Chapter Nine: Intelligence

Study of Individual Differences: Area of psychology devoted to investigating the nature, origin, and consequences of
individual differences in behavior. Major domains include:
 Intellectual Achievement
 Personality & Emotion
 Interests & Values
 Psychopathology

Nature vs. Nurture Controversy:

Differential Psychology Controversies:

 Casual interference from observational research  Correlation does not imply causation
 Challenging cherished beliefs

Eugenics Movement: Movement in the 20th century to improve a population’s genetics by having people with positive
genetics reproduce. Galton was a strong supporter, such as with Hitler. Problems included:
 IQ test takers didn’t consider intelligence of non-English speakers
 States sterilized people with low IQs

Sir Francis Galton: Cousin of Believed that nature prevails enormously over nurture. Proposed that intelligence is a by-
product of sensory capacity. Coined the role of eugenics.

Alfred Binet: Started intelligence testing. Relied on higher mental processes—reasoning, understanding, and judgments.
Had high positive correlation.

Basic Knowledge of a Behavioral Genetics Study:

 Monozygotic Apart Twins (MZA): Identical twins that are reared apart from one another
 Monozygotic Together Twins (MZT): Identical twins that are raised together.
 Dizygotic Apart Twins (DZA): Twins that are reared apart from one another
 Dizygotic Together Twins (DZT): Twins that are raised together.
 Biologically Unrelated Siblings (URT): Siblings that are not biologically related but raised together.
* This method can be used to study nature vs. nurture because you can compared the results between the twin studies,
which would account for the same nature and nurture, and compare it with UTR siblings, where similaries would result
100% by the environment and not genetics.
* Looking for converging lines of evidence is similar to the

Intelligence:
 To understand and use complex ideas
 To adapt effectively to the environment Intelligence is a theoretical construct because it is
 To learn from experience unobservable, difficult to measure, and has no
 To engage in of abstract reasoning universal definition.
* Some things that correlate with intelligence are how well people do in school, ability to advance or follow complex
arguments, and ability at mental arithmetic

General Intelligence (g): Hypothetical factor that accounts for overall differences in intellect among people. People who
are usually smart at one concept are usually smart in many aspects of their lives. Proposed by Spearman.

Multiple Intelligences Perspective: Theory that people have intelligence in specific “frames of mind” where each frame
is different and fully independent. Made about 8 intelligence types. Is criticized because this theory is difficult to falsify.
Proposed by Gardner.

Intelligence Theories by Horn and Cattell:

  Crystallized Intelligence: Accumulated knowledge of the world over time. Get better as we age.
 Fluid Intelligence: Capacity to learn new ways of solving problems. More likely to decline with age.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ): Stern’s formula for computing intelligence. Shows differences in intelligence with people.
Intelligence is calculated with formula:

Mental Age (MA) x 100 *Mental Age is the age your abilities are at where chronological
IQ =
age is th
Chronological Age (CA) the actual age of a person

Achievement, Ability, & Aptitude Tests:

 Achievement: Assess mastery of a specific educational program (Psych Exam)
 Ability: Assess current level of cognitive competence (IQ Test) .8 correlation means that they both measure around
 Aptitude: Predict future performance (SAT) the same things and can predict similar outcomes

Evaluation of a Good Test Must Have:

Validity: Does a test measure what it purports to measure?
Reliability: Does the test produce consistent scores?
* IQ is generally stable over short time periods but can have random spurts as we age.

Flynn Effect: Finding that IQ scores increase about 3 points per decade, by environmental influences. Possible
explanations include:
 Increased test sophistication
 Increased complexity of the modern world
 Better nutrition
 Changes at home and school

IQ Differences:
Men: Usually have higher IQs than women by about 3 points. More variable with more people in high and low ends.
Better at spatial abilities.
Women: Generally better at verbalizing and perceptual abilities.
* Socialization theory may explain these differences because there are stereotypes explaining appropriate gender
behaviors that are encouraged/discouraged by society. As a consequence we develop gender schemas, which guide our
behavior
* Biological theory may be different sex hormones that each gender has that may contribute to differences.

Parental Investment Theory: Sex that invests greatest resources in offspring rearing will be more selective. Sex that
invests less in offspring rearing will compete for access. Explains the differences between men and women because
women are generally more nurturing so kids connect with mother more but go to father for fun since they are usually
more physical and friendly with kids. Example is with seahorse or pipefish

Gender & Sex:

Gender: A social construction. Our sense of self as being male or female and the activities males or females typically
engage in.
Sex: A biological construction. Includes internal reproductive organs and external genitalia.
* Hormonal effects on pre-natal sexual development are that they create neural and sex organs in early development.
At primarily post pubertal development they act on neutral and sexual structures.

Congenial Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH): Genetic condition where adrenal glands over-secretes androgens. Info is sent to
feedback loop to tell adrenal glands when to shut off. CAH does not have feedback loop so there is an overproduction of
androgens. Females exposed to CAH are exposed to male hormones prenatally. Can reorganize structures in brain,
genital region, grow ambiguous body regions ect.
 In twin study, the boy who had his genitalia cut off to become a female still had male thoughts but was in a
female external.
  Shows that rearing gender in the environment is extremely influential in shaping a child’s psychosexual
differentiation and the ultimate outcome of a female or male gender identity.

IQ Tests:
Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS): Most widely used IQ test for adults measuring 15 subsets to assess different
types of mental abilities. Main measurements are:
 OverallI IQ
 Verbal Comprehension
 Perceptual Reasoning
 Working Memory
 Processing Speed
WISC: Measures intelligence in children
Raven’s Progressive Matrices: Intelligence test that tests on abstract reasoning that doesn’t depend on language and is
less influential on specific cultures.

Mental Retardation: Condition characterized by an onset prior to adulthood, IQ below 70, and an inability to engage in
adequate daily functioning. Is classified into four levels with Mild (educatable stage) having 85% of those diagnosed in
this stage.

Down Syndrome: Disease characterized by an extra copy of chromosome 21. Most people have mild/moderate mental
retardation. People with Down Syndrome usually have similar physical characteristics.

Terman’s Study: Terman selected 1,500 high school juniors with IQs about 135 to track these indiciduals, “Terman’s
Termites,” for several decades. Most of his termites had doctoral, Phds, MDs, or law degrees.
* Someone who is gifted has an IQ in the top 2% of the population, usually around 180.
* To attain remarkable intelligence, 10 years of devout research/study is required, or 10,000 hours.

Environmental Effects on IQ:

School:
 Researchers have studied children who are almost identical, but born only a couple of days apart. Those who got
an extra year of schooling had higher IQs than others.
 Children’s IQs drop a lot during summer vacations
 Drop-outs have lower IQs than what they started school with
Socioeconomic & Nutrition:
 People in poverty have lower IQs. They became “dumber” as they aged
 Malnutrition can prolong low IQs
 Poor children can be exposed to lead which can cause intellectual deficits
 Breast-fed babies are usual smarter (Moms who breast feed are usually in a higher social class)
Chapter Ten: Human Development

How to Study Infant Characteristics:

 Cohort Effect: Effects due to the fact that sets of people who lived during one period, cohort, can differ in some
systematic way from sets of people who lived during a different time period.
 Cross Sectional Design: Research design that measure people of different ages at a single point in time.
 Longitudal Design: Research design that examines development in the same group of people on multiple
occasions over time.
- Allows us to measure true development effects
- Only sure way to go against the cohort effect.
- Cons: attrition, long, costly, can’t determine cause and effect.

Habituation: Decreased response to a stimulation with longer exposure

 Is used to study infant abilities because they can see their early abilities. Can study:
- Pattern discrimination, face perception, learning and memory, emotion expression, and responsiveness.
- Babies are born with facial expressions, physical reflexes (sucking, grasping, stepping), and emotional
expressiveness (interest, disgust, distress, contentment)

Abilities Present at Birth:

 Pattern Discrimination/Face Perception: Infants need to protect themselves from strangers. Only know primary
caregivers at birth
 Learning and Memory: Need to remember how to drink milk to attain bodily needs
 Emotion Expression/Responsiveness: Need to display if they are content or angry

Emotions Present in Children:

Birth:
 Interest, Disgust, Distress, & Contentment
2-6 Months:
 Anger, Sadness, Surprise, & Fear
Social Reflexes:
 Newborns imitate facial expressions and fixate on eyes to track gaze.

Harmful Substances on Children:

Teratogens: Chemicals and viruses that can reach the embryo or fetus and cause harm.
 Ex. Irradiation, rubella, cortisone, alcohol
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS): Impaired growth and neurological abnormalities resulting from heavy exposure to
alcohol during gestation
 Occurs within first 3 months of fetal development
 5 or more drinks per day

Experiments with Children:

Visual Cliff: Psychological apparatus for studying depth perception. Has shown that infants that just start crawling do
not have depth perception at first but as time progresses, they develop depth perception and sometimes a fear of
heights
Sticky Mittens Intervention: When 3 month old babies who had not acquired the concept of grasping were given Velcro
mittens to grab Velcro objects. Results were that 3 month olds had perception of 6 month olds because they gained
grasping concept faster than normal babies.
* 2 Experiences show that infants experiences can influence their perceptions.

Plasticity: Brain function where the brain is open to change and intervention. More stimulation environments:
 More complex, better functioning brain tissue, better recovery after brain injury
 More stimulation IS NOT always a good thing. Depends on state of brain and what kind of stimulation it is.
Janet Werker’s Study: Taught infants to turn heads whenever they detected a different phoneme or sound in a word.
Whenever they had a correct head turn they were rewarded with a toy. Found that infants are universally adaptive
(capacity of infants to detect all sounds of speech) and are able to learn languages better.

Stages of Infant Language Development:

1. Babbling: Comes to sound like native language
2. One-Word Stage: Babies start by saying what they can pronounce
3. Two-Word Stage: Function words are omitted (a, the, of)
4. Increasing syntactic competence

Evidence for Innate Language Capacities

 Teaching has little effect
 Adults – poor tutors and models
 Children are creative
 Non-hearing children create own language

Jean Piaget: First to present a comprehensive account of cognitive development. Showed that children aren’t miniature
adults. They also are not passive learners. They are actually active learners who seek info and observe the
consequences of their actions. Piaget was a stage theorist who agreed with the domain-general account (cross cutting
changes in kids cognitive skills that affect most/all areas of cognitive development at once) proposed that change is
marked by equilibration (maintain a balance between our experience of the world and our thoughts about it).
 Assimilation: Process of absorbing new experience into current schemas. Cognitive skill and worldviews remain
unchanged, puts new info with learned info.
 Accommodation: Altering of a schema to make it more compatible with experience. Forces people to change
view on the world.
 Schemas: Cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information. Allows us to take
shortcuts when interpreting information.

Piaget’s Stages of Development:

1. Sensorimotor Stage: (Birth-2 years) Focuses on the here and now. No thought beyond immediate physical
experiences. Children lack object permanence (the idea that objects continue to exist when out of view)
Baillargeon did an experiment with a block and a car hidden behind a screen. Showed that since infants as young
as age 3.5 stared at the car when it was impossible for it to pass the roadblock. Infants are able to reason with
hidden objects.
2. Preoperational: (2-7 years) Able to think beyond the here and now, but
egocentric, an inability to see the world from others point of view, and unable to
perform mental transformations. Fail conservation tasks, a test children’s ability to 5 5
perform mental operations. In a study of pouring water into different size cups that mL mL
were equal in volume, most failed to pass this because they deemed the cups as
having different volumes.
3. Concrete Operations: (7-11 years) Able to perform mental transformations, tests such as sorting coins, setting
up a battle scene, etc, but only on concrete physical objects
4. Formal Operations: (11 years-adulthood) Able to perform hypothetical and abstract, difficult questions with no
defined answers such as the meaning of life, reasoning.

Theory of Mind: Ability to reason about what other people know or believe. Some children develop this at ages 1 or 2
years old.
False Belief Task: Tests children’s ability to understand that someone else believes something they know to be wrong.
Children usually hear a story, such as hiding a candy bar somewhere, and later have the mom move the candy bar
without their knowledge.
Chapter Eleven: Emotion

Emotion: A state elicited by a strongly motivational (reinforcing) event or by anticipation of such an event, that produces
a coordinated set of adaptive responses.
 Appetitive: Eating, drinking, reproduction, nurturing young
 Defensive: Escape, avoidance, defensive aggression
 Impulse control system that regulates activity in the first two

Emotional Response Aspects:

 Feelings: Introspective, subjunctive
 Autonomic Reponses: Sympathetic activation, hormonal
 Somatic Responses: Facial expressions, approach or avoidance

Ekman’s Basic Emotions:

 Fear, Happiness, Disgust, Anger, Sadness, Surprise (FHDASS)

* We can study emotions by testing on rodents, asking humans, etc. Usually can’t measure emotion by faces.
- Fear potentiated startle (going from a relaxed state to another such as fear. Being fearful) Is a reliable source to
measure in humans and animals.

International Affective Picture System (IAPS): Standardized tests or stimuli presented to people. Measures how
pleasant and arousing the pictures are. 800+ ratings of valence (present vs. unpleasant & arousal)
 Pleasant: Puppies, babies
Psychopath w/
 Unpleasant: Spiders, spoiled food, snakes, gross
neutral stimulus
 Arousal: Hot people, romantic, intimacy

Phobias are things that you are extremely

scared of that initiate your fear potentiated
startle
Phobia to neutral stimulus
Amygdala: “Hub of fear.” Role is
Psychopath w/
project stimulates to the brain to
scary stimulus
coordinate the responses in a Neutral stimulus
state of fear or anxiety. Helps
potentiate startle.
 When amygdala is lesioned
our sense of fear is lost.
 Symptoms associated with
anxiety: Breathing,
panting, sweating,

Exposure Therapy: Most effective treatment for anxiety where you expose people to the phobic object and they
gradually become comfortable with their phobias.
 Can treat PTSD or fear of flying with virtual reality goggles to relive experiences that are difficult to replicate

Extinction of Fear Response: Pairing the scared stimulus with something positive.
 Acquisition of Fear: CS  Shock
Fear response diminishes
 Extinction of Fear: CS  No Shock
 Memory is not erased. It is just replaced with the neutral response that is positive and safe. Extinction brings in
new memories.
 DCS (D-cycloserine) is an antibiotic that can be used to speed up extinction by speeding up learning to inhibit
fear.
  Flashbulb Memories: Storage and/or retrieval of memories is
enhanced by a high state of arousal at the time of encoding.
 Beta Blockers can be used to treat PTSD by blocking receptors
for norepinephrine, which is important for stress related
situations, released when aroused so you are able to
remember better. People who have PTSD report having less
stressful disorders because they aren’t in stressed states.

Rewards: Stimuli that motivate behavior. Dopamine is the

neurotransmitter associated with reward. Reward pathway goes from VTA (dopamine holder)  Nucleus Accumbens 
Prefrontal Cortex. Typical rewards for humans are food, money, sex, positive behaviors.
 Primary Rewards: Fulfill our needs
 Secondary Rewards: Extra things

Drug Addiction: Habitual drug use, despite adverse affects on health

and social life and, generally, despite efforts to quit. Occurs when drugs
“hijack” the brain’s rewards system.
 Mechanism for addiction is:
- High
- Craving
- Withdrawal

Two Factor Theory of Emotion: Theory proposed by Schachter and Singer, proposing that emotions are produced by an
undifferentiated state of arousal along with an attribution (explanation) of that arousal. Two psychological events are
required to produce an emotion:
 After encountering an emotionally provoking event we experience an arousal that is undifferentiated (same
across all emotions).
 Once we have an arousal we explain it by labeling an emotion with it. Lacks Replicability

Mere Exposure Effect: Proposed by Zjonc, repeated exposure to a stimulus makes us more likely to feel favorably
toward it.

Facial Feedback Hypothesis: Proposed by Zjonc, you’re more likely to feel emotions that correspond to your facial
features; also a theory that blood vessels in the face feedback temperature info to the brain, altering our experience of
emotion.

Things that Make People Happier:

 Marriage, friendships, college, religion, politics, exercise, health, gratitude, giving, and flow. (11.5-11.6)

Drive Reduction Theory: Formulated by Hull and Hebb. Certain drives, like hunger, thirst, and sexual frustration,
motivate us to minimize aversion states. All of these drives are unpleasant, but the satisfaction in them results in
pleasure. Theory is motivated by effort to maintain homeostasis.

Yerkes-Dodson Law: Inverted U-shaped relation between arousal on one hand and mood/performance on the other.
We only accomplish goals when we are in-between optimal arousal and a low point.

Approach-Avoidance Conflicts: Desiring to do something but there is a conflict in the way. As we get closer to our goals,
our tendencies to avoid increase more rapidly as we reach that goal.
 Ex. Wanting to approach someone you want to ask out but you are too afraid to suffer rejection.

Approach-Approach Conflicts: Predisposition towards certain stimuli.

 Ex. Food, objects, desires
Avoidance-Avoidance Conflicts: Disposition away from a certain stimuli.
 Ex. Rude people, scary animals

Predictors of Attraction:
 Proximity: Physical closeness
 Similarity: The extent to where we have things in common with others
 Reciprocity: The rule of give and take
Chapter Fourteen: Personality

Definition of Personality: Distinctive, characteristic patterns of thought, emotion, and behavior that uniquely define an
individual.
 Distinctiveness: People react differently to the same situation
 Consistency: Stability in a person’s behavior over time and across situations.
- State vs. Trait: State is temporary. Trait is enduring.

Person-Situation Debate: Is behavior controlled by personality or the situation?

 Walter Mischel looked at links between certain personality traits and their outcomes and found that personality
doesn’t predict personality that well. Variants of behavior are because of the situation you are in that provokes
your behavior.

Personality Assessments:
Self-Report Measure: Direct, face valid measures. Are usually very good at measuring things, although sometimes
people lie to make themselves look good.
 MN Multiphase Personality Inventory (MMPI): Widely used structures personality test designed to assess
symptoms of mental disorders, consisted of 10 basic scales. Designed empirically. Is generally valid but many
tests are highly correlated, producing results that are not very useful.
 CA Psychological Inventory (CPI): Like the MPI but is designed primarily for associating for assessing personality
traits in the normal range, such as dominance, flexibility and sociability. Most CPI tests are reliable and valid
except many CPI test are highly correlated with each other.
Projective Tests: Used indirect measures to get at deeper, unconscious aspects of personality. In this process of
projecting ambiguous stimuli, examinees project aspects of their personality onto a stimuli.
 Thematic Apperception Test: Test requiring examinees to tell a story in response to ambiguous pictures
 Rorschach Test: The first projective test developed. Measures some of the more primitive instincts and motives
such as sexual desire. Test consists of 10 cards that are ambiguous. Because it is difficult to score, it is not
reliable. Sometimes the test does a successful job at predicting some things, but should be used in accompany
with other tests.

Factor Analysis: The way we identify traits in personality. Analyzes the correlations among responses on personality
inventories and other measures. Is useful to identify personality traits such as the Big 5.

Approaches to Personality:
Idiographic Approach: Focuses on identifying the unique configuration of characteristics and life history experiences
within a person.
 Gordon Allport Proposed a Three Level Approach:
- Cardinal: Extremely pervasive dispositions that describe what a person does in almost every single
aspect of their lives.
- Central Dispositions: A few traits that stand out in a person.
- Secondary Dispositions: Characteristics that only appear in certain aspects of our lives.
Nomethetic Approach: Focuses on identifying the general laws that govern the behaviors of all individuals.

Lexical Hypothesis: Proposes that the most crucial features of personality are embedded in our language.
 Ex. If a word is represented with many more words in a language, it is likely that the word is important for that
culture. The word “snow” has 50 different words that mean the same thing in the Inuit language.

Big Five (Five Factor Model): 5 traits that have surfaced repeatedly in factor analyses of personality measures. Describes
personality at the broadest levels and is organized heirarhically.
 Extraversion: High = Extroverted Low = Introverted
 Agreeableness: High = Agreeable Low = Not Agreeable
 Conscientiousness: High = Careful, Conscientious Low = Careless, Not Conscientious
 Neuroticism: High = Crazy, Perfectionist, Moody, Anxious Low = Poised, Steady, Relaxed
  Openness to Experience: High = Curious, Creative, Unconventional Low = Traditional, Inflexible
Big Five are Basic:
 Real: Stable over time where others agree with them
 Pervasive: Emerge consistently in factor analysis
 Universal: Consistent across many cultures
 Heritable: Due to our genes in some aspects
* The Big Five are generally heritable. Has a .50 mean correlation.

Sigmund Freud: Believer in the psychoanalytic theory for personality. Assumed that all psychological events
have a cause. Symbolism in everything. Also believed that we aren’t free to choose our actions because we’re at
the mercy of powerful inner forces. Adult personality in influenced by childhood experiences.
 Agencies of the Psyche:
- ID: Reservoir of our most primitive impulses that provides the driving force for much of our
behavior. “Devil on our shoulder”
- Ego: Psyche’s executive decision maker. Is governed by the reality principle, tendency of the ego to
postpone gratification until it can find an appropriate outlet. We use defensive mechanisms
here when we are overwhelmed.
- Superego: Sense of morality. Contains our senses of right and wrong.
Defense Mechanisms: Unconscious maneuvers intended to minimize anxiety. Distortions of reality.
 Repression: Forgetting emotionally threatening memories
 Regression: Returning psychologically to a younger age
 Projection: Putting our negative attributes onto others
 Displacement: Directing an impulse from a socially unacceptable target onto a safer and more
socially acceptable target

Neo-Freudians: Placed more emphasis on social drives versus sexual drives. They were more optimistic than
Freud and looked into the conscious personality of people.
Alfred Adler: Believed that the striving force in humans is striving for superiority. Our overriding goal in life is to
be better than others. We aim to accomplish this goal by crafting our distinctive style of life, longstanding
pattern of achieving superiority over our peers. Said that people who have neurotic difficulties in childhood are
at risk for an inferiority complex, being prone to low self-esteem and tend to overcompensate for this feeling.
Carl Jung: One of Freud’s former students that argued that there is a collective unconscious in people,
comprises the memories that ancestors have passed down to us from generations. Archetypes, cross culturally
universal symbols, in the collective unconscious explain similarities between people and why they do things.
Also believed in the personal unconscious, which is Freud’s unconscious of not understanding why we do things.

Humanistic “Third Force” Approach: Embrace the notion of free will and view human nature as constructive.
Believe that the core motive in personality is self actualization, the drive to develop our innate potential to the
fullest possible extent.
Carl Rogers: Humanist theorists that believed that we could all achieve our full potential if society allowed it.
Believed that personality consisted of 3 major components:
 Organism: Innate and genetically influenced blueprint. Rogers viewed the organism as helpful and
positive towards others
 Self: Self-concept and our beliefs about who we are.
 Conditions of Worth: Expectations we place on ourselves for appropriate and inappropriate
behavior. Result in incongruence, inconsistencies between our personalities and innate dispositions.
Abraham Maslow: Focused on individuals who were self-actualized. Self-actualized people tend to be create,
spontaneous, and accepting of themselves and others. Focus on real world intellectual problems and have a
few deep friendships. Typically crave privacy and can come off mean. They’re also prone to peak experience,
transcendent moments of intense excitement and tranquility marked by a past found sense of connection with
the world.
Chapter Fourteen: Evolutionary Psychology

Basic Assumptions:
 Usually takes place over thousands of generations
 It is driven by the environment
 Occurs within populations, NOT individuals
 Occurs because of differential gene replication

Natural Selection: Genes that improve survival and reproductive success get passed on in larger numbers to the next
generation. Evolution has “designed” the body and the brain to maximize the number genes in the future.

Selective Breeding: Choosing mates to produce organisms to have certain features. Ex. If you want to have skinny kids
reproduce with a skinny partner

Brain Specializations:
 Learn language
 Fear snakes, spiders, and heights
 Detect healthy and unhealthy others
 Identify “cheaters” in a group

Sexual Selection:
Intersecual: Attraction between two things Ex. Peacock males spread their huge tails to show females that they are
attractive and desirable for future offspring.
Intrasexual: Competition between two members of the same sex to attract a mate. Ex. Deer fighting
* The sex that initially invest
Sexual Dimorphism: The average size difference between males and females in a species is less when both sexes invest
n offspring more equally (Humans). It is reversed when males invest more than females (Fishes).

Parental Investment Theory:

 Compared to other species, human babies are born “prematurely.” In the EEA, the survival of human children
depended on the investment of both parents

Gender Theories:
 Women are picker than men in who they mate with because females invest more in offspring and can produce
fewer offspring than men.
 Males Detect:
- Women who can have viable children
- Are not likely to mate with other men
 Females Detect:
- Will pass desirable traits onto their offspring
- Will invest resources in them/their offspring
 Female Tradeoffs: Women trade off good provision for good genes when
choosing mates
 Male Tradeoffs: Men don’t have good genes attributes. The best way for
them to attract a mate is to provide for good provisions.

Inclusive Fitness: You share a different degree of genes with a different relation.

Step Parents: Are more likely to be abusive towards step children because they
share no genes.