area under agriculture is affected by
water-logging and salinity.
 Most of this is due to inadequate attention to drainage works in irrigation
projects and indiscriminate use of water for irrigation.
 Deforestation and soil conservation:
 Hydel projects require extensive road building activity, new settlements and
industries resulting in destruction of forest areas and stable slopes of hills
resulting in frequent land slides, these further results in increased
sedimentation, flash floods and loss of land fertility.
2.9.4. URBANIZATION
 The shifting or rural population to the cities has severely overstrained
infrastructure in the existing urban areas.
 The local authority and the government as a result, are finding it difficult to
provide adequate roads, water supply, sewage treatment plants, schools and
hospitals.
 The non point pollution from cities i.e. runoff washing away and solid waste
from roads into nearby surface waters is yet to attract attention of the
regulatory agencies.
2.9.5. COMMUNICATION PROJECTS:
 The increasing road infrastructure in the country is encroaching more and
more of agricultural and forest land.
 It is also affecting the aesthetics, forest density, crops and is causing major
health problems due to air pollution specifically in built up areas.
 The in adequate drainage systems under the roads has also contributed to
flooding and degradation of soils in a big way.
2.9.6. ROLE OF ENGINEERS IN DEVELOPMENTAL PROJECTS:
It is the moral obligation and responsibility of engineers who are
associated with the developmental projects to be aware of the consequences and impacts
of the proposed projects on the environmental implications.

47
 They have to strictly adhere to the rules and regulations that are
enforced in environmental policies for the complete protection and maintenance of
ecological balance in the sites where the proposed projects are to be constructed.
Ethical implications, that provide highest value for the sustained
maintenance of biodiversity and ecological balance which in turn benefits the human
welfare.
Exposure of knowledge on the biological characteristics of an
environment would provide better insight and guidance to the engineers for handling the
projects in an eco-friendly manner.

48
UNIT - III
CURRENT ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
3.1 INTRODUCTION
 Environmental issues have become a major global phenomenon due to the
urbanization and industrialization.
 The modern technological advancements create various types of pollutions.
 Despite the enforcement of strict environmental laws and polices by appropriate
legislative and legal amendments, the violations of environmental ethics are on
the constant increase.
 Considering the utmost value of human health and surrounding atmosphere,
environmentalist across the world have started paying urgent attention of
limiting and controlling the ever increasing environmental pollution.
 Various aspects of environmental issues that are currently prevalent in a
developing country like India are illustrated in the following paragraphs.
3.2 CURRENT ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AT COUNTRY LEVEL:
 Several types of pollutions such as air, water, land and ozone depletion and also
climatic changes have become the major focus in dealing with environmental
issues in most of the developed and developing countries
 These issues are due to rapid industrialization and urbanization in all countries
including India.
 The following simple tabulation elaborates the important aspects of these issues.
Type of pollution Causative agents Biological effects
Automobile exhaust and Acid rain, Photochemical smog, Global
Air
burning of fossil fuels warming and Green house effect.
Domestic and industrial Algal blooming and eutrophication
Water
sewages and effluents
Land fills, excess use of Deposition of pesticides as trace
Land pesticides, fertilizers and elements in cultivating crops and
solid waste disposal alterations in water quality
 Consequently, contamination of ground water, decline in water quality in lakes
and reservoirs, management of municipal sewage, accumulation of municipal

49
 solid wastes, waste water treatment, accumulation of hazardous waste materials,
and disposal bio-medical wastes are the other problems that deserve to be
regarded as crucial environmental issues in all the countries at present.
 As a result of growing consciousness on environmental issues, our country now
faces a tough challenge to identify and implement appropriate measures that
would lead to the stable and sustainable growth and development process.
3.3 MANAGEMENT OF MUNICIPAL SEWAGE
 Municipal sewage problem which represents the drastic outcome of urban
developmental programmes in most of Indian cities.
 Due to poor disposal planning procedures, poor sanitary methods.
 Lack of far-sited planning strategies.
 Several towns and cities situated on the banks of Indian rivers, suffer from the
acute problem of urban sewage.
 25 numbers of towns and cities that are located on the bank of Ganga river,
generate about 1400 million liters of municipal sewage every day.
 BOD and COD values in municipal sewage and waste water are found to be
100-300 and 500-800 mg/L respectively.
 Pollutants in sewage cause several respiratory, circulatory and allergic ailments.
 Unless there is an effective and vigilant implementation of both treatment and
management schemes pertaining to the municipal sewage, serious health
hazards caused by water – borne diseases and toxic pollutants would remain
uncontrolled.
 Based on the degree of purification, treatment plants include primary, secondary
and advanced methods.
 The complete removal of solid materials is the main purpose of primary
treatment and the removal of most of the BOD is the purpose of secondary
treatment.
3.3.1 PRIMARY TREATMENT:
 Primary treatment removes about 35% to BOD and 60% of suspended solids.
 It involves screening and sedimentation.
 Screening removes larger and visible objects

50
  After screening, waste water and sewage are allowed to pass through a grit
chamber and sedimentation basin.

MUNICIPAL SEWAGE MANAGEMENT FACILITY PROVIDING

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY TREATMENT
3.3.2 SECONDARY TREATMENT:
 Secondary treatment removes further source of BOD and 90% suspended
particles.
 It involves trickling filters, activated sludge process and oxidation ponds.
 Nitro and Phosphorus removal is the characteristic feature of secondary
treatment (biological treatment).
 Some of the toxic elements are oxidized and precipitated by this method.
3.3.3 ADVANCED TREATMENT:(Tertiary treatment)
3.4 This mode of treatment is being adapted in most cases following the primary and
secondary treatments.
3.5 But in the case of treatment of industrial effluents, the conventional processes are bye
passed by the advanced treatment.
3.4 MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTES (MSW)
 Solid waste products formed from residences, commercial places and industrial
units constitute the municipal solid waste.
 Definite sources of MSW
 Paper boards metals, plastics, wood articles, food wastes and glass materials.
 There is an annual production of 11.7 billion tones of wastes in the United States.

51
  EPA (US Environmental Protection Agency) has reported that there was the total
production of 190 million tones of /MSW in US during the year of 1993.
 Largest contribution came from paper and paper board products to the range of
37.6%
 Per capita generation of MSW in US was found to be about 2 kg per day.
 Proper statistical data reveal that 1300 tones of solid wastes on an average per day
city are produced in twenty three major cities in India and are estimated to be
about 0.45 kg of solid wastes per person every day through out the country.
3.5 MANAGEMENT OF MSW
 Appreciable concern has already developed for the management of MSW called
garbage disposal in developed countries like US, England and Australia.
 This issue has not been paid proper attention in our country.
 A report prepared in 1995 for the planning commission indicates the absence of
proper measures with regard to the collection and disposal of house-hold,
hospitals and industrial wastes.
 Municipal wastes are generally transported to the city areas for being dumped in
open landfills.
 These largely dumped sites remain infected and contaminated with pathogenic
organisms.
 MSW management in our Indian cities has miserably failed due to non-adoption
of several well established schemes such as recycling g and compositing
technologies
 In US, advanced technologies for generation and recovery of useful materials
from MSW, have been well implemented.
 Recycling process is efficiently adopted in waste generation and waste recovery
of MSW products
 Example-recycled waste papers are used to make paperboard for cereal boxes,
tablet boxes, shoe boxes and also various construction and flooring materials in
several US cities.

52
  The process of MSW management becomes more meaningful and realistic, when
it involves certain well-designed procedures such as material recovery facilities
(MRF).
 Another facility that is associated with the recovery of recyclable materials that
are mixed with MSW is called waste processing facility (WPF).
 In addition to this, processing equipments for the collection of mixed wastes are
also actively employed for the effective management of MSW.
 The conversion solid wastes into useful products through Vermiculture by using
earthworms as bio-reactors, has been recent advancement in the disposal of solid
wastes. The bio-reactors releases the essential nutrients such as N2,P and K from
the decomposed solid wastes to the solid, there by enhancing the richness of the
solid and solid fertility.
 This recovery processing system includes screening, shredder, magnetic
separators and air classifiers which are shown in the figure.

RESOURCE RECOVERY SYSTEM FOR MIXED SOLID WASTES

rd
 On 3 March, 1997, Supreme Court gave a direction to the municipalities to
adopt the existing MSW procedures.
 In January 1998, Supreme Court constituted an expert committee to examine all
aspects of MSW management in all cities with more than 1 lakh of population.
 Acting on the direction of Supreme Court, Central pollution Control Board
enacted MSW Rules for adoption by the municipal towns and corporation cities
 The strong legislations and environmental acts strictly enforce the rules and
regulations for the better garbage disposal or MSW management thereby
inhibiting any environmental degradation.

53
 3.6 HAZARDOUS WASTES:
 In several industrialized countries, recent advancements in medical technology
have successfully controlled most of the air-borne and water-borne disease.
 For the two decades, vigorous steps are being taken by the international and local
communities to formulate defensive measures for the utmost protection of human
race against the impacts of hazardous wastes.
 Any substance that is discarded, neglected or released as a waste material that
may cause harmful effects is called Hazardous waste.
3.6.1 Origin:
 Intensive addition to air, water and soil by human activities.
 Evaporation from waste dumps into the atmosphere.
 Leakage from underground storage tanks or pipelines.
 Release and subsequent deposition by accidental fire or explosion.
3.6.2 Effects and fates of Hazardous wastes:
 Hazardous wastes produce serous toxic effects to plants, animals and microbes
through a process called bio-degradation.
 Te fate of hazardous wastes depends on their solubility, density and
biodegradability. These wastes are degraded by microbial action and are
accumulated in the bodies of organisms by bioaccumulation.
3.6.3 Environmental Laws for Controlling Hazardous Wastes:
In US several types of environmental laws have been enacted to regulate
hazardous wastes. These are given below:
Atomic energy Act: Regulate nuclear energy production and nuclear waste disposal
1. Clean Air Act: Regulates the emission of hazardous air pollutants
2. Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation And
Liability Act: Regulates the abandoned hazardous wastes sites
3. Resources Conservation and recovery Act:; Regulates hazardous waste
generation and disposal.
4. Occupational Safety And Health Act: Regulates Hazards in working places
5. The Hazardous And Solid Waste Amendments of 1984

54
3.6.4 Management of Hazardous Wastes:
 It has become a common phenomenon that man is susceptible to various types of
risks and hazards in discharging his duties and responsibilities every days.
 Identification and assessment of the risk and hazard, legislation, regulation,
Inspection, enforcement and emergency response are the most important
components in most of the management systems.
 Wastes incineration is favorably recommended by the EPA as an advanced
technology to deal with several types of hazardous wastes.
 Complete detoxification of carcinogen, mutagens, teratogens and pathogenic
microbes are successfully carried out.
 Liquid junction incinerator and rotator kiln incinerator are the two major types of
designs that are operated in the present existing unit systems.
 Landfills have become much more sophisticated operative systems for handling
the hazardous wastes.
 A Hazardous waste landfill is technically fabricated and designated as a modular
system comprising three dimensional control cells.
 Surface impoundments are also used to store liquid hazardous wastes.
 This type of disposal is cautiously carried out by not contaminating the
underground drinking water sources.
3.6.5 Hazardous wastes regulations in India
 In July 1989, Hazardous wastes (Management and handling) rules are amended
for the proper regulation of handling and disposal of hazardous wastes in Indian
cities and towns.
 In November 1989, the manufacture, storage and import of hazardous chemical
rules are formulated there by fixing entire responsibilities of those handling and
disposing hazardous substances.
 In August 1996, the central government framed the Chemical accident rules.
These rules strictly enforce the constitution of a central Crisis group (CCG) for
the proper management of chemical accidents and to set up rapid response system
called Crisis Alert System.

55
3.6.6Management of Bio-medical wastes:
 Bio- medical waste is defined as any type of waste substances produced during
diagnosis is, treatment or immunization of human beings or animals, or in
research activities that are used in the production or testing of biological
materials.
 Improper disposal of biomedical wastes pose serious health hazards
 It is highly ridiculous and deplorable to understand that there is no scientifically
based treatment system for the management of bio-medical wastes in several
hospitals of municipal towns and cities in India.
 Government medical institutes and hospitals show very negligent and lethargic
attitude to take appropriate measures of hygienic disposal and management of
bio-medical wastes.
 The central government issued the bio-waste (Management and handling) Rules
in July 1998 to regulate hospitals, clinics, veterinary institutions and other persons
generating bio-medical wastes.
 These rules clearly state that it is obligatory duty of every occupier of an
institution including hospitals, clinics, nursing homes, dispensary clinics,
veterinary institutions, animal houses, pathological laboratories, and blood banks
which generate bio-medical wastes to takes all the precautionary measures to
ensures that such wastes are carefully handled without any adverse and toxic
effect to human health and environment.
The rules have defined and stipulated 10 categories of bio-medical wastes generated by
hospitals
 I: This includes the human anatomical waste parts such as tissues,
organs, and body parts. These wastes must be incinerated or given
deep burial.
 II:This consists of animal anatomical wastes. These animal wastes
 should be disposed as mentioned in category I.
 III:It consists of microbiological and biotechnological wastes which
 must be autoclaved or micro waved or incinerated.
 IV:This includes waste sharp items such as needles, syringes, scalpels,

56
  blades and glasses that may cause punctures or cuts. These items
 have to be disinfected with chemical treatment.
 V:This consists of discarded and unused medicines which have to be
 Either incinerated or disposed in protected landfills.
 VI:This consists of solid wastes. These item shave to be incinerated or
 micro waved or autoclaved.
 VII:This includes solid wastes and disposable other than sharp items.
 VIII:This includes liquid wastes.
 IX:This includes incineration ash.
 X:This includes chemical wastes.
Colour coding patterns are prescribed and specified for each category of bio-
medical wastes.
 No untreated waste shall be kept stored beyond 48 hours.
 Categories I, II, III and VI are stored in plastic bags with yellow tags.
 Categories III, VI and VII must be stored in disinfected containers.
 Categories I, II, III and VI are stored in plastic bags with yellow tags
 Categories IV and VII are tagged with blue/white label and should be stored in
puncture proof containers.
 Categories V, IX, and X must be stored in plastic bags tagged with black label.
A Delhi based organization in association with consumer and civic Action Group
(CAG) conducted and overall survey n 2002 in private and government hospitals
in ea metropolitan city.
 The findings of the survey studies have revealed that there was a unhygienic
management of biomedical wastes in most of the governmental hospitals and
quite improved condition are found in the private sector hospitals which utilize
the services of centralized units for the safe disposal of biomedical wastes.
3.7 AIR POLLUTION DUE TO INDUSTRIES AND VEHICLES:
 Industrial and auto mobile emission have been identified as primary contributors of
major portion of air pollution.
 Industrialization which represents an inevitable constituent in civilized
modernization.

57
 Vehicles using fossil fuels cause air pollution through the emission of toxic pollutants
into the atmosphere.
 The elegant beauty of TajMahal which is the glorious and fantastic Monument of
international repute is getting degraded and deteriorated by the loss of its fascinating
beauty due to the constant emissions of refinery industries situated at Mathura.
 Analysis of the chemical composition of emissions of both industries and automobile
vehicles have revealed the following toxic pollutants.
3.7.1 SUSPENDED PARTICULATE MATTER:
 Particulate matter primarily consists of suspended or dispersed matter solid or
liquid particles than 10 µm called aerosols.
 Sources – Wind-blown soil dust, evaporated sea-spay droplets and volcanic
eruptions, combustion of fossil fuels.

Pollutants Sources Health effects

Incomplete fuel Aggravates heart

combustion(two stroke disorders, affects central
Carbon monoxide
engines and 3 wheelers) nervous system and O2
carrying capacity
Fuel combustion of motor Irritation and inflammation
Nitrogen oxides
vehicles and furnaces of respiratory tract
Emission from motor Photochemical reaction s
Oxidants and ozone
vehicles of nitrogen oxides
Extremely toxic, affects
nervous system and blood,
Lead Emissions from motor causes hyper tension,
vehicles impairs mental
development in children
Disposal of solid wastes, Cough, eye irritation and
Volatile hydro
partial combustion of drowsiness.
carbons
carbonaceous fuels

58
 Burning of sulphur Irritation of eyes, nose and
containing fuel like coal in throat sneezing, coughing
Sulphur dioxide
power plants and oil by and nausea.
vehicles
 These are found to be carcinogenic and stimulate serious respiratory disorders
such as asthma and pneumonia.
3.8. GLOBAL ISSUES:
 Biodiversity, Climatic, Changes and Ozone layer depletion have been regarded as
primary global issues.
 Constant interventions of human activities have resulted in drastic changes in
climatic factors of earth.
 An expert committee called Intergovernmental panel on Climatic change(IPCC)
was established in 1982 by the pioneering efforts of World Meteorological
Organization and United Nations Environment program(UNEP).
 Goal of IPCC is to assess & evaluate scientific informations on climatic changes,
examine the environmental and socio-economic impacts of climatic changes and
to design suitable strategic programmes to cope with environmental changes.
 United Nations convened a conference in Rio de Janerio on Environment and
Development thereby constituting a treaty called United Nations Framework
Convention on Climatic Change (UNFCCC) was signed by more than 150
nations.
3.9. BIODIVERSITY:
3.9.1 Characteristic features
 Complex collection comprising numerous types of living organisms and plants is
called biodiversity.
 Biodiversity is an important ecological phenomenon.
 It influences interaction between living organisms and non-living or biotic factors.
 Of the total number of 80 million species of plants and animals on earth, 1.4
million species are specified identified and classified by the biologists.
 Man made activities seriously affect the biodiversity.

59
  Appropriate remedial measures are to be taken to maintain stability in
biodiversity.
3.9.2 Magnitude of biodiversity
 Systematic reports have shown that insects constitute the high percentage of total
number of known species in India.
 2,70,000 species of higher plants have been identified so far.
Levels of biodiversity: Three levels are recognized. They include genetic diversity,
species diversity and ecosystem diversity. Of these, ecosystem diversity possess the
following three prominent features.
(a) Alpha diversity: It includes the diversified organisms in the same habitat.
(b) Beta diversity: It includes the replacement of different species in a habitat based
on altitude, moisture content of soil and temperature.
(c) Gamma diversity: It includes the diversity of habitats over the total landscape
area.
3.9.3 Uses of biodiversity:
1. It forms a valuable source of useful products in the form of natural resources.
2. It gives rise to the sources of improved variety of food crops.
3. It is a good source of new types of biodegradable pesticides.
4. It helps to maintain a stable and healthy ecosystem.
5. It gives rise to various types of beneficial plant products with high therapeutic
values for the treatment of several diseases.
6. I function to provide ecosystem services to utilize various biotic resources in an
environment.
3.9.4 Threats of biodiversity
 Environmental pollution is found to produce terrible effects on biodiversity.
 Air, water pollutants produces toxic and harmful effects which in turn affect the
survival o9f species.
 The nitrates and phosphates formed from the bridgeable compounds cause the
enrichment of aquatic ecosystem thus resulting in eutrophication.
 As a result, biodiversity of the species becomes badly affected.
 In agricultural ecosystems, there is a severe loss of biodiversity.

60
  Introduction and replacement of a few hybrid species of crop varieties have
resulted in the gradual disappearance of important genetic resources of crop plants
such as wheat and rice.
 25 % of world plant species has been already lost by 2000 year due to the
destruction of tropical forests.
 There is a possibility for the gradual disappearance and destruction of 90%
tropical forest area containing 500 species of world plants in the next 15-20 years.
3.10. Climatic Changes:
 Environmental pollution has resulted in drastic changes in climatic conditions of
earth.
 The average weather of a particular place in an environment is directly influenced
by temperature and other meteorological conditions.
 Long term variation in temperature is found to be the major cause of climatic
changes in an environment.
 Climatic changes are determined by analyzing ice cores in Greenland and
Antarctica regions. Three Dimensional genera circulation model as (GCMs) could
be more useful to predict climatic changes on regional seasonal and annual basis.
 Environmental studies have established the primary role of green house effect and
ozone depletion in global climatic changes.

A TYPICAL GREEN HOUSE EFFECT

 The concentration of various atmospheric gases is analyzed by the composition of
air bubbles that are trapped in the ice.

61
 Analysis of the hydrogen isotope ratios and gaseous concentrations in Vostok ice
core have yielded very fruitful results pertaining to the continuous record of
1,60,000 years.
 IPCC survey reports show that global mean temperature have never changed more
than 1°C per century.
 The global mean temperature is found to have increased to about 0.2 to 0.3°C for
the past 40 years
 The past 5 years period from 19990 to 1994 was found to be most warmest one
 This steep hike was attributed to the volcanic eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the
Philippines in June 1991.
 The global mean temperature is expected to increase 1.4 to 5.8°Cby the year of
2100 from the level of 1.9.
 A simple Zero-Dimensional model also satisfies the basic requirement of
obtaining a single average global temperature.
 Greenhouse effect which is a natural phenomenon could lead to manifestation of
global warming, the number of gases and aerosols are found to be affect
greenhouse effect
 There is equilibrium between the incoming solar energy absorbed by the earth and
the outgoing radiation.
 Any addition of extra amount of energy to the incoming source of energy alters
the equilibrium. But the climatic system s is capable of inherently adjusting to that
either by increasing or decreasing the surface temperature, till the equilibrium is
restored.
 The additional input of energy to the incoming absorbed energy is called
radioactive forcing that eventually leads to the climatic changes in atmosphere.
 Actual emission of substances from some sources in the atmosphere causes the
direct forcing .Indirect forcing is caused by these substances producing
atmospheric changes that affect the radiative properties of the atmosphere. Both
aerosols and halocarbons could cause direct and indirect forcing effects.
 Several environmental studies have confirmed that CH4 and CFC molecules
absorb greater amount of infra red radiation than CO2

62
  One molecule of CO2 absorbs one unit of IR radiation, one molecule of CH4
absorbs 25 units and one unit of CFC could absorb 20,000units of IR radiation
 The CO2 levels in the past 100 years have been increasing at the rate of 0.4%
every year at the rate of 1%, while the CFC is increasing at the rate of 5% every
year.
 The global warming effect resulting in doubling of CO2 by the year of 2075.
 Climatic changes significantly affect the ocean which constitutes 70% of the
earth’s surface, apart from greenhouse enhancement.
 Rising of sea level and changes in the ocean’s circulation are caused by climatic
changes.
3.11. Ozone layer depletion:
 Stratosphere lies at about 15-30 km above the earth’s surface, Short wavelengths
of UV radiations are absorbed by molecular O2. This results in the dissociation of
molecular O2 into its constituent atoms. These atoms react with molecular o2 to
form ozone (O3).
 These ozone molecules undergo repeated photo-chemical reactions and
subsequently breakdown due to absorption of UV radiations.
 These photochemical reactions involving the formation and breakdown of ozone
molecules counterbalance each other, thereby causing the effective absorption of
UV radiations in the stratosphere.
 This chemical and natural phenomenon ensures continued maintenance of
biological activity.
 90% of ozone remains concentrated in the region of stratosphere at a height of 15-
49% Kms, thereby constituting an ozone umbrella to protect the living systems on
earth’s surface.
 Supersonic aircrafts would affect and depletes the ozone layer in the stratosphere.
3.11.1 Ozone layer as protective mantle:
 As already indicated in the preceding paragraph, ozone is constantly regenerated
in the stratosphere by photochemical reactions.
 The protective ozone umbrella is much affected by the UV radiations. There are
three types of UV radiations UV-A, UV-Band UV-C, UV-A which ranges in

63
 wavelength between 300-400 nm is not harmful to the living systems. UV-B that
extends from 280-320nm produce harmful effects on biological life. VU-C ranges
between 200-280nm. Of these, UV-B radiations could induce genetic deformities
by inducing mutations in DNA and RNA molecules.
3.11.2 Major causes of ozone depletion:
 Ozone layer is very much destroyed by the catalytic reactions involving free
radicals such as Cl, Br, H and NO.
 Experimental evidences strongly suggest that the most of the
 greenhouse gases accelerate Ozone layer depletion
 Stratosphere lies at about 15-30 km above the earth’s surface, short wavelengths
of UV radiations are absorbed by molecular O2. This results in the dissociation of
molecular O2 into its constituent atoms. These atoms react with molecular o2 to
form ozone (O3).

THE PROCESS OF OZONE DEPLETION

 These ozone molecules undergo repeated photo-chemical reactions and
subsequently breakdown due to absorption of UV radiations.
 These photochemical reactions involving the formation and breakdown of ozone
molecules counterbalance each other, thereby causing the effective absorption of
UV radiations in the stratosphere.

64
  This chemical and natural phenomenon ensures continued maintenance of
biological activity.
 90% of ozone remains concentrated in the region of stratosphere at a height of 15-
49% Kms, thereby constituting an ozone umbrella to protect the living systems on
earth’s surface.
 Supersonic aircrafts would affect and depletes the ozone layer in the stratosphere.
3.11.3 Antarctic Ozone hole:
 S.Rowland and J.Molina of University of California were the first to have
reported about the depletion and destruction of ozone in the stratosphere.
 The observation of ozone holes in Antarctica polar region was so exciting that
evoked serious alertness on this problem.
 A largest ozone hole (28 million square kilometers) that is 3 times larger than the
entire landmass of the US was detected over Antarctica by US NASA scientists in
3.9.2000.
 Previous record was about 27 million square km on 19.9.1998.
 NASA scientist team further explained that the production of ozone destroying
gases alarming reach their peak levels.
 The temperature in polar vortex which consists of a whirling mass of extremely
cold air, decreases to -90oC to form polar stratospheric clouds.
 These polar clouds containing ice crystals provide reaction surfaces resulting in
the formation of atomic chlorine by photolytic decomposition.
 This free atomic chlorine causes the depletion and destruction of ozone in the
stratosphere. Similar type of ozone holes are found to extent in the Arctic zone.
 Global zone monitoring programmes have shown that there is a reduction of 3.0%
in the mean global zone content in the altitudes covering Europe, Mongolia and
Japan.
Ozone depletion potential (ODP):
 Ozone depleting Potential refers to the change in total ozone per unit mass of
emission of the reference gas CFC – 11.
 ODP’s are the effective means to control emissions of ozone depleting substances.

65
  The Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete ozone layer and its subsequent
Amendments provide much value based priority to ODP’s for the better
prevention of ozone depletion.
3.11.6. Factors affecting ODP:
 The nature of halogen.

 The number of chlorine or bromine atoms in a molecule.

 Molecular mass.

 Atmospheric life time.

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UNIT – IV ENGINEERING INTERVENTIONS TO REDUCE THE
ENVIRONMENTAL STRESSES
4.1 MINIMIZATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL STRESSES
Considering the rate of population growth, urbanization and industrialization, it is
evident that total elimination of the environmental stresses can at best be an ideal goal.
However every effort should be made to minimize the stresses to a tolerable level.
Engineering principles can be applied and practiced to prevent the environment from
getting further degraded. A hierarchy the engineering interventions are enumerated
below.
 Introduce clean production technologies to reduce pollution at source
 Practical waste minimization techniques by process and equipment modification
 Employ and End of the pipeline (EOP) treatment methodologies
 Awareness improvement and training
Specific engineering interventions and management practices for control of physical,
chemical and biological pollutants are listed below:

S.NO., Nature of stresses Management practices/ engineering interventions

Acclimatization, proper work and rest periods, distribution

1 Thermal
2 Radiation
3 Noise
4 Vibration
of work load, scheduling hot jobs for coolest part of the
day protective clothing, shielding from sun and other hot
sources, adequate ventilation, and air conditioning systems
Minimizing the time of exposure and keeping maximum
proper distance from the source
Proper shielding
Reduce time of exposure by planning of equipment
operation
Minimize noise at source, path control methods like
installation of sound barriers between the equipment and
personnel, proper maintenance, use of personnel
equipment such as ear plugs.
Isolating the disturbance, reducing friction absorbing

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 energy created by vibration of suitable design
Source reduction
Minimization techniques treatment of effluent
Chemical and
5 disinfection methods by: chlorination, heat sterilization,
biological
irradiation, filtered supply of air, air pressure differentials
use of personnel protective equipment

4.2 ENGINEERING INTERVENTIONS:

Engineering intervention methods are briefly discussed following three categories,
A. Physical interventions
B. Chemical interventions
C. Biological interventions
4.2.1 Physical interventions:
i. Air stripping
ii. Spray towers
iii. Carbon absorption
iv. Dissolved air floatation
v. Distillation
vi. Membrane filtration
vii. Steam stripping
viii. Super fluid critical extraction
ix. Super critical water oxidation
x. Wet air oxidation
xi. Stabilization and solidification
Some important interventions are discussed below
 Carbon adsorption:
It is widely used technology for the removal of organism from waste water and
gaseous streams. In carbon absorption, contaminants are absorbed in the surface of the
carbon. The absorption capacities of carbon are high because its porosity provides a large
surface area relative to its volume.

68
 Activated carbon is precipitated from lignite, coal, coke, wood/ other organic
materials.
It is more effective in removing organic compounds that have low polarity, high
molecular weight, low water solubility and high boiling point.
e.g : aromatic compound – benzene, toluene
Chlorinated compounds – trichlora ethane, tetrachlora ethane, trichloro ethane, DDT
 Dissolved air flotation:
It is used to separate suspended solids and oil/grease from aqueous streams and
concentrate/thicken sludge’s.
It is effective for emulsions after they have been completely broken.
It is used in many waste water treatment system, it is best adopted in hazardous waste,
and DAF float solids from petroleum refining waste waters.
 Distillation:
It separates volatile components from the waste stream by taking advantage of
differ in vapors pressure/boiling point among volatile fractions and water.
 Membrane filtration:
It includes reverse osmosis, ultra filtration, micro filtration, electro dialysis.
The basic principle is the using of driving force to filter particles, ions and
organism molecules through membrane producing a clean stream on one side and
concentrated stream on the other.
It has many industrial approaches such as water desalination and softening,
product concentration and purification and metal recovery.
 Steam stripping:
It is used to separate volatile components from waste water. It is similar to
distillation, waste stream is introduced at the top of the columns (packed tray). Steam at
the bottom and as it rises counter current it the down flowing waste water, it vaporizes
the volatile components.
 Wet air oxidation:
Increased temperature and pressure are used to oxidize dil.concentrations of
organics and some inorganic such a cyanide in aqueous waste that contain too much
water to be incinerated, but are too toxic to be treated biologically.

69
Wet streams that are treated by wet air oxidation are those having dissolved/suspended
org.concentration from 300 – 50000.
Below 300mg/l oxidation rates are too slow and above 5000mg/l incineration may be
feasible.
 Stabilization and solidification:
Stabilization refers to processes that reduce the toxicities, leaching are mobility of
toxic constituents perhaps thro chemical reaction but the physical form of waste is not
improved.
Solidification refers to processes that change the physical nature of the waste to
make it more load bearing capacities, increased in structural strength, but not necessarily
by chemical reactions.

4.2.2 Chemical Interventions:

i. Ion exchange
ii. Neutralization
iii. Oil /water separator
iv. Oxidation and reduction
v. Chlorination
vi. Ozonization
vii. Precipitation
viii. Solvent extraction
 Ion exchange:
It is an adsorption process in which ionic species are adsorbed from solution by
changing places with similarly charged ions on the exchange media.
(i.e) Exchange resins are used for softening.
It is primarily used to remove metals, non-metallic, organic and inorganic ions
can also removed.
Metals – Ba, Cd, Cr, Pb, Hg, Ni, U, Ag, & Zn
Non-metallic ions – NO32-, SO42-, CN-
Organic ions – phenyls and amines

70
 Neutralization:
It is a ph adjustment of of an acidic/caustic waste to a more neutral range. It is a
very common treatment step of waste water and gases.
The most commonly used neutralizing agents are
Lime/Ca(OH)2 – acidic waste water
H2SO4 – caustic waste water
NaOH, Mg(OH)2 – acidic streams
HCl, CO2 – caustic streams
Neutralization of acid gases with liquid caustic solutions (wet scrubbing) is common.
 Oxidation and reduction:
Redox reaction are used for both partial and complete degradation for many
organic and inorganic compounds
E.g.: Alcohols, Phenyls, Cyanide
 Precipitation:
These are adopted to remove metals from aquatic streams.
Metal precipitation is accomplished by pH adjustment and the addition of
chemical agent which forms a precipitate with metal can be settled out and separated
from aqueous stream.
Chemical reagents such as Ca(OH)2, NaOH, and Mg(OH)2
Chemicals added to aid flocculation and coagulation and produce a dense and
more easily dewatered sludge

4.2.3 Biological interventions

These are effective in treating a wide variety of organic, inorganic compounds.
Most biological process are aerobic.
The chief production of aerobic biodegradation of a C & N compounds are CO2,
NH3, H2O & biomass.
The biodegradability of hazardous compound such as hydrocarbons generally
decreased in the following order.
i. Mono and dicyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are more biodegradable than
cycloalkanes.

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 ii. Chain branching in alkanes and alkenes decreases biodegradability.
iii. Mono and cyclic alkanes are usually readily biodegradable. Poly cycloalkenes are
less biodegradable. Tetra and higher poly cycloalkenes, naphthalene &
phenanthreneare aromatic hydrocarbons those are biodegradable easily.
iv. Biodegradability of alkyl benzenes depend on the number and position of alkyl
groups.
General guidelines for the biodegradability and biological treatment of industrial
waste waters are
1. Non toxic aliphatic compounds containing carboxyl ester or hydroxyl groups that
are readily biodegradable. Those with dicarboxylic groups require longer
acclimation times than those with single carboxyl groups.
2. Compounds with carbonyl groups are double bonds and are moderately
degradable and slow to acclimate.
3. Compounds with amino or hydroxyl groups decrease in biodegradability relative
to the degree of saturation.
4. Biodegradable decreases with increasing degrees of halogenations

72
4.3 FLOW SHEETS OF ENGINEERING INTERVENTIONS
Engineering interventions can be easily explained by the use of flow sheets. Few
of them are,

73
74
4.4 WASTE MINIMIZATION TECHNIQUES:
Introduction
Waste minimization is aimed at reducing the generation of waste through
education and improved production process rather than attempting to enhance technology
to improve treatment of waste.
A comprehensive working definition for waste minimization reads as under:
“Prevention and /or reducing the generation of waste , improving the quality of waste
generated by reduction of hazard and encouraging reuse, recycling and recovery.”
Waste minimization techniques:(3R Techniques)
Waste can be minimized by any one of the following techniques.
1. Waste prevention/waste reduction at source
2. Reuse
3. Materials recycling
4. Recovery:
 Incineration with energy recovery
 Incineration without energy recovery
 Land fill with energy recovery
 Land fill without energy recovery
Waste prevention/waste reduction at source
The most preferred waste minimization technique is source reduction which
involves either completely prevent the formation of waste or reduce the quantity of waste
formed at the point of production /manufacturing process itself.
The following approaches can be adopted in manufacturing industries.
 Source control/ resource management
 Using less and /or more homogeneous raw materials for the sample output
 Using higher quality raw materials
 Using less hazardous or toxic materials as inputs
 Using input materials which are more easily recyclable.
 Improve material receiving storage and handling practices
 Improving operations and processes
 Usage of optimum process conditions , reactions and raw materials

75
  Improve house keeping: avoid leaks and spills
 Implement standard operating practices and preventive maintenance
procedures
 Segregate wastes by its type
 Processing and/or sale of waste as by-products
 Modification of production equipment and machinery
 Select and install manufacturing/production equipment that produce less or no
waste
 Improve the operating efficiency of the equipment of redesign.
 Enhance recovery or recycling option by modifying the experiment
 Improving Managerial practices
 Train employees for improving technical skills
 Conduct awareness program
 Create a strategic planning, implement and monitor
 Create waste minimization circles
 Product changes: “product management and marketing”
 Light weighing better quality longer life and more reliable products
 Product substitution
 Single material construction as opposed to multiple component products
 Larger containers, economy-size items, bulk purchases
 Less packaging, multiple packaging
 Ease of disassembly and segregation
 Reusable, returnable products
Waste reuse
 Reuse involve reuse of a material in its original form, possibly after
refurbishment
 It is important for the conservation and recovery of resources
 The overall cost of production may be significantly reduced
Examples of reuse initiative include
i. Product reusing - retrading of tyres
ii. Recovery of demolition materials reuse of plastic bags

76
 iii. Durable packaging: E.g.: milk and egg crates , bred trays, calico
shopping bags
Waste recycling
The waste recycling involves processing of materials from waste streams which
are broken down into raw materials and reprocessed either into the same material or a
new product. Waste recycling includes waste separation and material reprocessing.
The main categories of recyclables are e.g.: paper, PET and HDPE plastics, food
containers etc.
Waste recovery
Waste recovery is the range of activities characterized by the treatment and uses
of materials or energy from waste through thermal, chemical and biological means.
Generally they are two main groups
 Biological processes such as
a. Composting
b. Anaerobic digestion
c. Vermiculture
 Thermal and chemical processes such as
a. Incineration
b. Gasification
E.g.
i. Cow dug can be used as manure and for production of biogas
ii. Kitchen wastes and garbage can be used for making composites
Benefits and barrier for Waste minimization:
Benefits:
 Conservation of natural resources and reduced disposal infrastructure such as
land fill
 Financial return
 Environmental improvement
 Staff motivation
 Reducing risk and contingent liabilities
 Company/ country image

77
Barriers
 Initial cost
 Other priorities
 Quality worries
 Management over load
 Reorganization
 Perception(compliance Vs cost saving)
4.5 CLEAN TECHNOLOGY:
Clean technology is a process, which will be using less raw material, energy and
produce less waste than other existing process.
It is important aim is minimization and efficient production. There can be no zero
waste in any manufacturing process and hence more attention is paid to reduce the cost of
the process. For this saving on raw materials, recycling of waste, replacing chemicals by
less harmful chemicals, improving efficiency are important.
With the encouragement from the top management and enthusiastic participation of
working force, the implementation of clean technology becomes feasible.
 Source level reduction:
Source level reduction can be carried out as follows:
 Product modification: incorporating changes in the product in order to
reduce environmental impacts of its use and disposal. Sometimes this will
involve changing the material in the product.
 Input substitution: selection of new raw materials those are renewable, less
toxic/harmful, and more appropriate for this application, recycled or
recyclable materials.
 Technology modification: changes in the production process to reduce
environmental impacts of the production process. Eg: better monitoring and
control process to achieve clean technology.
 Treatment and Disposal: Treatment of the wastewater is essential, the
remaining solid waste could be taken to anaerobic decomposition and the
derived energy could be used fuel.

78
 Waste could be produced in all possible ways, but it cannot be done with. Hence,
the waste should be properly disposed off.
 Employers and Employee:
Skilled workers who are very much dedicated to their jobs are essential for proper
maintenance and running the industry, regular training could be arranged periodically for
the workers, so that they might come to know about the latest technologies. Above this
environmental awareness must be created, so that they work accordingly to prevent
environmental degradation.
The rules and regulations of the industry should be framed in such a way that
environmental degradation is at its minimum.
 Good house keeping:
It means that measures that can be adopted by the industries to improve their
productivity reduce the cost of production and reduce the environmental impact.
This relate to voluntary actions, aimed at
1. Optimizing the use of raw materials, water and energy inputs.
2. Reducing the toxicity of waste, wastewater and emissions related to production.
3. Reusing and /or recycling a maximum number of primary inputs and packaging
materials.
 Reasons for recycling:
i. Resource conservation
ii. Energy conservation
iii. Pollution reduction
iv. Waste minimization
v. Land conservation
 Reasons for reuse
i. Waste materials are properly cleaned
ii. Disinfected
iii. The energy requirement is minimum than that recycling process.
4. Improving work conditions and occupational safety in the company
5. Efficient monitoring process to eliminate or reduce wastes and emission

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Therefore, in this manner a clean technology process could carried out by minimization
of the waste at the source level by carrying out necessary changes in the raw materials,
process technology, handling, storage of the finished products, etc. in on eco friendly
manner. These processes will reduce the cost of production and will lead to efficient,
productive, less polluting economy of the industry in a long run.
4.6 STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE OF INTERVENTIONS:
Engineering technological interventions have become reliable tools in the
minimization of stress in order to maintain the environmental quality and stability.
Several International and national bodies and organizations have recommended
and cautiously prescribed standard norms for each category of the pollutants after
carrying out the treatment procedures.
The standards of various components of various components of physical and
chemical matter of effluents from several sources such as oil refineries, thermal power
plants, textile, dye, electroplating, cement, pulp & paper, leather and petrochemical
industries are given below:

S.No INDUSTRY PARAMETER

STANDARDS
1 Oil refinery Concentration not to exceed Quantum, Kg/100
industry mg/l(except to pH) tonnes of crude
processed.
Oil and grease 10 – 7
Phenol 1 – 0.7
Sulphide 0.5 – 0.35
0
BOD, 5 day 20 c 15 – 10.5
Suspended solids 20 – 14
pH 6 – 8.5
2 Thermal power Maximum limiting
plants concentration, mg/l
expected to pH & T
6.5 – 8.5
Condenser not mate than 0c

80
 cooling waters pH higher than the
Temperature intanks water
temperature
0.5
100
Free available chlorines 20
Boiler blow down Suspended solids 1.0
Oil and grease 1.0
Copper 0.5
Cooking tower Iron 1.0
blow down Free available chlorine 0.2
Zinc 5.0
Chromium Limit to be
Phosphate established on case
Other corrosion inhibiting material by case basis by
central board in
case of union
territories and state
board in case of
states.
6.5 – 8.5
Ash pond effluent pH 100
suspended solids 20
oil and grease
3 Textile industries Concentration not
to exceed mg/l

Common: 5.5 – 9.0

pH 100
suspended solids 150
BOD, 5 day 200c 10

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 oil and grease 90% survival of fish
bio assay test after 96 Hrs

Special 2
Chromium 2
Sulphide 6
Phenol

4 Dye industries Concentration not

to exceed mg/l
(extent for pH, T
and bioassay)

Common : 100
suspended solids 6 – 8.5
pH shall not exceed 50c
Temperature above the ambient
temperature of the
receiving body
0.01
0.1
2.0
3.0
Hg
5.0
Hexavalent Cr
3.0
Total Cr
2.0
Cu
1000
Zn
1000
Ni
1.0
Cd
10

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 Chloride 90% survival of test
Sulphate animals after 96 Hrs
Phenolic compounds
Oil and grease
Bio assay test

5 Cement plants Total dust Not to exceed mg

per normal cubic
meter
Plant capacity (all sections)Total test 400
200 tones per day
Greater than
capacity 200 (all sections) 250
tones per day
6 Electroplating Concentration not
industries to exceed mg/l
(extent for pH, T
and bioassay)
6.0 – 9.0
pH shall not exceed 50c
temperature above the ambient
temperature of the
receiving body
10
100
0.2
Oil and grease 50
suspended solids 1.0
cyanides(as CN) 2.0
Ammoniacal Nitrogen(as N) 3.0

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 Total residual chlorides(as Cl) 5.0
Cadmium 0.1
Nickel 2.0
Zinc 3.0
Hexavalent chromium 0.1
Total chromium 3.0
Copper 10.0
Lead
Iron
Total metal
7 Pulp and paper Concentration not
industries to exceed mg/l
(except for pH and
sodium absorption
ratio)
pH 5.5 – 9.0
Suspended solids 100
BOD 30
pH 5.5 – 9.0
Disposal on land Suspended solids 100
BOD 100
sodium absorption ratio 26
8 Petrochemical Effluents pH 6.5 – 8.5
0
industries BOD (5 days at 20 ) 50
Phenol 5
Sulphide 2
COD 250
Cyanide 0.2
Fluoride 15
suspended solids 1000
Hexavalent chromium 0.1

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 Total chromium 2.0
9 Iron and steel Particulate Matter emission sintering 150 mg per normal
industries plant cubic centre
Steel making 150 mg per normal
- during normal operations cubic centre
400 mg per normal
cubic centre
- during oxygen launching 150 mg per normal
cubic centre
3 Kg per tone of
- rolling mill coke produced

- carbon monoxide from coke oven

85
UNIT – V
TOOLS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
5.1 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA):
EIA is a widely accepted tool for environmental management. The main objective
of EIA is to identify and subsequently predict the impacts of commercial, industrial
&legislative proposals, policies and operational procedures and interpret, communicate
information to all stake holders about these impacts. The governing awareness on the
minimization of environmental stress have been paved a strong way for the concept on
Environmental Impact Assessment. Environmental Impact Assessment is defined as a
systemic approach by which the possible impacts of the proposed projects or programmes
are thoroughly analyzed and identified in terms of biological, cultural and social values of
the environment.
EIA Process
 Identification and selection:
Identifying & selecting the competent coordinator, collecting the
information regarding the relevant proposed project.
 Broad analysis:
Analyzing the impacts of the proposed project.
 Collection of detailed data:
Collecting data about status of the project site and surrounding and finding
the area where the proposed project is being considered to be
implemented.
 Qualitative impact evaluation:
The terms including potential mitigation measures, project alternatives
should be kept ready before the impact evaluation.
 Impact assessment:
This takes into account environmental losses and gains as well as economic
costs and benefits for each alternative proposed and preparation of an
environmental impact statement.

86
 Flow Chart to Conduct an EIA Study
Project Proposal

Expert Team

Proposal to conduct the study

Proposal Evaluation

Finalization of the proposed study

No Report satisfactory
Yes
Commence EIA study

Database & impact identification

Interim report

Evaluation of interim report

Finalise the modalities

Report satisfactory No
Yes
Data & policy analysis

Final report

Meet to finalize the recommendations

No report accepted
Yes
Accept / reject proposal

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  Detailed documentation:
The work done in the EIA with specific recommendations about the
proposed project and alternatives with comments on the environmental
and economic impacts of each should be documented in the register.
 Decision making process:
This can be done by decision maker. This decision normally falls into
any one of the following categories.
 proposal accepted
 Proposal accepted with amendments.
 Alternative proposal accepted.
 Proposal is rejected.
 Further study of the proposal.
Environmental impact statement:
A detailed written report that provides the complete informations of the
environmental impacts, their alternative plans and minimization technique to enhance the
environmental quality is called Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)
Contents of EIS:
 Details of the proposed project or action and alternatives including all phases
of action.
 Nature and magnitude of the predicted impacts of the proposed
action under the following three categories.
a) Physical: air, water and land pollution, natural disasters like flood,
earthquake etc.
b) Biological: flora & fauna, biodiversity, endangered species.
c) Socio economic
 Identification of human concerns.
 Measurement criteria of the significance of the predicted environmental
changes.
 Estimate the significance of the impacts of the environmental changes.
 Recommendations about the acceptability or otherwise of the proposed projects
and alternatives.

88
  Monitoring procedures during &after implementation of the project.
Benefits of EIA:
 Cost and time saving in project implementation
 Increase acceptability of the project among all stake holders.
 Laws and regulations of the society is fully compiled and hence no future
conflicts.
 Improves project performance by decreased pollutant emissions, effective
resource utilization and minimization of cleanup costs.
 A healthy environment
 Improved human health
 Paves way for sustainable development.
5.2 PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE
Precautionary means “fore caring” otherwise it is known as a sense of foresight
and preparation, not just caution.
When an activity raises threats or harm to the environment or human health
precautionary measures should be taken. When the health of humans and the environment
is at stake, it may not be necessary to wait for scientific certainty to take protective
action.
Reasons for adopting precautionary principle:
During the development, there may be several warning signals, not able to cope up
with the ill effects.
 Chronic diseases like cancer, asthma, Alzheimer’s disease, autism, birth
defects, developmental disabilities, diabetes, endometriosis, infertility, multiple
sclerosis and Parkinson’s disease are on the increase.
 Loss of biodiversity, destruction of eco systems, the depletion of ozone layer,
the climate change etc.
 Develop alternative to possible harmful actions. E.g.: “clean technology” it will
eliminate waste and toxic substances.
 Place the responsibility of proof on the agency initiating on activity and not on
potential victims of the activity.
 Set and work toward goals that protect health and the environment.

89
  Bring democracy and transparency to decisions affecting health and
environment.
Arguments against the precautionary principle:
 This principle possesses a stiff challenge to business development in a modern
technological society.
 This is also argued to be “antiscientific” in the sense that scientists and
technologists alone have the competence to tell the society about the
environmental outcome of any new or current product or technology.
Benefits of the precautionary principle:
 Encourages the exploration of better, safer and in many cases cheaper
alternatives and the development of cleaner products and technologies.
 The future environment will be more &more environmentally conscious and
increasingly demand safe products and sustainable technologies.
 Society and future generations receive more benefits in the form of lower cost
and reduced suffering.
5.2.1 POLLUTER PAYS PRINCIPLE :( PPP)
Those Who Pollute the Environment and destroy its biodiversity should pay the
cost of adverse effect of pollution. Polluters may reduce emissions if they pay for it.
PPP implement cleaner environment, improved economic efficiency and better
social welfare. According to this principle polluters must pay for
 Cost of pollution abatement
 Cost of environmental repair
 Compensation costs for victims of environmental damages.
Industries must pay for machinary, construction costs, labour, pollution control
equipment. But they are not billed for using environmental resources like rivers, lakes,
oceans, air and land.
Implementation strategies:
 An emission charge system for industrial effluents.
 A system of product taxes to ensure that the market price of product includes
costs that they impose on the environment during production, use and disposal.

90
  A deposit and refund system to ensure the return of the products containing
toxic materials.
 Manufactures, distributors and retailers take direct responsibility for disposal of
product containing toxic materials.
 Civil liability of toxic polluters.
 Security requirements for polluters.
 Government purchasing policy gives preference to products produced with
clean technology.
 Government subsidy programs and elimination o0f non environmental
subsidies for industries that creates toxic pollution.
Problems in implementing PPP:
 Accurately assessing the economic effects of pollution.
 Setting the level of change to achieve the desired level of pollution reduction.
 Identify polluters
 Enforcement and control
 Trade and competiveness issues
 Political acceptability
Benefits of PPP:
 Greener environment
 Economic efficiency
 Incentives to reduce pollution
 Generate funds for green investment or for compensation payments.
5.3 CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL
MANAGEMENT:
OVERVIEW OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS
UNDER PART III – FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
Article 21 Right to freedom, protection of life & personal liberty
Article 32 Right to Constitutional Remedies
UNDER PART IV DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLE OF STATE POLICY
Article 47 Duty of the state to raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living
and to improve public health

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 UNDER PART IV DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLE OF STATE POLICY
Article 48A Protection And Improvement of Environment and Safeguarding Of
Forests and Wild Life
UNDER PART IV A – FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES
Article 51A To protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes,
rivers and wildlife and to have the compassion for living creatures
UNDER PART V - THE UNION CHAPTER IV – THE UNION JUDICIARY
Article 136 Special Leave to Appeal by the Supreme Court
UNDER PART VI –THE STATES CHAPTER III – THE STATE LEGISLATURE
GENERAL
Article 172 Durations of State Legislatures
UNDER PART VI THE STATES
Article 226 Power of High Courts to Issue Certain writs
5.4 LEGAL AND ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS IN THE ENVIRONMENTAL
MANAGEMENT:
The term “economic instruments” also includes subsidies, grants and tax
allowances that have a positive environmental impact. Economic instruments are tools for
action which provide signal to the polluters to know the environmental cause in their
decision making and make them behave in a socially acceptable manner. They also
provide incentives for polluters to search for least cost options.
OECD’S Definition: (organization for economic cooperation and Development):
Those policy instruments which may influence environmental outcomes by
changing the cost & benefits of alternative actions open to economic agents.
An environmental levy on a specific item (article or service) increases the relative
price of the item. Rational &economic agents (consumers and producers) will reduce
their demand of this item as it has become relatively more expensive.
The argument is to internalize economic externalities to increase the overall
economic efficiency. The price including the levy would thereby be a more correct
reflection of the total costs of the production and or use of the item in question.

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5.4.1 Categorization of economic instruments:
 Product taxes and charges:
This is to impose levy on products that cases environmental damage through their
extraction, production use or disposal. These are having an indirect relation to the
emissions, as apposed to effluent charges that are more directly related to the
actual emissions. So emission charge provides a much stronger incentive to
reduce emissions.
 Tax differentiation:
This aims to stimulate the use of less harmful substitute products or inputs at the
expense of more harmful products or inputs.
 Effluent charges/taxes:
This based on the quantity or quality of discharged pollutants.
 User fees:
These are payments for waste disposal or sewage treatment. This payment reflects
the cost of providing the service.
 Administrative taxes:
These are payments for authority services that are associated with the
administration of related environmental regulation. This is considered as user fee.
 Subsidies:
This is to motivate individuals or enterprises to act more environmental friendly.
This may be grants, soft loans or tax allowances.
 Enmarked revenues:
It may constitute the financing source for specific subsidy schemes. Thus
revenues collected from one specific or from several charges may be reallocated
for specific environmental purposes.
 Deposit refund system:
The surcharge is refunded when the product it’s residual or packaging is returned
to a collection system instead of conventional disposal.
 Enforcement incentives:
This provides an economic incentive for compliance. They are relevant where non
compliance or postponement is an immediate alternative.

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5.5 ROLE OF NONGOVERNMENT ORGANISATIONS (NGOs):
NGOs are voluntary organizations that are creating environmental awareness
through academic, scientific and real life practical activities. The NGOs can bring about
significant pressure on polluting industries for adopting pollution control measures.
Functions of NGOs:
 To conduct preliminary surveys to identify the polluted environment from any
pollution source.
 To keep vigil on abstraction of water, discharge of sewage from any industry in
quantity in relation to flow, volume.
 To conduct sampling and analysis of river, well water to establish its quality.
 To provide information regarding any causes or permits any poisonous, polluting
matter into any water body or on land or in air.
 To provide information regarding violation of consent such as discharges of
wastes during odd hours etc.
 To publish the notified restricted areas where industries, industrial operations
etc.shall not be carried out or shall be carried out subject to certain safeguards.
 To provide information on fish kill or other sudden damage to environment not
noticed by the state board.
In India about 5000 NGOs have been given financial assistance for creating and
improving the environmental awareness among the people. An environmental
information system (ENVIS) network has been established to reveal the
information on the latest environmental issues and developments.
List of NGOs available in India are

1. World Wide Fund (WWF) for Nature, India

2. Indian Environmental Association, Mumbai
3. Environmental Society of India(ESI), Chandigarh
4. People’s Commission on Environment and Development India, New Delhi
5. Haryana Environmental Society
6. Sastrakalayatha, Kerala
7. C.P.Ramaswami Aiyar Environmental Education Centre, Chennai.
8. Centre for Science and Environment

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 9. CYWEN Youth for Environment, Ahmedabad
10. Friends of river Narmada
11. Madras Environmental Society, Chennai
12. Centre for Environmental Concerns, Hyderabad
13. Eklavya, Madhya Pradesh
14. SEARCH, Bangalore
5.6 COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT
WORKS:
 Notice and comment procedures:
The government provide broad public notice of proposed decisions and adequate
time for the public to educate themselves about the issue before “the floor is open” for
discussion either orally or in writing. The government helps the public to better
understand the final decision.
 Public hearings:
Hearings are generally organized by the authority who wants to take the measure.
The hearings will be successful when both parties take part in discussion.
 Advisory committees: This is done on a national level. These bodies give advice
to government on environmental measures or laws. Before accepting a seat on
advisory committees two basic conditions must be met
a) the public nature of the sessions
b) Compulsory recoding of minority opinions.
 International treaties:
Treaties mean agreement between governments. Here individual cannot directly
appeal to government. Once an international treaty is concluded and signed by a
government, it has to be ratified by the parliament only then it is effective.
 Environmental impact assessments:
Many Countries legally bound to make EIA. Final decisions may only be made
after a thorough study of the facts. The setup of an EIA the draft and final reports can
then be discussed in public.
 Ombudsman:

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 Ombudsman means independent complaint committee. Specific complaints in a
certain field of policy can be draft with special ombudsman.
E.g.: a) social ombudsman may be approach for social matters.
b) A consumer ombudsman for consumer affairs
5.7 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS AND PROTOCOLS:
1. United Nation’s conference on human environment, June 1972.
2. United Nations general assembly regulations December 15, 1972.
3. Charter of economic rights and duties of states 1974.
4. The convention on international trade in endangered species (CITES) 1975.
5. UN habitat conference on human settlement 1976.
6. water conference 1977
7. Environmental education conference.
8. Control of transboundry movement and disposal of hazardous waste (Basel
convention).
9. Earth summit 1972(Rio declaration in environment and development.
10. The Vienna convention on ozone layer depletion-Montreal protocol.
11. United Nations climate change control convention (UNCCC) –climate of greenhouse
control convention.
12. Manila declaration on green productivity.
13. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change – Kyoto Protocol.
1. United Nations conference on human environment 1972:
It was held at Stockholm from 5-16 June, 1972.
1. Policies promoting racial segregation, discrimination, colonial and other
forms of oppression and foreign domination must be eliminated.
2. Man has to safeguard and widely manage the heritage of wildlife and it’s
habitual.
3. The discharge of toxic substances should be avoided.
4. Scientific research and development in the context of environmental
problems, both national and multinational must be promoted.

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2. Charter of economic rights and duties of states 1974:
It was framed in the UN general assembly resolution in 1974.prevention and
enhancement of the environment for the present and future generation is the
responsibility of all states.
3. The convention of international trade in endangered species cites 1975:
It is international agreement between governments. It aims to ensure that wild
animals and plants do not threaten for their survival.
4. UN habitat conference on human settlement:
UN habitat is mandated by the UN general assembly to promote socially and
environmentally sustainable towns and cities with the goal of providing adequate shelter
for all.
5. Water conference 1977:
This was held at Mar Del Plata, Argentina from 14-25 march.1977, to solve the
water problems facing international community.
6. Basel convention:
Central goal is “environmentally sound management (ESM). To protect human
health and environment by minimizing hazardous waste production.
7. Earth summit 1992:
Earth summit have examined the relationship between human rights, population,
social development, woman and human settlements and the need for environmentally
sustainable development.
8. The Vienna convention on ozone layer depletion (1985):
The convention provided for future protocols and specified procedures for
amendment and dispute settlement. Nations agreed in principle to tackle a global
environmental problem before its effect were felt or even socially proven.
9. Montreal protocol:
Discovery of the Antarctic ozone hole in late 1985, governments recognized the
need for stronger measures to reduce the production and consumption of a number of
CFC’s and several Halons.

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 This was adopted on 16 September, 1987 in Montreal. The protocol was designed
so that the phase out schedules could be revised on the basis of periodic, scientific and
technological assessments. This came into force on 1st January, 1989.
Amendments to the protocol:
 The London amendment (1990):
-Introduces control measures for both production and consumption for three new
groups of substances, namely other halogenated CFC’s CCl4 and methyl
chloroform or 1,1,1,- tri chloro ethane.
 Copenhagen amendment- 1992;
It was adopted in 1992. This introduces control measures for both production
and consumption for two new groups of substances, HBFC s and HCFCs.
10. Montreal amendment-1997:
It was adopted in 1997. This amendment introduced the requirement for licensing
systems to allow control and monitoring of trade in substances.
11. Beijing amendment-1999:
It was adopted in 1999.this introduced control measures for HCFC S and
production and consumption for one new group of substances bromo chloro ethane.
12. United Nations climate change control convention (UNCCC) –climate of
greenhouse control convention:
This is to foresee and prevent potential manmade changes in climate that might be
adverse to the well being humanity.
13. Manila declaration on green productivity: The green productivity program has
shown, with its many successful cases, to be a practical and effective means for attaining
sustainable development.
14. Kyoto protocol:
This agreement addressed the emission trading system and clean development
mechanism. It also outlined a package of financial and technological support to help
developing countries contribute to global action on climate change.

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5.8 POLLUTION CONTROL BOARDS:
Central Pollution Control Boards:
The central pollution control board (CPCB) was constituted in September 1974 under the
water act, 1974.
 To promote cleanliness of streams and wells in different areas of the states by
prevention, control and abatement of water pollution.
 To improve the quality of air and to prevent, control or abate air pollution in the
country.
Functions of Central Pollution Control Board:
 Advice central government on any matter concerning prevention and control of
water and air pollution and improvement of the quality of air.
 Plan and cause to be executed a nation wide programmes for the prevention,
control or abatement of water and air pollution
 Coordinate the activities of states.
 Provide technical assistance and guidance to the state boards.
 Plan and organize training of persons engaged in programmes on the prevention,
control.
 Organize through mass media, a comprehensive mass awareness programmes on
the prevention, and control of water and air pollution.
 Collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to water and
air pollution.
 Prepare manuals, codes and guidelines relating to treatment and disposal of
sewage and trade effluents as well as for stack gas cleaning devices.
 Disseminate information in respect of matters relating to water and air pollution
and their prevention and control.
State Pollution Control Boards:
This has a chairman nominated by the state government who has special
knowledge and practical experience in respect of matters relating to environmental
protection. The board also consists of members from agriculture, industry, fishery, trade
and labors.

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Functions:
 To plan a comprehensive programmes to prevent pollution.
 To advise state government.
 To collect and disseminate information
 Collaborate with the central board in organizing training programmes and mass
education programmes.
 To inspect control equipment, industrial plant or manufacturing processes.
 To inspect air pollution control areas at such intervals to assess the quality of air
 Establish laboratories to perform its function efficiently.
Various Pollution Control Acts in India:
1) Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution )Act (1974):
This act prohibits the discharge of pollutants into water bodies beyond a
given standard, and lays down penalties for non compliance. This was
amended in 1988.
2) Water Cess Act (1977):
This provides for a levy and collection of a cess on water consumed by
industries and local authorities.
3) Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution ) Act ( 1981):
The act seeks to combat air pollution by prohibiting the use of polluting
fuels and substances as well as by regulating appliances that give rise to
air pollution. The state boards are also expected to test the air in air
pollution control areas, inspect pollution controls equipment and
manufacturing processes.
4) The Wild Life Protection Act, 1972:
This act provides for protection to listed species of flora and fauna and
establishes a network of ecologically important protected areas. It
regulates the hunting of wild animals, protects specified plants,
sanctuaries, national parks and closed areas.
5) The Forest Conservation Act, (1980):
This was adopted to protect and conserve forests. The act restricts the
powers of the state in respect of dereservation of forests and use of forest

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 land for no forest purposes. The term “non forest” means clearing any
forest land for cultivation of cash crops, plantation crops, horticulture.
6) Environment Protection Act (1986):
The central government is empowered to take measures necessary
 to protect and improve the quality of the environment by setting
standards for emissions and discharges
 regulating the location of industries
 management of hazardous wastes
 the protection of public health and welfare
7) The National Environment Appellate Authority Act, (1997):
To hear appeals with respect to restriction of areas in which any industry
operation or process could not carryout or would be allowed to carryout
subject to certain safeguards under the environment act, 1986
8) Factories Act, 1948 and Its Amendment in 1987:
The aim of this act to ensure
 the welfare of workers in their working conditions in the factories
 their employment benefits
 safety and health of the workers
 protection of the environment
9) Public Liability Insurance Act (Plia, 1991):
 The act covers accidents involving hazardous substances and insurance
coverage when death or injury from an accident.
 This act makes the owner liable to provide relief as is specified in the
schedule of the act.
10) National Environmental Tribunal Act, 1995:
 The act provides strict liability for damages arising out of any accident
occurring while handling any hazardous substances.
 For the establishment of a national environmental tribunal for effective
and disposal of cases arising from such accident.

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