The  Pennsylvania  State  University  

Department  of  Mechanical  Engineering  
 
Case  Study:  
Pressure  Losses  Across  an  Evaporator  
 
Dr.  James  G  Brasseur  
ME  320  
Section  3  
Date  of  Submition:  
December  3,  2010  
 
Submitted  by:  
David  Tamayo  
ID#927165567  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
1  
ABSTRACT  
  This  system  analysis  is  for  the  purpose  of  analyzing  an  evaporator.  Many  things  are  
taken  into  consideration  on  how  an  evaporator  works  and  how  it  functions.  First  off,  
pressure  drop  affects  the  way  the  evaporator  performs.  The  geometry,  and  the  material  
used  to  build  the  evaporator  will  greatly  affect  the  way  the  system  will  perform  as  well.  
!"#$$%"#&'($$#$&)*"($$&#+)!("),("$&
One  thing  that  can  be  taken  into  consideration  when  designing  an  evaporator  is  what  kind  
#$!%&'()!*+!,-&))(.-!&/0!1(2&3.!4&#5(!
of  pump  can  be  used  to  cause  the   flow  of  the  fluid  through  the  evaporator.  Moreover,  the  
%.2$!67789!.:0&5(0!68!;:-<2!677=!#$!%*,!
>.(!</!?2&))!@/!8!>(?('#(-9!67"7!
roughness  of  the  material  used  in  the  evaporator  must  be  taken  into  consideration,  and  
A-<5</B! $@.-! -(:@-5C! D&-5! @E! 5F<)! :-@G(?5! <)! 5@! <':-@H(! $@.-! 5(?F/<?&2! I-<5</B! ?@''./<?&5<@/!
heat  conductivity   of  the  material.    
)3<22)+!J@.-!B-&0(!I<22!-(E2(?5!F@I!I(22!$@.!E@22@I!5F(!I-<5</B!</)5-.?5<@/)!&5!5F(!(/0+!

  The  !"#$%"%&'()*
data  used  for  this  analysis  was  collected  during  an  experiment  with  one  tube,  
K@!:-(:&-(!E@-!5F<)!?&)(!)5.0$9!$@.!)F@.20!-(&0!5F(!)(?5<@/)!</!$@.-!./0(-B-&0.&5(!E2.<0!
which  had  eleven   chambers  through  it.  The  flow  rate  was  measured  at  the  diving  header,  
'(?F&/<?)!L-(E+!"M!5(N5!0(&2</B!I<5FC!
and  the  pressure   was  collected  between  the  entrance  and  exit  of  the  channels.    
"+! ><'(/)<@/&2!&/&2$)<)!OI(!F&H(!/@5!$(5!?@H(-(0!5F<)9!#.5!<5!I@.20!#(!.)(E.2!5@!-(&0!5F-@.BF!
5F(!#&)<?!?@/?(:5)!@E!IF&5!<)!0<'(/)<@/&2!&/&2$)<)!&/0!)<'<2&-<5$!5F(@-$!&/0!F@I!<)!<5!.)(0!</!
  After  collecting   the  data,  and  performing  the  analysis,  the  most  important  results  
(/B</((-</B! 5()5)! &/0! 0&5&! @-B&/<P&5<@/+! Q@5! /(?())&-$! 5@! )5.0$! 5F(! '(5F@0! @E! E</0</B!
from  this  analysis   is  realizing  what  kind  of  flow  to  use,  which  will  be  more  efficient.  
/@/0<'(/)<@/&2!B-@.:)9!IF<?F!<)!?@@3#@@3!&/0!I<22!#(!5&.BF5!2&5(-R!
6+! K.#(!E2@I)9!F$0-&.2<?)9!F(&0!2@))9!E-<?5<@/!E&?5@-)9!:-<'&-$!H)+!)(?@/0&-$!2@))()9!(5?+!
Moreover,  knowing  what  flow  rates  to  use  is  a  very  important  factor  because  it  also  affects  
8+! S($/@20)!/.'#(-C!<5)!'(&/</B!&/0!<5)!0(E</<5<@/!
the  type  of  T+!
flow   that  is  being  used.    One  conclusion  that  one  can  make  after  performing  this  
K.-#.2(/5!H)+!2&'</&-!E2@I)!O():(?<&22$!2&'</&-!H)+!5.-#.2(/5!5.#(!E2@I)R!

analysis  is  tJ@.!)F@.20!&2)@!-(&0!5F-@.BF!)(?5<@/)!</!$@.-!5F(-'@0$/&'<?)!5(N5!L(+B+9!-(E+!6M!-(2&5(0!5@!:F&)(!

hat  Laminar  flow  will  have  a  lower  pressure  drop  on  a  system  than  turbulent  
?F&/B(9! 2&5(/5! F(&59! (H&:@-&5@-)! &/0! ?@/0(/)(-)9! &)! I(22! &)! )(?5<@/)! </! $@.-! F(&5! 5-&/)E(-! 5(N5!
flow  on  the  L(+B+9!-(E+!8M!-(2&5(0!5@!F(&5!(N?F&/B(-)+!
same  system.  

-0/&%"."%",*&3(+%('&
!"#$"%&&
'()'"*('+,-&
",!(-

!+-('+!&-$1(2&&

!"#$%&'(
)"#*+,"&-(

.+/0'&
'()'"*('+,-&
0$-!(-&
10--04&5041",",*&3(+%('

U<B!"+! V?F('&5<?!0<&B-&'!)F@I</B!5F(!E2@I!0<-(?5<@/)!@E!&<-!&/0!-(E-<B(-&/5!5F-@.BF!5F(!
Fig1. Schematic Diagram of the flow through the Evaporator
(H&:@-&5@-!./0(-!&/&2$)<)+!

! "

 
2  
INTRODUCTION
An evaporator is a heat exchanger in which a refrigerant liquid enters at low pressure and
Temperature (relative to atmospheric) and leaves as a vapor. During the vaporization process, the
refrigerant "boils," absorbing energy from the refrigerated space surrounding the evaporator, and
everything within. The fluid within the refrigerated space, typically air or water, is forced over
the exterior sides of the lateral tubes of the heat exchanger containing a volatile refrigerant (e.g.,
R134a is used in automobile cooling systems). Heat energy from the air/water flow enters the
lateral tubes of the heat exchanger by convection, then is conducted through the tube walls and
into the refrigerant (again by convection.) If the refrigerant is in a saturated state and sufficient
!"#$%&'(#)%"*
latent heat enters the refrigerant, it changes phase (i.e., it “evaporates”). The schematic diagram
in Fig 1#$!%&'()*'+)*!,-!'!.%'+!%/0.'$1%*!,$!2.,0.!'!*%3*,1%*'$+!4,56,7!%$+%*-!'+!4)2!(*%--6*%!'$7!
shows the geometry and the flow directions of the two fluids in the evaporator under
+%8(%*'+6*%!9*%4'+,&%!+)!'+8)-(.%*,0:!'$7!4%'&%-!'-!'!&'()*;!<6*,$1!+.%!&'()*,='+,)$!(*)0%-->!+.%!
analysis. The “top-dividing header” distributes the liquid refrigerant to the lateral tubes and the
*%3*,1%*'$+!?@),4->?!'@-)*@,$1!%$%*1A!3*)8!+.%!*%3*,1%*'+%7!-('0%!-6**)6$7,$1!+.%!%&'()*'+)*>!'$7!
“bottom-combining header” collects the vaporized refrigerant, ultimately to be condensed again
%&%*A+.,$1!2,+.,$;!B.%!346,7!2,+.,$!+.%!*%3*,1%*'+%7!-('0%>!+A(,0'44A!',*!)*!2'+%*>!,-!3)*0%7!)&%*!
in +.%!%/+%*,)*!-,7%-!)3!+.%!4'+%*'4!+6@%-!)3!+.%!.%'+!%/0.'$1%*!0)$+',$,$1!'!&)4'+,4%!*%3*,1%*'$+!9%;1;>!
a condenser later in the cycle. The geometry of the flat lateral tubes used in this evaporator is
CDEF'!,-!6-%7!,$!'6+)8)@,4%!0))4,$1!-A-+%8-:;!G%'+!%$%*1A!3*)8!+.%!',*H2'+%*!34)2!%$+%*-!+.%!
shown in Fig 2. Each lateral tube has 11 channels with the dimensions shown. In this case study
4'+%*'4!+6@%-!)3!+.%!.%'+!%/0.'$1%*!@A!0)$&%0+,)$>!+.%$!,-!0)$760+%7!+.*)61.!+.%!+6@%!2'44-!'$7!
you shall analyze the pressure drop from the inlet to the outlet of a single lateral tube due to a
,$+)!+.%!*%3*,1%*'$+!9'1',$!@A!0)$&%0+,)$;:!I3!+.%!*%3*,1%*'$+!,-!,$!'!-'+6*'+%7!-+'+%!'$7!-633,0,%$+!
4'+%$+!.%'+!%$+%*-!+.%!*%3*,1%*'$+>!,+!0.'$1%-!(.'-%!9,;%;>!,+!J%&'()*'+%-K:;!
liquid water flow that does not change phase. The data were collected by Brasseur [ref. 1] as a
B.%!-0.%8'+,0!7,'1*'8!,$!L,1!D!-.)2-!+.%!1%)8%+*A!'$7!+.%!34)2!7,*%0+,)$-!)3!+.%!+2)!
preliminary analysis of two-phase pressure drop in the full evaporator. In this case study we will
346,7-!,$!+.%!%&'()*'+)*!6$7%*!'$'4A-,-;!B.%!J+)(!7,&,7,$1!.%'7%*K!7,-+*,@6+%-!+.%!4,56,7!
use water as the refrigerant that flows through the evaporator. Moreover, we are measuring the
*%3*,1%*'$+!+)!+.%!4'+%*'4!+6@%-!'$7!+.%!J@)++)8!0)8@,$,$1!.%'7%*K!0)44%0+-!+.%!&'()*,=%7!
pressure change from the inlet of the channel to the outlet of the channel. We assume that the
*%3*,1%*'$+>!64+,8'+%4A!+)!@%!0)$7%$-%7!'1',$!,$!'!0)$7%$-%*!4'+%*!,$!+.%!0A04%;!B.%!1%)8%+*A!)3!
+.%!34'+!4'+%*'4!+6@%-!6-%7!,$!+.,-!%&'()*'+)*!,-!-.)2$!,$!L,1!";!M'0.!4'+%*'4!+6@%!.'-!DD!0.'$$%4-!
water will not go through a phase change, therefore the viscosity, and density of the water will
2,+.!+.%!7,8%$-,)$-!-.)2$;!I$!+.,-!0'-%!-+67A!A)6!-.'44!'$'4A=%!+.%!(*%--6*%!7*)(!3*)8!+.%!,$4%+!
remain constant.
+)!+.%!)6+4%+!)3!'!-,$14%!4'+%*'4!+6@%!76%!+)!'!4,56,7!2'+%*!34)2!+.'+!7)%-!$)+!0.'$1%!(.'-%;!B.%!
Setup, Data, and Methods of Analysis
7'+'!2%*%!0)44%0+%7!@A!G'@+%!N*%3;!FO!'-!'!(*%4,8,$'*A!'$'4A-,-!)3!+2)P(.'-%!(*%--6*%!7*)(!,$!+.%!
3644!%&'()*'+)*;!
!

&"'($$ !"#$$%
)*+,%-./001*% !!!!!!!
!
!"&$$%

(2"'$$%

L,1!";!T0.%8'+,0!7,'1*'8!-.)2,$1!0*)--!-%0+,)$!)3!'!-,$14%!4'+%*'4!34'+!+6@%!2,+.!DD!0.'$$%4-;!

+,(-.$%'"&*
 
B.%!(*%--6*%!7*)(!@%+2%%$!+.%!,$4%+!'$7!%/,+!)3!'!+6@%!,->!)3!0)6*-%>!+.%!-'8%!'-!+.%!(*%--6*%!
3  
7*)(!3*)8!+.%!,$4%+!+)!+.%!%/,+!)3!'!0.'$$%4!,$!+.%!+6@%;!B.%!(*%--6*%!7*)(!7%(%$7-!)$!+.%!
C%A$)47-!$68@%*!)3!+.%!34)2!,$!+.%!0.'$$%4;!9Q)6!2,44!*%8%8@%*!+.'+!C%A$)47-!$68@%*!,-!'$!
%'"&*
(*%--6*%!7*)(!@%+2%%$!+.%!,$4%+!'$7!%/,+!)3!'!+6@%!,->!)3!0)6*-%>!+.%!-'8%!'-!+.%!(*%
8!+.%!,$4%+!+)!+.%!%/,+!)3!'!0.'$$%4!,$!+.%!+6@%;!B.%!(*%--6*%!7*)(!7%(%$7-!)$!+.%!
The pressure drop between the inlet and exit of a tube is, of course, the same as the
-!$68@%*!)3!+.%!34)2!,$!+.%!0.'$$%4;!9Q)6!2,44!*%8%8@%*!+.'+!C%A$)47-!$68@%*!,-
pressure drop from the inlet to the exit of a channel in the tube. The pressure drop depends on the
8'1$,+67%!%-+,8'+%!)3!+.%!,$%*+,'4!+%*8!+)!+.%!&,-0)6-!3)*0%!+%*8!,$!R%2+)$S-!-%0)
Reynolds number of the flow in the channel. An appropriate Reynolds number for the inertia-
%7!+)!+.%!)&%*'44!34)2;:!#$!'((*)(*,'+%!C%A$)47-!$68@%*!3)*!+.%!,$%*+,'P7)8,$'+%
dominated flow within a channel is

0.'$$%4!,-!
!"#!
$% # >! 9D:!
"
(eqn. 1)
'$7! "& '*%! 7%$-,+A! '$7! '@-)46+%! &,-0)-,+A! )3! +.%! 4,56,7! 2,+.,$! +.%! 0.'$$%4>! "
where ρ and µ are density and absolute viscosity of the liquid
&%4)0,+A!)3!+.%!34)2!)$!'!0*)--!-%0+,)$>!'$7!# !&,-!+.%!.A7*'64,0!7,'8%+%*!)3!+.%!0
within the channel, V is the
average velocity of the flow on a cross section, and DH is the hydraulic diameter of the channel.
:;! Q)6! .'&%! 4%'*$%7! +.'+! +.%! 34)2! +*'$-,+,)$-! 3*)8! 4'8,$'*! +)! +6*@64%$+! 2.
The transition between laminar and turbulent flow is when the Reynolds number is much higher
than the critical Reynolds number. Although the" critical Reynolds number, Recrit, for circular
tube is often quoted to be ∼ 2300 (with fully turbulent flow produced at Re roughly between
5000 to 10000), Recrit can vary with the cross-sectional shape of the channel, roughness, flow
conditions, etc.. In addition to Reynolds number, pressure drop is affected by inlet and exit
geometries, entrance length, and tube roughness. The pressure drop depending on different flow
rates where measured with an experiment.
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS
The overall pressure drop across the evaporator (Fig. 1) is important to the overall
performance of the heat exchanger and will affect the choice of other components in the system,
such as the compressor. Although the overall pressure drop is the sum of that within the two
headers plus that within the lateral tubes, the greatest contribution is in the pressure drop across
each lateral tube in the evaporator. In the experiment you will analyze, the pressure drop across a
single lateral tube measured due to the flow of liquid water at room temperature. The tests were
conducted with the procedure below.
Test Section
The tests were performed on a single aluminum flat tube with 11 channels as shown in Fig.

 
4  
0'&)+03$)!923:!3:$!B.'0$)+.$!-$('95!
'
!"#$%&"'$()*%
G:$!3$*3*!9$.$!B$.8'.,$)!'&!1!*2&=($!1(+,2&+,!8(13!3+-$!923:!DD!0:1&&$(*!1*!*:'9&!2&!72=5!
@5!G:$!0:1&&$(!($&=3:!91*!@I!2&0:$*>!1&)!-$01+*$!3:$!3+-$*!9$.$!&$9!1&)!*,''3:!9:$&!3:$!3$*3*!
2. The channel length was 24 inches, and because the tubes were new and smooth when the tests
9$.$!B$.8'.,$)>!.'+=:&$**!$88$03*!9$.$!&$=(2=2-($5!<((!)131!9$.$!0'(($03$)!13!.'',!3$,B$.13+.$>!
1-'+3!@AJ5!
were performed, roughness effects were negligible. All data were collected at room temperature,
'
about 20C.
!"#$%#"$+,%
!
!
)
('

!" 8(13 3+-$

#$" #%"

41.21-($!
1.$1!8('9!
,$3$.!

41(4$! )288$.$&321(!B.$**+.$!=1=$!

72=5!"!K0:$,1320!'8!$/B$.2,$&31(!*$3+B5!
Test
setup<*!2((+*3.13$)!2&!72=5!">!3:$!39'!$&)*!'8!3:$!8(13!3+-$!9$.$!0'&&$03$)!3'!B($&+,!0:1,-$.*!
$10:!'8!9:20:!91*!0'&&$03$)!3'!1!8($/2-($!:'*$5!G:$!0.'**!*$032'&!'8!3:$!B($&+,!2*!*:'9&!2&!72=!
As illustrated in Fig. 3, the two ends of the flat tube were connected to plenum chambers each of
I5!G:$!39'!B($&+,!0:1,-$.*!9$.$!0'&&$03$)!3'!)288$.$&3!*2)$*!'8!1!)288$.$&321(!B.$**+.$!=1=$!
which was connected to a flexible hose. The cross section of the plenum is shown in Fig 4. The
!
two "
plenum chambers were connected to different sides of a differential pressure gage that
measures the pressure difference between the inlet and outlet of the flat tube, P1 - P2. A variable-
area flow meter was used to measure the flow rate of water Q into the lateral tube.

 
5  
 Q volume flow rate [gal/hr] P1 - P2 Pressure drop [psi]
1.0 0.075
2.0 0.08
3.0 0.15
4.0 0.325
5.0 0.4
6.0 0.525
7.0 0.625
9.5 0.85
12.5 1.23
15.6 1.675
18.6 1.8
21.6 2.15
24.7 2.6
26.2 2.9
27.7 2.95
30.7 3.6
33.8 4.2
35.3 4.65
36.8 5.1

#$%#!&'%()*'(!#$'!+*'(()*'!,-..'*'/0'!1'#2''/!#$'!-/3'#!%/,!4)#3'#!4.!#$'!.3%#!#)1'5!!"#$#!%6!7!
8%*-%13'9%*'%!.342!&'#'*!2%(!)(',!#4!&'%()*'!#$'!.342!*%#'!4.!2%#'*!&!-/#4!#$'!3%#'*%3!#)1'6!
!
! Table 1. This is the experimental volume flow rate and pressure drop found from the experiment.

)**#

.3%# #)1'

"J&&

"J&&

I-;!"6! D0$'&%#-0!,-%;*%&!($42-/;!'/#*%/0'!%/,!'C-#!;'4&'#*<!4.!.342!-/!%!
.3%#!#)1'6!

!"#$%&'(')*+*(,%'-.%!"#$%/*#)*+(0%
  :$'!.342!*%#'!4.!2%#'*!#$*4);$!#$'!#)1'!2%(!('#!1<!%,=)(#-/;!#$'!8%38'!%#!#$'!-/3'#!#4!#$'!#'(#!
6  
('0#-4/6!:$'!8%*-%13'!%*'%!.342!&'#'*!>04&&4/3<!?/42/!%(!%!@*4#%&'#'*@A!2%(!0%3-1*%#',!1'.4*'!
#$'!#'(#!2%(!04/,)0#',!#4!&-/-&-B'!'**4*6!:$'!+*'(()*'!,*4+!&'%()*',!2-#$!#$'!,-..'*'/#-%3!
  

The data collected from the experiment was used to analyze the different factors that will
cause drop of pressure. I used volume flow rate, pressure drop, and the physical parameters of
the device used during the experiment to evaluate the different velocities through the each
channels, the Reynolds number, major and minor pressure drops, and entrance lengths. Each
different volume flow rate affected the results, and using the following approach and analysis
many different results were found.
ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

Part I: Analysis of the Pressure Drop Using the Fully-developed Approximation

(a) In order for us to apply the correlations of the data that was found using a circular pipe to a non-
circular pipe; we must first find an effective diameter. The effective diameter is found by finding
the hydraulic diameter, or as also referred to as Dh. To find this we must use equation 2. This
equation is specific for rectangular pipes, and it is four times the cross sectional area divided by
the parameter of the rectangular pipe.

(eqn. 2)

Where Ac is the cross sectional area, so for this we would use the length times
width, and p would be 2(L + W). Where L is the length and W is the width. For this
my result for the hydraulic diameter is: Dh = 1.285714 mm

(b) Assume the flow is fully developed and calculate the Reynolds number for each flow. Also
calculate the Reynolds number, and pressure drop assuming that the flow is laminar, and then
that the flow is turbulent. Then with the calculated data plot to compare ΔP vs. Q, and ΔP vs. Re.
In order to find the Reynolds number we must use eqn.1, For this we must use the different flow
rates. We know that the flow rates given are measured before the water enters the channels. We

 
7  
also know that there are 11 channels so in order to make the analysis simpler I divided the flow
rate by 11, and in order to get the Reynolds number, I converted the flow rate from Gal/hr to
m3/s. Since we have conservation of mass we can use eqn. 3 to solve for the average velocity of
the channel.
   
  (eqn.3)  
 
From  this  we  know  the  Qin  and  we  know  Qout  is  the  cross  sectional  of  the  channel  times  the  
average  velocity  of  the  channel;  we  also  know  that  Qin  =  11*Qout.  So  we  must  also  divide  the  Qin  
by  11  to  get  the  accurate  average  velocity.  Knowing  the  average  velocity,  and  looking  in  the  
front  of  the  book,  I  found  the  density  ρ,  the  viscosity  µ,  and  from  that  I  used  equation  1  to  find  
the  Reynolds  number.  Moreover,  to  find  the  pressure  drop  I  first  had  to  find  the  friction  factor,  
f.    For  laminar  flow  the  friction  factor  of  entrance  is  found  using  eqn.4,  and  exit  by  looking  at  
table  8-­‐4  [Çengel],  and  for  turbulent  flow  the  friction  factor  is  found  using  the  Colebrook  
equation,  which  is  eqn.5.  Then  once  you  have  the  major  loss  friction  factor  you  apply  it  to  eqn.  
6.  Moreover,  table.2  contains  the  results  for  Reynolds  numbers,  [∆Pmajor]lam, [∆Pmajor]turb,
∆Pminor, [∆P]lam, [∆P]turb

(eqn.4)  
   
 
  (eqn.5)  
       
 
  (eqn.6)  

 
 
 

 
8  
  
 

f turbulent ΔP
Q ΔP Laminar
Re turbulent ΔP major ΔP major
(Channel) f laminar Fully ΔP min
(Channel) Fully turbulent laminar
m^3/s Developd
Developd

9.63385E- 68.67556929 0.931918012 0.09160403 0.309909336 0.03046292 0.03046292 0.09160403 0.000308281

08
1.92601E- 137.2968276 0.466143327 0.183135616 0.1829628 0.071881336 0.071881336 0.183135616 0.00123215
07
2.88863E- 205.9180859 0.3108032 0.274667203 0.141893334 0.125395894 0.125395894 0.274667203 0.002771607
07
3.85125E- 274.5393443 0.233117771 0.366198789 0.120600127 0.189447678 0.189447678 0.366198789 0.004926652
07
4.81388E- 343.1606026 0.186501596 0.457730376 0.107218894 0.263147048 0.263147048 0.457730376 0.007697285
07
5.7765E- 411.7818609 0.155422096 0.549261962 0.097871901 0.34587947 0.34587947 0.549261962 0.011083506
07
6.73912E- 480.4031192 0.13322145 0.640793549 0.090890602 0.437182686 0.437182686 0.640793549 0.015085314
07
9.06797E- 646.4163421 0.099007398 0.862232998 0.079394334 0.691427272 0.691427272 0.862232998 0.027312872
07
1.19673E- 853.097848 0.075020703 1.137918501 0.070513042 1.069546042 1.069546042 1.137918501 0.047570796
06
1.48666E- 1059.779354 0.060389929 1.413604004 0.064566778 1.511375447 1.511375447 1.413604004 0.073413111
06
1.7766E- 1266.46086 0.050534527 1.689289508 0.060228337 2.013338295 2.013338295 1.689289508 0.10483982
06
2.06653E- 1473.142366 0.043444545 1.964975011 0.056881164 2.572706565 2.572706565 1.964975011 0.141850921
06
2.35647E- 1679.823872 0.038099232 2.240660514 0.054195493 3.187300491 3.187300491 2.240660514 0.184446415
06
2.50143E- 1783.164625 0.035891246 2.378503266 0.053036775 3.514732892 3.514732892 2.378503266 0.207838309
06
2.6464E- 1886.505378 0.033925162 2.516346017 0.051977098 3.855320242 3.855320242 2.516346017 0.232626302
06
2.93633E- 2093.186884 0.030575387 2.79203152 0.05010324 4.575242961 4.575242961 2.79203152 0.286390581
06
3.22627E- 2299.86839 0.027827679 3.067717024 0.048492077 5.345755564 5.345755564 3.067717024 0.345739253
06
3.37124E- 2403.209143 0.026631057 3.205559775 0.047766515 5.749618461 5.749618461 3.205559775 0.377507737
06
3.5162E- 2506.549896 0.025533104 3.343402527 0.047086667 6.165708668 6.165708668 3.343402527 0.410672318
06

Table.2  Tabulation  of  change  in  Pressure,  Reynolds  number,  and  flow  rate.  
 
 
 
 
 

 
9  
(c) Using  the  tabulated  data  from  table.2,  I  plotted  the  different  pressure  drops  vs.  Q  and  Re.  We  
assume  that  the  flow  is  fully  developed  entirely  through  the  tube.  We  also  assume  that  there  is  
minor  and  major  pressure  loss.  This  pressure  loss  is  related  to  the  head  loss.  Both  pressure  loss  
and  head  loss  are  directly  related  to  loss  of  energy.  We  know  that  Reynolds  number  is  related  
to  friction  loss  and  kinetic  energy.  So  the  higher  the  friction  loss  the  smaller  the  Reynolds  
number.  On  the  figure  5  and  figure  6  we  see  that  all  three  lines  are  very  similar.  The  
experimental  data,  predicted  laminar  and  turbulent  flows  all  are  very  similar  with  the  same  
slope,  and  follow  the  same  trend  line  and  very  similar  magnitudes  until  they  reach  around  20  
gal/h.  Equally  looking  at  fig.  7  and  fig.  8  you  can  see  that  the  turbulent  flow  diverges  from  the  
laminar  flow  at  Reynolds  number  of  about  1100.  The  experimental  data  on  figures  5,  6,  7,  and  8  
show  that  it  stays  close  to  the  laminar  flow  until  around  30  gal/h  or  a  Reynolds  number  of  
about  2000.  This  could  mean  that  from  looking  at  when  the  turbulent  flow  diverges  from  both  
the  data  and  laminar  flow  is  Re  critical,  1100,  and  the  transitional  flow  is  from  1100  Re  until  the  
data  diverges  from  the  predicted  laminar  flow,  2000.  Therefore,  the  Re  critical  is  1100,  and  the  
transitional  flow  is  between  1100  and  2000.  This  critical  Reynolds  number  is  much  lower  than  
the  normal  predicted  critical  Reynolds  number  of  about  2300.    This  could  be  due  to  the  fact  
that  the  rectangular  duct  will  have  much  more  friction  than  a  circular  duct.  Since  it  is  a  smaller  
Re  critical  it  is  showing  that  it  is  a  more  friction  dominated  flow.    Since  the  diameter  is  so  small,  
then  the  Length/  Diameter  is  big,  therefore  the  flow  is  friction  dominated  and  it  makes  the  
critical  Reynolds  number  much  smaller.  The  corners  also  cause  a  big  effect  on  the  Reynolds  
number.  They  cause  a  greater  minor  loss  which  lowers  the  critical  Reynolds  number,  and  this  
makes  the  Reynolds  number  we  found  to  be  smaller  than  2300,  which  is  found  using  flow  with  
no  corners.  Having  no  corners  will  have  a  higher  critical  Reynolds  number  because  it  is  less  
friction  dominated.  

 
10  
  
Figure  5.  Comparison  between  the  data  found  from  the  experiment,  and  the  predicted  laminar  and    
  turbulent  pressure  drops  including  major  and  minor  pressure  drops  versus  flow  rate.  

 
Figure  6.  The  prediction  of  the  comparison  between  the  data  found  from  the  experiment,  and  the  predicted  
laminar  and  turbulent  pressure  drops  including  major  and  minor  pressure  drops  versus  flow  rate.  

 
11  
  
Figure  7.  Reynolds  number  versus  the  prediction  of  pressure  drop  including  major  and  minor  pressure  drops.  

 
Figure  8.  The  prediction  of  Reynolds  number  versus  the  prediction  of  pressure  drop  including  major  and  minor  
pressure  drops.  

 
12  
  

(d) Now  with  the  data  from  Table.2  we  must  tabulate  and  plot  ΔPminor/ ΔP. Once that is tabulated,
from Table.3, we plotted ΔPminor/ ΔP vs. Q. From this looking at Figure 9, and Figure 10. From
these plots you see the difference in the percentage of the minor pressure drop versus the
total pressure drop. On the first sight of Figure 9, we can assume that Re critical can be 1000-
1100. This is due to the fact that before that the two lines are very close together; therefore,
they are both representing laminar flow since they both have a similar slope, which is nearly
equal to the laminar slope. However, once you get to around the .04 of ΔPminor/ ΔP they
diverge having the laminar flow increasing at a steady state, and the turbulent flow
decreasing with flow rate until it reaches a limit of around 0.06 ΔPminor/ ΔP. This could mean
that no matter how high the flow is for laminar flow, the minor loss will increase at a steady
slope. When the flow is turbulent, the minor loss reaches a limit and stops increasing.  
 

 
Figure  9.    The  difference  between  the  component  of  minimal  pressure  loss  over  total  pressure  loss  for  turbulent  
and  laminar  flow.  
 

 
13  
  
Figure  10.  The  prediction  of  the  difference  between  the  component  of  minimal  pressure  loss  over  total  pressure  
loss  for  turbulent  and  laminar  flow.  

(e) We  must  find  the  major,  minor,  and  experimental  frictional  factors  using  the  data  we  found  
above.  After  computing  the  data  found  on  part  d,  I  used  the  percentage  of  minor  pressure  drop  
found  in  the  total  pressure  drop,  and  multiplied  it  times  the  total  pressure  drop  to  get  the  
actual  values  of  minor  pressure  drop.  Then  I  subtracted  the  minor  pressure  drops  that  I  found  
from  the  total  pressure  drops  to  find  the  major  pressure  drops.  I  tabulated  these  results  next  to  
the  Reynolds  numbers  on  Table  3.  Once  I  had  the  major  pressure  drop  I  applied  it  to  eqn.  7.  
     
  (eqn.7)
 
From  there  I  obtained  the  friction  factor  for  major  pressure  loss,  which  is  equivalent  to  the  
experimental  friction  factor.  With  all  of  this  data  I  plotted  the  major,  minor,  and  experimental  
friction  factors  vs.  Re.  One  of  the  plots  was  on  a  loglog  graph,  and  the  other  was  on  a  linear  
graph.  Looking  at  Figure  11.  Shows  us  that  at  Reynolds  number  1059  the  three  lines  intersect,  
showing  that  as  predicted  before,  that  the  critical  Reynolds  number  is  between  1000  and  1100.  
Comparing  figure  11  to  figure  13,  the  moody  diagram,  you  see  similarities  in  which  the  laminar  
flow  is  linear,  and  has  a  similar  slope  as  in  figure  13.  Figure  12,  the  linear  plot  of  f  vs.  Re  is  not  

 
14  
very  effective  at  finding  the  critical  Reynolds  number  because  the  values  are  too  close  together  
and  you  can’t  tell  when  the  lines  cross  each  other  or  even  when  they  diverge.  This  shows  us  
that  sometimes  it  is  better  to  use  a  loglog  graph  to  find  values.  You  can  tell  that  the  three  lines  
intersect  at  1059,  but  it  is  more  vague  than  when  you  look  at  figure  11.  Moreover,  the  
turbulent  flow  also  follows  the  same  pattern  as  in  the  Moody  chart.  It  is  easy  to  see  the  critical  
point  because  you  just  have  to  look  at  where  the  three  lines  intersect,  which  is  the  same  as  I  
the  critical  point  that  I  stated  above.    The  value  found  for  this  plot,  1059,  is  more  precise  than  
the  value  found  on  part  c.  My  new  estimated  critical  Reynolds  number  is  1059.    
 

 
Figure 11. f vs Re. This includes the predicted laminar flow, turbulent flow, and the experimental flow in a loglog
scale to make f vs Re more similar to the Moody Diagram.

 
15  
 Firguer 12. f vs Re. This includes the predicted laminar flow, turbulent flow, and the experimental flow in a linear
scale

 
Figure 13. Moody Diagram.

 
16  
 Re (Channel) Δpmin/ΔP (experimental) Δp-total Δp-minor (experimental) Δp-major (experimental)
68.67556929 0.003354081 0.075 0.000251556 0.074748444
137.2968276 0.006683112 0.08 0.000534649 0.079465351
205.9180859 0.009989977 0.15 0.001498497 0.148501503
274.5393443 0.013274898 0.325 0.004314342 0.320685658
343.1606026 0.016538091 0.4 0.006615236 0.393384764
411.7818609 0.019779772 0.525 0.01038438 0.51461562
480.4031192 0.023000153 0.625 0.014375096 0.610624904
646.4163421 0.030704288 0.85 0.026098645 0.823901355
853.097848 0.040127562 1.23 0.049356902 1.180643098
1059.779354 0.049369379 1.675 0.08269371 1.59230629
#$%&!'()*+!,$%)!)-*!*./*'01*2)($!#'03)0%2!#(3)%'!(4(025)!6*72%$85!291:*'+!;2!)-*!5(1*!4'(/-<!
1266.46086 0.04949528 1.8 0.089091505 1.710908495
($5%!/$%)!!!=5+!"#!>5*/('()*!39'=*5!#%'!$(102('!(28!)9':9$*2)?!#%'!#9$$7!8*=*$%/*8!30'39$('!/0/*!
1473.142366 0.052255634 2.15 0.112349612 2.037650388
#$%&!>@%%87!39'=*5?+!@(A*!)-*5*!/$%)5!%2!:%)-!$%4B$%4!(28!$02*('!53($*5+!C%1/('*!)-*!8()(!
1679.823872 0.054703517 2.6 0.142229145 2.457770855
&0)-! )-*! @%%87! 39'=*5!
1783.164625 (28! 3%11*2)! %2!
0.055831923 2.95010$('0)0*5! (28! 80##*'*23*5+! D5! 0)!2.738087423
0.161912577 (27! *(50*'! )%!
1886.505378 0.056905417 2.95 0.167870979 2.782129021 !$!
08*2)0#7!(!3'0)03($!6*72%$85!291:*'!%2!)-*5*!/$%)5!(5!3%1/('*8!&0)-!7%9'!*./*'01*2)($!
2093.186884 0.058908303 3.6
=5+!"#%/$%)5!%#!/(')!>3?E!F/8()*!7%9'!*5)01()*!#%'!"# 0.21206989 3.38793011
&'()!0#!2*3*55('7+!
2299.86839 0.060746652 4.2 0.255135937 3.944864063
!"#$%&&'%()$*+"$*,-%.//0#"/1%23%$45%670881%95:582;5<%.;;#2=*+"$*2,>6%
2403.209143 0.061612528 4.65 0.286498257 4.363501743
2506.549896 0.062446552 5.1 0.318477416 4.781522584
G%&!193-!*''%'!('*!7%9!1(A024!02!7%9'!1*(59'*1*2)!%#!#'03)0%2!#(3)%'!:7!(//'%.01()024!
)-*!#$%&!(5!#9$$7!8*=*$%/*8!#'%1!)-*!02$*)!)%!)-*!%9)$*)E!H*!A2%&!)-()!02!'*($0)7!(!:%928('7!$(7*'!
Table 3. Percentage of min pressure drop to total pressure drop. Experimental major, and minor pressure drop.
4'%&5!#'%1!)-*!02$*)<!(28!0)!05!%2$7!&-*2!)-05!=053%95!$(7*'!-(5!3%1/$*)*$7!#0$$*8!)-*!)9:*!)-()!
#9$$7!8*=*$%/*8!3%280)0%25!('*!*5)(:$05-*8!>I04!J?+!
Part II:
! Estimating Accuracy of the “Fully Developed Approximation.

!"

= > *? ! =#

(" '(" = > *? !

# =# ")"

#$" #%&
#

I04!J+!V3-*1()03!*2)'(23*!$*24)-! +# !
Figure 10. Schematic entrance length.
!
On part one, we estimated the pressure loss assuming the fluid flow is fully developed
throughK%9'!%:L*3)0=*!05!)%!*5)01()*!)-*!/*'3*2)!*''%'!(55%30()*8!&0)-!)'*()024!)-*!#$%&!(5!#9$$7!
the whole channel. However, we know that is not realistic since it does take time for the
8*=*$%/*8!02!)-*!*2)'(23*!$*24)-!'*40%2! M " * " +# +!N-()!05<!$*)!O!$ P,- :*!)-*!/'*559'*!80##*'*23*!
fluid to develop. The since it takes time for the fluid to develop, it must travel a distance from the
> $Q # $R ? !0#!)-*!#$%&!&*'*!!.//0%1#2#/34#1%#2#'056#'#!(28!$*)! !$ $ !$Q % !$R !:*!)-*!7&).7/!
/'*559'*!80##*'*23*!&0)-! !$Q $ $Q # $# !)-*!/'*559'*!80##*'*23*!(3'%55!)-*!*2)'(23*!$*24)-!
M " * " +# (28! !$R $ $# # $R )-*!/'*559'*!80##*'*23*!(3'%55!)-*!#9$$7!8*=*$%/*8!/%')0%2!%#!)-*!
 
3-(22*$!> +# " * " + ?+!K%9'!%:L*3)0=*!05!)%!*5)01()*!
17  
O!$P,- # !$ O!$P,-
! S #''3' ' & $ $ #Q! >T?!
 entrance, to a certain point where it is finally fully developed. When the fluid is fully developed,
its velocity profile only changes with the y direction, and it stays constant with the x direction.
The length, or distance in which the fluid is developing is called the entrance length. On figure
10. you can see the entrance length and it is noted as Le. Neglecting this, and assuming fully
developed fluid flow can cause errors in the analysis. On part two we will find the percent error
that was made on part two by finding a more precise pressure drop by including the changes of
the boundary layer. On figure 10. When the fluid reaches point e, the flow is now fully
developed, and it will remain constant until it reaches an exit, or a distortion of or change of the
pipe.2

(a) We must estimate the entrance length of the pipe knowing, and taking into consideration that the
flow is laminar. To do this we can use eqn.8, which is used to find the entrance length of a
laminar flow. This involved using the previously estimated Reynolds number, and the hydraulic
diameter that was found on Part I.

(eqn.8)

Then more over, after finding the entrance length,Le, we must find the percent it makes up from
the original length which is 24 inches. Since we found the entrance length using Dh, the entrance
length is in meters, so we must also convert the total length in meters. To calculte Le/L, we can
use eqn.9. On the bottom we have table 4. Which shows the values of the entrance length,
Reynolds number, and percent of total length that the entrance length consists of.

(eqn.9)

 
18  
 Re (Channel) Le (Laminar) Le/L
68.67556929 0.004414857 0.00724222
137.2968276 0.008826223 0.014478712
205.9180859 0.013237588 0.021715204
274.5393443 0.017648954 0.028951696
343.1606026 0.02206032 0.036188188
411.7818609 0.026471685 0.04342468
480.4031192 0.030883051 0.050661173
646.4163421 0.041555327 0.068168187
853.097848 0.054841992 0.089963898
1059.779354 0.068128658 0.111759609
1266.46086 0.081415323 0.13355532
1473.142366 0.094701988 0.15535103
1679.823872 0.107988653 0.177146741
1783.164625 0.114631986 0.188044597
1886.505378 0.121275319 0.198942452
2093.186884 0.134561984 0.220738163
2299.86839 0.147848649 0.242533874
2403.209143 0.154491982 0.253431729
2506.549896 0.161135315 0.264329584

Table 4. Reynolds number, Entrance length, and percent of total length that is equal to entrance length.

(b) At point e, on figure 10, the flow has now reached a fully developed flow. This is when the
boundary layers have joined, and it now is also called a parabolic flow. Since we know that the
average velocity in the entire channel is equal through x, due to conservation of mass, and
equation 2, then the maximum velocity, Vmax, will change as the fluid flows from point 1 to 2.
Here, on part b), we must find a relationship between average velocity at e, and maximum
velocity. We know that at point e the flow is now fully developed, so the flow is also parabolic.
Since we know that the flow is mainly laminar, then that at e the flow is parabolic; then we know
that the relation ship between Vmax and Vaverage from e to 2 will be a constant. Knowing that the
flow is parabolic and laminar then we know that Vmax/Vavg is a constant. This constant for this
case is 2 [Brasseur, assignment 7.3.] So the maximum velocity, which is Vemax, will be 2 times
bigger than average velocity at e.

 
19  
(c) It must be proven that the Bernoulli equation can be used from points 1 to e. Before we can
prove anything we must state the requirements for the application of Bernoulli equation. The
fluid must be inviscid, incompressible, and not in the boundary layer. In order to use the
Bernoulli equation from point e to 1, we must follow a streamline from point e to point 1. In
order to avoid the boundary layer, we must use a streamline that runs at D/2, so at the center of
the channel. Since there is no boundary layer, then there is no friction loss, so there is no head
loss. The Bernoulli equation is eqn. 10.
(eqn.10)

From eqn.10 we can solve for Δp1, which is Pe-P1. From this we can get Δp1 as a function of
Vavg. Note that at point one, since the velocity profile is flat and has almost not boundary layer,
the maximum velocity can be said to be equal to the average velocity. Moreover, at point e, the
velocity is taken to be the velocity at the center. We know that that is the maximum velocity, and
from part b we know that Vemax = 2Ve,average, So we can replace the Vemax with the Ve average.
We also know from conservation of mass that the average velocity remains the same throughout
the channel, so Ve,avg is qual to V1average. From this, as shown below, we have change of
pressure as a function of Vaverage.

 
20  
(d) Δp2 and [Δp]f.d must be found as a function of average velocity. We can apply conservation of
energy to find this. On the first place, to find Δp2, we can use eqn. 11, the conservation of
energy, taking into consideration head-loss. Since we know that the average velocities are equal
in point one and two, then they cancel out. Moreover, the kinetic correction factors are the same
since they are both for laminar fully developed flow, so the whole kinetic energy component of
this equation cancels out. Since both points are both on the same heights, then the potential
energy part of this equation cancels out as well. The only thing we have left is Δp2 = gHL. We
know that head loss is also equal to eqn.12. So we can make Δp2 equal to eqn.12. From this we
now have a function of average velocity.

eqn.11

eqn.12

For fully developed we can apply the same idea, only that instead of going from e to 2, we go
from 1 to 2. This should give us the same results as we found on part 1.

 
21  
(e) For this we must develop a mathematical relationship between the percent error and the flow
Reynolds number. We have eqn.13, which is to find error the fully developed assumption from
part 1. Moreover. We also have the drop of pressures as a function of average velocities. We see
on equation 1 that Reynolds number is made up of density, length, average velocity, and
viscosity. We can substitute the different average velocities we found into the Reynolds
numbers. We must include the different lengths, for example, entrance length, and length of fully
developed region. For the assumption of fully developed flow through the entire channel, we can
do the same thing. Once we have the Reynolds number for Δp, and [Δp]fd we can plug this into
eqn.13.

eqn.13

 
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 Figure 11. Error of approximating only fully developed to including entrance length on the Laminar Reynolds
number range.

delta p F.D
Re (Channel) delta p (psi) Error %
(psi)
68.67556929 0.091884587 0.091843123 0.00045146

137.2968276 0.184256965 0.184091242 0.000900222

205.9180859 0.277189577 0.276816798 0.001346661

274.5393443 0.370682423 0.370019794 0.001790795

343.1606026 0.464735505 0.463700228 0.002232643

411.7818609 0.55934882 0.5578581 0.002672221

480.4031192 0.65452237 0.652493411 0.003109548

646.4163421 0.887089872 0.883416318 0.004158349

853.097848 1.181211703 1.174813479 0.005446161

1059.779354 1.480415781 1.470541792 0.006714525

Table.5: The tabulation for Part e).

 
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 From what we see the highest error, assuming the flow is laminar, as seen on table 5, and
figure.11 is 0.67%. This is a very low error to take into consideration. Taking entrance length
into consideration for this low Reynolds number does not make much of a difference.

(f) If turbulent flow is used instead of laminar flow, the relative error will be much greater. This is
due to the higher Reynolds number, and friction factor. The friction factor will increase as the
Reynolds number increases. Moreover, with laminar flow, the friction factor decreases as the
Reynolds number increases due to eqn.4. Since turbulent flows has higher Reynolds numbers,
than the entrance length will be higher too, so it will have a greater effect, and have a greater
error. By looking at figure 12, you can see the much higher errors with high Reynolds numbers
when turbulent pressure drop is computed using the same approach as for laminar flow and only
changing the friction factors.

Figure 12. Laminar Error vs Turbulent error.

 
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 Discussion and Summary
(a) Itemized list of the new knowledge that I produced with this analysis.

• Calculation of entrance length

• Calculation of head loss including minor and major head loss
• Better Microsoft Suits user.
• Calculating pressure drop from head loss.
• Calculating error due to different pressure drops.
• More proficient at the Bernoulli’s equation and conservation of energy
• More proficient at reading graphs and data.
• Calculating critical Reynolds number, and transitional Reynolds number.
• How to write professionally
• The way an evaporator works, and why it is designed the way it is.

(b) High-pressure drops are undesirable in an evaporator. Ways in which the design can reduce the
pressure drop, but still maximizing aspect ration can be by making the entrance and exit edges
smooth or fillet them, so there is less of a minor head loss. More over keeping low flow rates can
also lower the pressure drop. Using higher temperature, and using the same length will lower the
pressure drop.
REFERENCES
(1) Cengel, Y & Cimbala, J.M. 2006 Fluid Mechanics, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY
(2) Brasseur, J.G, & Habte,M. 2007. Pressure Losses Across Evaporators. The
Pennsylvania State University. University Park, PA.
(3) "Moody Chart." Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. 28 Nov. 2010. Web. 30 Nov.
2010. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wi  ki/Moody_diagram>.

 
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