FLIGHT CONTROL

HOW AIRPLANES ARE CONTROLLED

By
Robert Reser

i
R. Reser Publishing, LLC
Phoenix, AZ

FLIGHT CONTROL

Copyright TXu 1-736-294

2011 by Robert Reser

THIS BOOK IS PROTECTED BY COPYRIGHT LAWS OF THE UNITED STATES AND

INTERNATIONAL TREATIES AND MAY ONLY BE USED PURSUANT TO A PURCHASE
AGREEMENT . ANY REPRODUCTION, COPYING, OR REDISTRIBUTION (PAPER, PRINT,
ELECTRONIC, WORLDWIDE WEB OR OTHERWISE), IN WHOLE OR IN PART , IS STRICTLY
PROHIBITED WITHOUT THE EXPRESS WRITTEN PERMISSION OF:
ROBERT RESER, RRESER@COX.NET, 2030 E. CAIRO DR., TEMPE, AZ 85282

ISBN: 00-0000000-0

ii
 Table of Contents

PREFACE ........................................................................................................... IX
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. XI
CHAPTER 1----------------FLIGHT CONTROL....................................................... 1
Machines and Control.................................................................................... 3
Operation in Three Dimensions ..................................................................... 3
Attitude....................................................................................................... 3
Forces and Direction .................................................................................. 4
Direction in Space Defined ........................................................................ 6
Vectors .......................................................................................................... 7
Lift Forces .................................................................................................. 9
Thrust Force ............................................................................................ 10
Drag Forces ............................................................................................. 10
Gravity Effect ........................................................................................... 10
Center of Gravity—Effective Center of Gravity ........................................ 11
Balance .................................................................................................... 12
Axes of Control ........................................................................................ 13
Flight Controls ............................................................................................. 14
Ailerons .................................................................................................... 15
Rudder ..................................................................................................... 16
Elevator.................................................................................................... 16
Horizontal Stabilizer and Elevator Trim .................................................... 20
Engine and Gravity Power ........................................................................... 22
Engine-power ........................................................................................... 22
Gravity-power .......................................................................................... 22
Summary ..................................................................................................... 22
CHAPTER 2-------INDICATED-AIRSPEED ........................................................ 25
Body-Angle .............................................................................................. 27
Angle-of-Incidence ................................................................................... 27
Angle-of-Attack ........................................................................................ 27
Relative-Wind, Direction of Motion ........................................................... 28
Frontal Plate Area .................................................................................... 28
Volumetric-Displacement ......................................................................... 28
Attaining Flight ............................................................................................. 29
Indicated-airspeed in Flight ...................................................................... 29
What takes place? ................................................................................... 30
Indicated-airspeed ................................................................................... 31
Attaining and Sustaining Indicated-airspeed ............................................ 32
What is speed? ........................................................................................ 33
Control of indicated-Airspeed................................................................... 34
Tail and Thrust Loading ........................................................................... 35
“g” Forces/Load Factor ............................................................................ 35

i
 Acceleration or Deceleration .................................................................... 36
Cruise Control .......................................................................................... 36
Operating Limitations ............................................................................... 37
Summary ..................................................................................................... 37
CHAPTER 3------ENERGY—POWER—THRUST .............................................. 41
Energy and energy sources......................................................................... 43
How airplanes fly ..................................................................................... 43
Transference of energy (Energy Management) ....................................... 44
Now what is going to happen? ................................................................. 44
Becoming airborne; space flight ............................................................... 44
What goes on in space? .......................................................................... 45
Sustaining-thrust ...................................................................................... 46
Excess-thrust ........................................................................................... 46
How do the Controls Work In-flight? ........................................................ 46
Maneuvering with coordinated thrust ....................................................... 47
Elevator Control in Turns ......................................................................... 48
Why do you have to do that? ................................................................... 48
How to do that? ........................................................................................ 48
Gravity power effects ............................................................................... 49
Summary ..................................................................................................... 50
CHAPTER 4---------------ATTITUDE.................................................................... 53
Attitude ........................................................................................................ 56
Operation in Space .................................................................................. 56
What are Attitudes? ................................................................................. 56
Attitude Axes ............................................................................................ 57
Dimensional Axes .................................................................................... 57
Pitch ......................................................................................................... 57
Engine-Pitch! ........................................................................................... 58
Elevator-Pitch! ......................................................................................... 58
Climb-Pitch! ............................................................................................. 58
Climb........................................................................................................ 59
Descent.................................................................................................... 60
Pitch Attitude ............................................................................................... 62
Maneuvering for Attitude Change ............................................................ 62
Maneuvering with Excess and Decreased Thrust .................................... 63
Maneuvering from Vy Indicated-Airspeed ................................................ 63
Thrust Placement Effects ......................................................................... 63
Descending Flight Maneuvering .............................................................. 64
Maneuvering with Gravity ........................................................................ 65
Summary: .................................................................................................... 66

ii
CHAPTER 5------------ATMOSPHERE ................................................................ 69
Atmosphere ................................................................................................. 71
Flight and the Atmosphere ....................................................................... 71
Air Density and Your Aircraft.................................................................... 71
Air Density and the Engine ...................................................................... 72
Engine Power! ............................................................................................. 73
What has happened? ............................................................................... 73
Engine Fuel/Air-Induction......................................................................... 73
Small Aircraft Thrust Performance ........................................................... 74
Summary ..................................................................................................... 75
CHAPTER 6-------------VISUAL FLIGHT ............................................................. 79
Visual Flight ................................................................................................. 81
“Directed Course” Visual Flight Control ....................................................... 81
Vertical Attitude ........................................................................................ 82
Normal Roll/Bank-Turns........................................................................... 83
Visual Flight Attitudes .................................................................................. 85
Takeoff attitude ........................................................................................ 85
Climb attitude ........................................................................................... 85
Cruise attitude .......................................................................................... 86
Descent attitude ....................................................................................... 87
Approach and Landing Attitudes ................................................................. 88
Approach Descent Attitude ...................................................................... 88
Roundout Attitude .................................................................................... 89
Flare Attitude ........................................................................................... 90
Landing/Ground Roll ................................................................................ 90
Summary ..................................................................................................... 90
CHAPTER 7--VISUAL APPROACH AND GO-AROUND .................................. 93
Visual Approach .......................................................................................... 95
Base Leg to Final Approach..................................................................... 96
Base Leg to Final Turn Overshoot ........................................................... 96
The Normal Approach ................................................................................. 97
Idle-Power Approach ............................................................................... 98
Straight-in Idle-Power Approaches ........................................................ 100
Crosswind Landing Approach ................................................................ 101
Approach Over an Obstacle................................................................... 102
Ground-effect ......................................................................................... 102
The Go-Around.......................................................................................... 103
Aborting ................................................................................................. 103
Preparing for Abort................................................................................. 103
Initiating an Abort ................................................................................... 103
Go-Around Situation .............................................................................. 104
Abort Procedure ..................................................................................... 104
When to Abort ........................................................................................ 105
Abort after Touchdown........................................................................... 106
The Mindset ........................................................................................... 106
Summary ................................................................................................... 106

iii
CHAPTER 8---------------LANDINGS ................................................................. 109
Considerations .......................................................................................... 111
Roundout and Flare ............................................................................... 111
Landing .................................................................................................. 111
Normal Landings .................................................................................... 112
Touchdown ............................................................................................ 112
Slip ......................................................................................................... 113
Accuracy of the Landing Point ............................................................... 113
Soft-Field Landing.................................................................................. 113
Short-Field Landing................................................................................ 113
Landing over an obstacle ....................................................................... 114
Crosswind Landings .................................................................................. 114
Crosswind Landing Approach ................................................................ 114
Crosswind Landing Touchdown ............................................................. 117
Crosswind Landing Control .................................................................... 117
Crosswind Landing Rollout .................................................................... 118
Crosswind and Tailwind Landing Considerations .................................. 118
Extreme Crosswind Landing Situations ................................................. 118
Emergency Crosswind Landing ............................................................. 119
High Wind Taxi Operations .................................................................... 119
Summary ................................................................................................... 120
CHAPTER 9-----------------STALLS ................................................................... 123
Stall ........................................................................................................... 125
Critical Elevator-Pitched Angle .............................................................. 125
Aircraft Pitch Control .............................................................................. 126
Stalling ................................................................................................... 126
Stall Situations ....................................................................................... 127
Common Stall Scenarios ....................................................................... 127
Elevator-pitch Trim Stall! ........................................................................ 128
Accelerated and Secondary Stall ........................................................... 129
Disturbed Air Encounter ......................................................................... 129
Upset ..................................................................................................... 130
Microburst .............................................................................................. 130
Wake Turbulence Avoidance ................................................................. 130
Practice Stalls ........................................................................................ 132
Stall Training .......................................................................................... 132
Stall Recovery........................................................................................ 134
Summary ................................................................................................... 135

iv
CHAPTER 10-----EMERGENCY LANDINGS................................................... 139
Acceptance ............................................................................................ 141
Select a Site........................................................................................... 141
The Approach ........................................................................................ 141
Preparation for Landing ......................................................................... 142
The Mental Anxiety ................................................................................ 143
What is Experience? .............................................................................. 143
Technique .............................................................................................. 144
LANDING VS CRASHING ......................................................................... 144
Continuing the Approach ....................................................................... 145
Landing .................................................................................................. 145
Extreme Landing Surface ...................................................................... 145
Landing on Relatively Smooth Surface .................................................. 146
Touchdown ............................................................................................ 146
Landing Roll ........................................................................................... 147
Survival...................................................................................................... 147
Staying Conscious ................................................................................. 147
Time ....................................................................................................... 147
After Stopping ........................................................................................ 148
What do you think just happened? ......................................................... 148
Flight into IMC and Visual Disorientation ................................................... 148
Let’s Review Real Life ............................................................................... 149
Summary ................................................................................................... 150
CHAPTER 11------------------------LET’S GO FLY .............................................. 153
Taxi for Takeoff ...................................................................................... 155
Takeoff Flight ......................................................................................... 155
Climbing Flight ....................................................................................... 156
Level Flight ............................................................................................ 156
Turning Flight ......................................................................................... 157
Changing Altitudes .................................................................................... 157
Climb...................................................................................................... 157
Descent.................................................................................................. 157
Leveling ................................................................................................. 158
Descending Flight .................................................................................. 158
Approach ............................................................................................... 159
Landing .................................................................................................. 159
Crosswind Landings............................................................................... 160
Emergency Landings ............................................................................. 161
So, How Are Airplanes Controlled? ........................................................... 162
Altitude Control: ..................................................................................... 162
Indicated-Airspeed Control: ................................................................... 162
Acceleration and Deceleration: .............................................................. 163
Climb/Descent Control: .......................................................................... 163
Landing Control: .................................................................................... 163
All Flight: ................................................................................................ 163

v
APPENDIX-1-----RECIPROCATING ENGINES ............................................... 167
The Engine ................................................................................................ 167
Operating the Machine........................................................................... 167
Flight Preparation .................................................................................. 167
Airplane Limitations................................................................................ 168
Power System ........................................................................................ 169
Ignition System ...................................................................................... 169
Engine Fuel Supply ................................................................................ 169
Fuel/Air Mixture ...................................................................................... 169
Carburetor.............................................................................................. 170
Butterfly Valve ........................................................................................ 170
Mixture Control ...................................................................................... 170
Throttle................................................................................................... 171
Accelerator Pump .................................................................................. 171
Carburetor Ice ........................................................................................ 171
Carburetor Heat ..................................................................................... 172
Oil Temperature and Pressure ............................................................... 172
Engine Cranking and Starting .................................................................... 173
Engine Cranking .................................................................................... 173
Ignition ................................................................................................... 174
Starting Fuel .......................................................................................... 174
Accelerator Pump .................................................................................. 175
Engine Fire While Starting ..................................................................... 175
Fuel Conditions for Starting ................................................................... 175
Conditions for Starting ........................................................................... 176
Summary ................................................................................................... 176
GLOSSARY ..................................................................................................... 179
INDEX .............................................................................................................. 195

vi
FIGURE TITLE Page
1-1 Which way is “up”? --------------------------------------------- 4
1-2 Lift forces acting on the aircraft.----------------------------- 5
1-3 Force Diagram---------------------------------------------------- 7
1-4 Vector Forces as components of right triangles--------- 8
1-5 Vectors; Forces with Direction-------------------------------- 9
1-6 Forces; Level Cruise Flight------------------------------------ 11
1-7 Elevator-Lift; Balance Forces--------------------------------- 12
1-8 Aircraft Axis; Dimension of Rotation------------------------ 14
1-9 Aileron Controls-------------------------------------------------- 15
1-10 Empennage------------------------------------------------------- 17
1-11 Frontal Plate Area; Vy Cruise-------------------------------- 17
1-12 Frontal Plate Area; Slow IAS--------------------------------- 18
1-13 Frontal Plate Area; Normal Climb--------------------------- 18
1-14 Wing Profile; Cruise Air Mass Displacement------------- 19
1-15 Wing Profile; Stall Air Mass Displacement---------------- 19
1-16 Wing Profile; High IAS Air Mass Displacement---------- 20
1-17 Elevator-Pitch Trim---------------------------------------------- 21
4-1 Vy Climb from Excess Thrust--------------------------------- 57
4-2 Sustained Climbing Flight------------------------------------- 58
4-3 Sustained Engine-out Gliding--------------------------------- 59
4-4 Engine Mounting Thrust Effect------------------------------- 62
5-1 Aircraft Climb Data---------------------------------------------- 72
6-1 Directed Course Visual Flight Cruise----------------------- 79
6-2 Directed Course Visual Flight Turn------------------------- 82
6-3 Directed Course Visual Flight Takeoff-------------------- 83
6-4 Directed Course Visual Flight High Speed---------------- 84
6-5 Visual Descent--------------------------------------------------- 85
6-6 Directed Course Visual Flight Descent--------------------- 86
6-7 Directed Course Visual Flight Landing--------------------- 87
7-1 Standard Visual Traffic Pattern------------------------------- 93
7-2 Idle Power Approach Pattern--------------------------------- 97
8-1 Crosswind Vector Components------------------------------ 113
8-2 Estimating Wind Effect----------------------------------------- 114
8-3 Estimating Wind Effect----------------------------------------- 114
10-1 Engine Failure Landing Pattern------------------------------ 138

vii
viii
 PREFACE
This book does not purport to cover all aspects of required training for a pilot license. It
only presents basic flight control. Some additional information covers a few procedures
not always emphasized in beginning flight training.
It is the opinion of the author that the lack of understanding of basic flight control
and related training to proficiency is a primary cause of the continued fatality rates from
incidents and accidents. Additionally, review of incidents and accidents should go
beyond the cause but the continued control through any cautionary or emergency
approach and landing. It is the landing that causes fatalities, not necessarily the cause
of the incident.
There are numerous ways to present and discuss the different aspects of flight
and flight control. It is usual for a pilot to be able to fly quite well, even without an
understanding of the real cause and effect of the aircraft controls.
There are many excellent books and articles written for pilots about methods and
techniques for conducting safe flight, but the industry continues to have the same basic
accidents and incidents.
The most highly trained and proficient authors, publishers, and instructors can
only profess safe flight conduct. Students rely on those actually teaching to attain that
standard of proficiency. It is unlikely more than a small percentage of instructors have
that ability.
Something is missing! I suspect it is the initial flight training. The majority of
Students are taught by instructors who themselves have been trained by minimum
schooled instructors. Training to minimum standards is the basis of the system!
Most private pilot training directs to passing the checkride. It’s just the way it is,
but private pilots are the majority of pilots and are those flying single engine aircraft.
So, who should know how to make engine out landings??
Attempts to regulate away accidents have been futile. There appears to be
unintended consequences of increased and stricter regulation from the past few
decades. In the past, most students initially learned landings using idle-power.
Deeming it safer, the power-on approach became the standard.
The “safer” approach was an attempt to regulate safety. The cause of the
“unsafe” approach was not determined. Even today, forty years later, the “unsafe”
approaches have no solution and the “safer” approaches continue having the same
problems as the “unsafe” procedures.
Demonstration of the idle-power approach is no longer required for a private
pilot. That just happens to be the technique for engine out landing. Note, teaching of
idle-power approaches is encouraged, they are not required to be demonstrated by the
private pilot so are often left out of proficiency training. The procedure has died, and
now not required before the commercial license.
This book emphasizes understanding control and development of technique the
author deems often missing in current flight training. Few pilots understand the basic

ix
effects of pitch, the elevator, and elevator control for indicated-airspeed, engine thrust
for lift, and proper control input for attitude control.
The procedures necessary for making emergency landings are not well understood,
especially for private pilots. The statistics of stall crashes confirms this every day. If
this book saves one life, then it was worth it!

x
 INTRODUCTION

In this book, the emphasis is on how aircraft are controlled and safe flight from proper
control. It is from study of proper control, all pilots will better understand the control
input and response required for flight. Specific procedures and individual operational
technique are not considered. There is little reference to aircraft design theory. The
pilot deals with the aircraft as built.
All aircraft operate in the same manner and the same physics applies. Although
this book is generally directed to the Private Pilot and Student Pilot, the theory of flight
control applies to all aircraft, and will answer basic questions about aircraft control for
any level of piloting.
All professions have their language. It is important all pilots be familiar with the
same terminology of flight. In this book, there is corrected terminology, such as pitch
and indicated-airspeed, as well as new terms such as “directed course”, “sustained
thrust”, and “excess thrust”, which more adequately explain most functions of flight
control. All new terminology is included in the expanded glossary.
There is continued use of certain terms to insure complete understanding. Used
inter-changeably are the terms for motivation, “power”, “thrust”, “thrust force”, and
“power thrust”. Also used throughout is “indicated-airspeed”, it is not speed or
airspeed; those are measurements of distance over time. Flight and structural
limitation control are “Indicated-airspeed”, “pressure-speed”, “indicated pressure-
speed”. There is a huge difference, just an unfortunate name.
The conduct of most flight is at some recommended cruise flight or above. This
allows pitch control response from the engine or the elevator to be similar when
initiating a maneuver (attitude change). For this reason it is common for a Pilot to think
in terms that the elevator causes climb and increased power causes acceleration.
The actual control response required is that response obtained when operating at Vy
indicated-airspeed.
This book is written initiating attitude change or maneuvering from a wings level,
Vy constant indicated-airspeed, and constant altitude flight.
The significance of this indicated-airspeed is that it is an optimum starting point.
It is the most efficient attitude of the aircraft at its current coordinated condition. Any
change of attitude or altitude other than descent will require increased engine thrust. It
will require added thrust to reduce indicated-airspeed in level flight as well as added
power to increase indicated-airspeed.
From this starting point, we will discuss how to utilize the flight controls, engine
thrust, and elevator trim.

xi
 The first five to ten hours of flight training should teach a pilot how to control an
aircraft safely. After that, training becomes “what to do with the aircraft” while
continuing practice and gaining of experiences from the different aspects of the flight
training.

Chapter one introduces flight control and related control and force effects.
Chapter two is discussion of indicated-airspeed, how it is determined, what it
means, and how it is controlled.
Chapter three discusses energy, power, thrust and how they apply to flight
control.
Chapter four discusses operation in space, flight attitudes and orientation.
Chapter five discusses atmosphere and its effect on engines in flight.
Chapter six is discussion of visual flight with “directed” attitude control.
Chapter seven presents visual flight final approach and go-around.
Chapter eight is about landing and different types of approaches to landings.
Chapter nine presents stall scenarios, avoidance, practice and recovery.
Chapter ten discusses emergency landings and surviving the landing.
Chapter eleven discusses operation of typical aircraft in flight. What can a pilot
do?

xii
xiii
xiv
 Chapter 1----------------Flight Control

This chapter discusses basic aircraft controls and concepts of flight.

• The Machine
• The Flight Controls
• Angle-of-attack
• Horizontal Stabilizer and Elevator Trim
• Engine and Gravity Power
• Summary

1
2
Machines and Control
Flying aircraft is not a science. It is simply operating a machine. There has been a lot
of discussion about how an aircraft flies, but designers and manufacturers built it to do
just that...fly! We want to control the flight.
An operator of any machine must learn its specific procedures, methods, and
limitations. Aircraft have their operational requirements just as any other machine.
It is during the learning process of how to use the machine one must understand
why things happen. When understanding, you have then learned when and how safely
to apply the required controlling inputs.
Development of operational techniques and habits takes place during the
process of flight training. Instructors have their own techniques for input of control.
You will develop and learn those techniques that work for you. Technique is an
individual thing, which changes with experiences throughout a career as you gain
increased knowledge, understanding, and proficiency.

Operation in Three Dimensions

An airplane is a machine operated by a pilot. The pilot doesn't really fly the plane
because that is its design. It is operational control and direction by the pilot that allows
flight.
In the air or on the ground, there are some different basic concepts to
understand.

Attitude
On the ground, steering a plane is similar to driving an automobile. It is just that control
is opposite; you steer with your feet and accelerate pushing a hand throttle.
Upon attaining flight, you are in the dimensions of space; this is a new concept.
Suspended in the air, the aircraft can move in three directions. The attitude of the
aircraft can be in any orientation relative to the earth; however, no matter that attitude,
sensing of flight control response is relative to you, the pilot, sitting in the machine.
It is a new sensation to be able to move within the three dimensions of space,
but easily accommodated after the first few flights. All normal flight is in general upright
attitudes. Introduction of extreme attitude flight occurs after attaining proficiency in
basic upright maneuvering.
The aircraft responds to control with changed attitude relative to the earth’s
surface. Your control inputs are “to or away” relative to the cockpit.
The aircraft could be in a nose high climbing turn, or even inverted, yet the
control response will always be “to or away” between the machine and you sitting in the
cockpit.
There will always be a small pitch-up angle called angle-of-attack of the attitude
relative to the direction of motion. The angle-of-attack and aerodynamic form with
velocity through the airmass cause reactive lifting forces and resulting attitudes,
indicated-airspeeds, and altitudes the aircraft will fly.

3
 It is not usual, but possible, to fly inverted. Level inverted flight will only happen
with specially designed and powered aircraft. This is a special case of the attitude
being nose down relative to the pilot, but being upside down the pitch angle will still be
up relative to the direction of gravity. The aircraft will be causing lift upward from the
bottom of the aircraft and the pilot experiencing negative gravity force will be hanging
by the seat belt.

Which Way is “UP”?

No matter the attitude, pulling

the elevator control pitches
the nose “to” the Pilot!
Figure 1-1

It is possible to attain unusual or inverted attitudes in any aircraft, but without

sufficient power, these attitudes will be momentary while controlling back to an upright
attitude. Since there would likely not be enough engine power, or control response
available to recover during the time required for this maneuvering to take place, expect
considerable altitude loss and rapid acceleration from gravity. These attitudes would
be unusual, and seldom, if ever, experienced in small aircraft.

Forces and Direction

An aircraft moving through space is displacing its volume of that airmass. The resulting
pressures of rapid displacement of mass-of-the-air, from motion, causes a reaction
from the aerodynamic form of the machine creating lift forces directed outward from the
top of the machine. This is aerodynamic lifting. In all flight, direction of aerodynamic lift
is outward from the top of the machine and negative aerodynamic lift outward from the

4
bottom. The direction of aircraft lift relative to the earth will change with any attitude
change.
Your aircraft forward motion through an airmass generates reactive lift forces
due to its aerodynamic form. It then requires a continuous sustained velocity to
maintain flight.

LIFT FORCES ACTING ON THE AIRCRAFT

All Lift Forces act outward from the Top of the Structure, no matter the Attitude.
Engine Lift Acts Perpendicular to the Direction of Motion
Aerodynamic Form Lift Acts Perpendicular to the Longitudinal Axis
Elevator Lift Acts Perpendicular from Elevator Position, Directed Positive or Negative

Elevator Aerodynamic Lift

can be positive or negative,
upward or downward
Drag

Direction of Motion
Mass, Weight due to Gravity Force
Weight Force acts toward the Center of the Earth.
Fig: 1-2

Analysis of the forces considers them acting on the aircraft as if all originated at
a point. Aerodynamic lift is reactive force from airmass displacement around the form
directed outward from the top and considered acting from a point called the center of
aerodynamic lift. Engine-lift acts outward from the top at its point of attachment, and
aerodynamic lift from elevator
position acts outward from the top or bottom of the horizontal stabilizer.
The aircraft has the continuous downward vertical force of gravity acting upon it
at the center of mass. Gravity force is always vertically downward, directed toward the
center of the earth. A vertical component of total aircraft lift must always balance the
gravity force to sustain flight.

5
Direction in Space Defined
When operating an aircraft it requires understanding the meanings of specific terms. A
few common terms are considered.
Consideration of flight control forces will be toward or away from the aircraft.
The aircraft attitude can be in any orientation so forces related to the aircraft will be
forward, rearward, and outward from the top or bottom. Reference to the machine or
the earth requires careful distinction.
“up/down” is direction or travel away from or toward the surface of the earth.
Now we will say the direction— “up/down” is not only vertical, but also related to
any component of travel away from the top or bottom of the aircraft when referring to
the machine.
Aircraft pitch control is causing movement of the nose up or down relative to the
pilot. Pitch controlling is “To (toward)” and can be engine powered pitch increase or
elevator-pitch by pulling the elevator control, causing the nose of the aircraft to pitch up
outward toward you. “Away” is when reducing engine powered pitch, or pushing the
elevator control causing decreased pitch. The nose moves outward away or down
relative to you sitting in the cockpit.
“Outward” is direction away from the aircraft top or bottom, and “Upward” is
direction away from the earth’s surface, while “Downward” is direction toward from the
earth’s surface.
“Vertical” is a positive direction perpendicular away from or negative direction as
a reference to the aircraft or the center of the earth. Exercise care to assure proper
reference.
“Upright” is an attitude at which all lift force is directed above the horizon, and
“Inverted” is with the lift force directed below the horizon.
“Gravity” (“g” Force) is the negative vertical force of potential energy acting on
the aircraft mass and directed toward the center of the earth. All reference to gravity
force effect on mass is toward the center of the earth. When related to the aircraft it is
from the aircraft’s center of mass.
“Load Factor” is the change of induced loading as related to the mass of one
“g”, the weight of the aircraft. Airborne maneuvering can cause structural loading in
excess of the mass weight. For instance, the 1.4 “g” aerodynamic loading on the
structure in a 45-degree turn is a load factor 1.4 times the mass weight of the aircraft
and directed opposite the direction of aerodynamic lift. In addition, direction of elevator-
pitched aerodynamic loading can be outward from either the top or bottom of the
horizontal stabilizer.

6
 VERTICAL COMPONENT OF AERODYNAMIC LIFT FORCE
AERODYNAMIC LIFT FORCE

DRAG
THRUST FORCE
FORCE

MASS LOAD

— Level Constant Speed Flight—

Thrust equals Drag and Lift equals Load
The depicted vectors are not proportioned relative to actual aerodynamic forces involved.
(Approximately one lb. thrust will generate ten lbs. of lift,
i.e. approximately 200 lbs. of thrust sustains a 2,000 lb. aircraft @ Vy airspeed)

Fig. 1-3

Vectors
Flight requires sufficient continuous forward motion of the aircraft to cause enough
vertical lift to balance the opposing continuous negative directed force of gravity.
No matter the attitude, the direction of all aerodynamic lift, and engine thrust
component lift, outward away from the top of the aircraft, in some way must
continuously balance the mass weight to avoid descent.
The forward directed, horizontal component of engine thrust causes the required
motion to sustain level flight. This sustaining thrust force will equal the opposing drag
forces for constant indicated-airspeed flight.
The language for understanding how the different thrust, drag, lift, and load
forces act on the aircraft requires understanding and consideration of force vectors.
Reference to flight forces will have components, both vertical and horizontal,
related to aerodynamic lift, to the aircraft thrust, or the direction of the gravity force.
A Vector is a force in a direction considered as a combination of two smaller
component forces acting 90 degrees from each other or conversely, two forces, acting
90 degrees from each other causing a resultant total force in another direction.

7
 VECTOR FORCES as COMPONENTS of RIGHT TRIANGLES
All triangles have three inside angles

Component of Vector Force

which always total to 180 degrees.
45° Vector analysis is based on the legs of right
30° .7 triangles. A right triangle always has an
90° 45° inside angle of 90 degrees. The other two
.7
.9

angles add to another 90 degrees. The 30/60

right triangle is a 30/60/90 triangle when
adding the sum of the included angles.
90° 60° There are fixed ratios of the two smaller legs
.5 of right triangles, which allows computing
any leg if the two others are known or a leg
Component of Vector Force and its included angle.

The forces acting on the airplane: A force can be considered as the effect of two separate
component forces acting ninety degrees to each other.
Common values used by pilots for wind component calculations are rounded to the nearest
tenth and include the 30/60/90 triangle with long leg .9 and short leg .5. The 45/45/90
triangle has two legs of the same length at .7. In all cases the third or resultant leg is 1.0 as the
base value.
Common values for load and lift considerations to understand flight forces are 6/84/90
triangle of a 6 degree angle of attack normal cruise. The short leg is .1 and the long leg is .995.
Slow flight 12 degree legs are .2 and .978.

Fig. 1-4

Most consideration of the forces acting on your aircraft is of component forces in

horizontal and vertical directions. The sustained horizontal and vertical components
from engine angled thrust force, the aerodynamic lift forces, and retarding drag forces
maintain the resultant aircraft attitude, and motion in flight.
Your principal concern is maintaining the operational lift forces within the
indicated-airspeed pressure limitations imposed by the aircraft manufacturer. This is
the only reference you have of lift.
At a specific trimmed indicated-airspeed, if the airplane is flying, you have
sufficient lift. If you are climbing, you have some excess thrust applied shown in the
cockpit as increasing altitude and positive climb rate. If you are descending, you have
reduced power to less than the level flight sustaining engine thrust with decreasing
altitude and negative climb rate.
The aircraft continues to fly with reduced power by using a horizontal component
of gravity force to sustain the required velocity for lift. However, it requires descent to
do this. Available altitude then limits your descent.

8
Lift Forces
It requires vertical lift components of the total aerodynamic, and engine force vectors,
equal to and opposite the downward vertically directed negative gravity force, to enable
maintaining constant altitude flight.
The aircraft lift, created by the wings and fuselage, is always directly out the top
of the machine, but your aircraft attitude is always flying at some small angle to the
surface.
The top of the aircraft, the direction from which the aerodynamic lift acts, has
force components of lift, both vertical and horizontal, acting 90 degrees to each other.
There is a large vertical component of lift holding the weight of the aircraft mass with a
smaller horizontal component, representing the drag forces, directed toward the rear of
the aircraft opposite the direction of motion.
The engine thrust is also at this small angle from horizontal. Therefore, there
are force components, vertical and horizontal, acting 90 degrees from each other there.
This results in a small outward force from the top, contributing to the total lift, and the
larger horizontal thrust opposing the drag force.

VECTORS
65°
FORCES with DIRECTION
25° .2
.9 —In-flight Aircraft— .97815
Level, Constant Indicated-Airspeed 12°

Thrust equals Drag, no net change of

1,599# Aerodynamic Lift
Indicated-Airspeed. 1,590#
Lift equals Load, no net change of Vertical Lift
Altitude
16# Thrust
160# Engine Vertical Lift 159# Drag
10’ Moment Arm
Thrust 20’ Moment Arm

159 Horizontal
Thrust 6° angle of attack
-8#
8# Negative
sine 6°=.1 Aerodynamic
1,600# Mass Elevator Lift
cosine 6°=.9945
Weight

Figure 1-5

9
 The elevator and horizontal stabilizer trims control pitch for longitudinal balance
of the total aircraft attitude. This creates small upward or downward aerodynamic lift
components lever moments on the tail as necessary to maintain the aircraft balance
around the center of gravity. Change of elevator aerodynamic loading is generation of
a force, often negative, adding some small load force lever moment or if positive adding
some small lift force lever moment.

Thrust Force
The engine power provides thrust force for motivation. Thrust is always in the forward
direction the aircraft is facing. Flight control maneuvering of aircraft attitude with rudder
and pitch steers this thrust force. Gravity provides a continuous thrust force directed
from the center of mass toward the center of the earth.
Reducing below sustaining engine power or maneuvering to a descending
attitude will allow gravity thrust to add back to the sustaining thrust for maintaining the
trimmed indicated-airspeed.
There will always be a continuous thrust force sustaining the motion causing the
required mass-of-the-air displacement for lift generation at any given indicated-airspeed
and configuration. At all times, in flight, there will be sustaining engine thrust to cause
continued level or climbing flight or thrust added by gravity with descent.
The actual thrust required for a specific aircraft varies considerably depending
on the designed aerodynamic form. Smaller aircraft sustain flight at approximately one
pound of engine thrust for each 10 pounds of weight (1:10 ratio). A 1,600-pound
aircraft will then require approximately 160 pounds of engine thrust to sustain itself at
its optimum level indicated-airspeed.
This aircraft at that optimum indicated-airspeed will be at an upward
encountering angle of at least 6 degrees angle of attack, so will have a continuous 16-
pound or more outward force acting from this power source as a component of thrust
(sine 6°= .1) and contributing to the total lifting forces. This engine-lifting will act as a
moment-lever around the center of gravity balanced with the elevator-pitch setting to
maintain the angle of attack. Some understand this as teeter-totter balancing.

Drag Forces
Drag force results from the different pressure and frictional forces of the airmass
resisting the aircraft forward motion. For sustained constant indicated-airspeed flight,
engine thrust will equal drag. When thrust and drag are equal, there is no net increase
or decrease of indicated-airspeed.
Attitude change redirects aerodynamic lift, so the retarding component force,
drag, will change when maneuvering.

Gravity Effect
For all flight, there is always a specific velocity for causing sufficient aerodynamic lift at
an indicated-airspeed. When airborne, it is not possible to stop, so attempting to slow

10
by reducing below the level flight sustaining engine thrust, there will be descent.
Gravity will always cause continued motion, either sustaining the lifted flight with
controlled descent, or if stalled, uncontrolled falling until reaching the surface.

Level Cruise Flight Vertical Component of

6° Aircraft Angle of Attack Aerodynamic Lift at a
160# Sustaining Thrust Center of Pressure
Engine Vertical Thrust 16#
Total Aerodynamic Lift
Vertical Component
of Thrust = 16#

Drag
Relative Wind 6°
Direction of Motion

Horizon
Horizontal Aerodynamic
Thrust Tail Loading

Aircraft Load

Mass Weight

Figure 1-6

Center of Gravity—Effective Center of Gravity

A center of gravity is the point on a system that all the mass is equally balanced and for
discussion of vector forces, the point from which the force of gravity acts on the total
mass.
The aircraft is loaded with a static center of gravity (center of mass) deliberately
placed slightly ahead of a theoretical center of total aerodynamic lift. Once in flight,
control of the elevator directs aerodynamic loading moments at the tail and the
coordinated engine vertical lift component moments of thrust, to balance the aircraft at
a desired indicated-airspeed.
Elevator loading and engine-lifting change the total aircraft loading, thereby
creating an changed or effective center of gravity necessary to maintain aircraft
balance. Change of elevator aerodynamic loading and engine-lift cause this change of
the center of gravity just as if it were a position change of mass.

11
 These effects are a small change of the location to an in-flight effective center of
gravity, so there becomes a slightly different center of vertical lift anytime the elevator
loading is changed.
There is no way for you to know specifically where the total aerodynamic lift will
occur. You load the aircraft according to weight moments originally calculated by
design engineers. Once in flight, controlling elevator-pitch to a desired indicated-
airspeed sets an effective center of gravity.
Pitch control changes the attitude of the aircraft with a corresponding change of
the location of the effective center of gravity. The result is an angle-of-attack change
for a new indicated-airspeed while the direction of motion remains constant.

T V A
Slow Flight
ELEVATOR-LIFT
CG BALANCE FORCES
= Static Center of Mass
CG = Center of Gravity E
CP
W = Mass Weight
CP = Airborne Effective CG
E = Elevator Aerodynamic Lift V A
Negative Lift
A = Body and Wing Form T Cruise Flight W
Aerodynamic Lift
V = Vertical Lift Component CG E
T = Engine-Thrust Vertical Lift
= Airborne effective Center CP
Neutral Lift
of Gravity. V A
T High Airspeed
W
Flight E
CG

Increased Elevator Aerodynamic CP Positive Lift

Lift Decreases Angle of Attack
while moving the effective Center
W
of Gravity Forward. Fig: 1-7

Balance
When airborne, your aircraft is floating, suspended and balanced around an effective
center of gravity created by the elevator aerodynamic loading and engine-lifting. This
requires longitudinal balancing of the aircraft with elevator-pitch control and associated
coordination of thrust for any related indicated-airspeed.

12
 Placement of the initial mass loading is within designed limits at which the
aircraft controls can develop sufficient aerodynamic forces for maintaining the balance.
The outward directed forces in flight are the aircraft aerodynamic lift of the wings and
fuselage, the aerodynamic lift of the tail surfaces (elevator and horizontal stabilizer),
and the outward component of engine thrust force from its inflight pitched attitude.
When in a stabilized, constant indicated-airspeed, constant altitude condition, all
outward forces have been coordinated by adjustment of engine power/thrust and
elevator-pitch to maintain the condition.
The engine is providing a coordinated constant thrust force with a horizontal
force component sustaining the motion forward and a small outward component force
from the top of the engine thrust location due to the slight pitched up angle-of-attack
attitude. The engine thrust component of lift acts at its source. This can be from an
area near or along the fuselage or tail with jet thrust and rear mounted engines.
The elevator-pitch aerodynamic load adjustment, with its longer moment arm,
maintains the desired indicated-airspeed with a small aerodynamic force, which can be
in a positive or negative direction. Stabilized flight occurs with coordination of the
vertical component of lift from the engine powered sustaining thrust and the elevator-
pitch trimmed aerodynamic lift together establishing a desired angle-of-attack indicated-
airspeed.

Axes of Control
Control is for maneuvering and requires coordination of the thrust and flight-control
forces to cause change. All attitude change requires added power coordination for
maintaining the required vertical components of total lift force to prevent descent by
gravity.
When airborne, maneuvering is around axes of rotation, relative to a current
center of gravity. The maneuvering axes of rotation of your aircraft are three imaginary
lines, perpendicular to each other, referenced to the machine.
There is the longitudinal axis, which passes through the length of the fuselage in
direction of motion, the vertical axis up and down through the top and bottom of the
fuselage, and the lateral (transverse) axis, which passes through the sides of the
fuselage. These lines intersect at the current effective center of gravity, and relate to
the maneuvering of your airplane.
These things are nice to know. You have no idea where the effective center of
gravity is located at any time. You have no idea the aerodynamic load caused by the
elevator. You have no idea the outward lift of the engine. This is just how it happens.
You fly the airplane with adjustment of power and controls to get the response
necessary to maintain safe and efficient indicated-airspeed as read on the IAS
indicator. You will never consider these elements of flight when actually inflight.

13
 AIRCRAFT AXIS –THREE DIMENSIONS OF ROTATION
z
x

Vertical Axis--Yaw Axis

Rudder Control yaws (steers) the
nose side to side controlling the
direction of thrust.

An Aircraft can be maneuvered into any desired attitude.

If the power available cannot sustain an attitude, gravity
will add with descent to a new attitude !

Figure 1-8

Flight Controls
The aircraft flight controls, the Ailerons, Rudder, and Elevator, maneuver the aircraft in
three dimensions with aerodynamically generated forces.
These flight controls are panel devices hinged to the backsides (trailing edges)
of the aircraft wings and empennage. The empennage is the tail of the aircraft and all
its components, consisting of the vertical and horizontal stabilizers with the rudder and
elevator. The stabilizers enable maintaining flight stability somewhat similar to feathers
on an arrow, but are controllable for inputting attitude change.
Pilot input to the flight control devices deflects the control panels into the
airstream. This deflection causes aerodynamic reactive force for moving the aircraft
attitude relative to the input direction.
The forward edges of the aircraft flight surfaces are the leading edges. The back
edges of surfaces are the trailing edges of the surfaces.

14
Ailerons
The ailerons are movable surfaces mounted along the trailing edge toward the outer
end of the wings. Turning of the control wheel in the cockpit controls the rate and
extent of roll attitude change.
When turning the control wheel, the ailerons move in opposite directions into the
airflow to increase lift on one wing, and decrease lift on the opposite wing.
Turning the control wheel counter-clockwise will cause the aircraft attitude to
roll/bank to the left, and turning clockwise, the aircraft attitude will roll/bank to the right.
When your aircraft is flying at a wings level, constant altitude attitude, there is a
vertical lift component force out the top of the aircraft directly opposing gravity. A
rolled/banked attitude of your aircraft changes the direction of that lift force out the top
of the aircraft. This change causes a reduction of the vertical lift component forces, so
the aircraft will begin descent without added power to maintain a constant vertical
component lift force. The deflected aileron of the outer wing causes some retarding
drag to the turn. Coordinated rudder thrust steering is often required to compensate for
this drag while deflecting the aileron.

AILERON CONTROL
Aileron control allows maintaining the wings level and controlling
into rolled or banked attitudes by opposite deflection on the
wings to create changed lift.

Left Aileron Up reduces lift on the left wing

Right Aileron Down increases lift on the right wing

In this depiction the Control Wheel is turned counter clockwise to cause Roll
to the Left. The Ailerons move in opposite directions with control input.

Figure 1-9

15
 A 30 degree banked level turn will cause a 1,600-pound aircraft to respond as if
it weighs 1840 pounds (cosine 30°= .866). This is an equivalent aerodynamic lift
requirement of 2,136 pounds requiring an increase of 54± pounds of engine thrust, so
the coordinating power must be increased while in this attitude.
The rolled/banked attitude of your aircraft, with the changed direction of the lift
has also created a horizontal component of the lift force. This horizontal force
component of lift turns the aircraft (sine 30°= .5). In this case, 1155 pounds of
aerodynamic force is changing the direction of flight.
The thirty degree banked level turn has caused a 1.15 g structural load on the
aircraft.

Rudder
The rudder is a movable surface mounted on the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer.
It deflects from side to side into the airflow by pilot input to foot pedals.
Most aircraft have individual main wheel braking and nose-wheel steering
associated with the rudder pedals for ground operation steering control and braking.
Pushing the left rudder pedal deflects the rudder control surface to yaw/steer the
nose to left, and pushing the right rudder pedal deflects the rudder control surface to
cause the nose to yaw/steer to the right.
The engine is always creating thrust in the forward direction the nose faces.
Changing the direction of the nose changes the direction of thrust force. Rudder
control is side-pitching of thrust.
The rudder then steers the aircraft by yaw. In a turn, caused by roll/banking with
aileron, rudder input coordinates any adverse forces by steering the thrust force
throughout the turn. In a rolled attitude, the rudder then creates a small pitching force
component if held in a deflected position.
For ground operation, all taxiing from the ramp to lift-off and landing touchdown
to parking, rudder steering controls directional motion.

Elevator
The elevator is a movable control surface attached to the trailing edge of the horizontal
stabilizer. It deflects into the airflow by pulling and pushing the control wheel. This
causes the nose to move to and away from you as a pitch attitude change of the
forward movement of the aircraft. Pilot input to the elevator control is the elevator-pitch
attitude control.
Pulling the elevator control causes a small aerodynamic increased (negative lift)
loading to occur on the tail surface. Changed loading changes both, the balance of the
aircraft and total effective loading. It causes a small rotation around the lateral axis to a
new lift pressure point (effective center of gravity).
Increased deflection of the elevator creates negative directed aerodynamic lift on
the tail outward away from the bottom of the aircraft. The direction of flight motion does

16
 EMPENNAGE
Rudder
Vertical
Elevator
Stabilizer
Trailing Edges

Elevator Horizontal
Trim Tab Stabilizer

Leading Edges
The aircraft empennage is the tail of the aircraft and consists of the horizontal and vertical
stabilizers. Attached to the trailing edges are the elevator and rudder control surfaces.
These controls are used for stabilizing up and down pitch angle and side to side steering
yaw of the aircraft movement.
Trim tabs are small adjustable controls which are used to balance individual control forces
for ease of operation for the pilot.
Figure 1-10

FRONTAL PLATE AREA

Vy INDICATED-AIRSPEED—6 Degree Angle of Attack

The Frontal Plate Area is the equivalent flat plate area that encounters the airstream.
It consists of wings, fuselage and elevator. The Frontal Plate Area varies with the
angle (Angle of Attack) at which the aircraft meets the air mass .
Large frontal areas at slow airspeeds require less pressure per square inch to provide
required vertical lift. High airspeeds provide higher pressures so require less angle of
attack.

Wing Frontal Plate Area

Body Frontal Plate Area

Relative Wind
Free Airstream

Fig. 1-11

17
 FRONTAL PLATE AREA
—SLOW INDICATED-AIRSPEED—
12-15 Degrees Angle of Attack

The Frontal Plate Area is the equivalent aircraft underside area that encounters the
airstream. It consists of wings, fuselage and elevator. The Frontal Plate Area varies
with the angle (Angle of Attack) at which the aircraft meets the air mass .
Large frontal areas at slow airspeeds require less pressure per square inch to provide
required vertical lift. High airspeeds cause higher pressures so require less angle of
attack to cause the same lift.

Wing Frontal
Plate Area

Direction of Motion (Travel)

Body Frontal Plate Area Elevator Frontal Plate Area
Relative Wind Positive or negative loaded
Free Airstream Fig: 1-12

FRONTAL PLATE AREA

— NORMAL CLIMB INDICATED-AIRSPEED—
Pitch Angle 12 Degrees; 6 Degrees Angle of Attack, 6 Degrees Climb Angle
The Frontal Plate Area varies with the angle (Angle of Attack) at which the
aircraft meets the air mass .
Large frontal areas at slow airspeeds require less pressure per square inch to
provide required vertical lift. High airspeeds provide higher pressures so
require less angle of attack to cause the required reactive lift generation.

Body Frontal
6
Plate Area
HORIZON Wing Frontal
Plate Area
Relative Wind
Free-stream Air
Fig: 1-13

18
 WING PROFILE
Frontal Area/Airmass Displacement Area
--OPTIMUM CRUISE—
The replacing airmass over the top of the wing
results in reduced pressure over the wing area.

8° angle of attack

The larger amount of accumulated airmass

displacing under the wing provides a riding
cushion for the aircraft.

Fig 1.14

WING PROFILE
Frontal Airmass Displacement Area
--APPROACHING STALL--

Partial Void

Large angle of attack

Large Cushion of Displacing Air

creates increased induced drag forces

Very high nose, angle of attack approaching a stall. The area of displaced air over the top of the wing is
too large to be completely replenished with displaced air. Induced drag from increased encountering
pressure of having to displace large volumes of airmass are more than the engine thrust available can
produce. The voided area gradually moves forward until no lift remains…a stall.

Fig. 1-15

19
 WING PROFILE
Frontal Area—Airmass Displacement Area
--HIGH INDICATED-AIRSPEED--

3° Angle of Attack

Fig. 1-16

not change significantly, though without coordinated adjustment of engine power,

altitude will change, as gravity force will do the power coordinating for you.
The new attitude of increased elevator-pitched angle is an increase in the front
profile of the fuselage and wings encountering the air-stream.
This increased frontal area of the aircraft results in an associated increased
volume of displaced airmass allowing the aircraft to decelerate as it will require less
airmass encountering pressure per square inch to develop total lift.
Elevator-pitch determines aircraft angle-of-attack, the angle of airmass
encounter, and a resultant indicated-airspeed flown.
A reduced indicated-airspeed allows maintaining the constant vertical lift as the
increased frontal area (square inches) and reduced airmass displacement pressure
(per square inch) are coordinated with thrust change.

Horizontal Stabilizer and Elevator Trim

The elevator itself has a manual trimming mechanism, which enables setting a constant
attitude elevator-pitch by changing the elevator control neutral position. That allows the
aircraft to fly at a constant indicated-airspeed with minor pilot elevator control input.
Elevator-pitch can be set manually with control wheel input, but is not convenient
since it would require you to hold the control in the same position for long periods.
Therefore, you can use adjustment of the elevator trim control to set a fixed elevator-

20
pitch angle at the elevator control neutral position to maintain a desired indicated-
airspeed angle-of-attack.
Some aircraft have moveable horizontal stabilizers, which trim in a similar
manner as the elevator trim control. These systems change the angle-of-attack of the
horizontal stabilizer and result in the same control as trimmed elevator-pitch.
An interesting thing about an elevator-trim control setting is that it does not
change without the pilot resetting the control. If controlling the airplane with manual
elevator-pitch control input and then releasing that manual input, the aircraft will attempt
to resume the indicated-airspeed related of the current elevator-pitch trimmed position.
It is like a “cruise control.”
Therefore, you have an indicated-airspeed set. The aircraft is doing just fine all
by itself. With a coordinated power setting maintaining a desired altitude, you can fly
essentially hands-free.

Elevator-pitch (nose up)

Aircraft Aft Fuselage

Elevator Trim Tab

Back Elevator Control rotates the elevator trailing edge up into the airstream causing
downward force on the stabilizer and resulting pitch up nose attitude as the aircraft
rotates around the lateral axis.
The Elevator trim tab moved down into the airstream causes added upward force on
the elevator to help hold the elevator up. The trim tab allows adjusting for a neutral,
hands-off, control setting for a specific airspeed angle of attack indicated-airspeed.
Fig: 1-17

21
Engine and Gravity Power

Engine-power
Your engine provides the power, creating thrust force, causing acceleration to attain
flight. Thrust, being a force vector, directs the aircraft response in the forward direction
as steered with the rudder and pitch change.
When airborne in level or climbing flight there is sustaining thrust, the
component of engine thrust in direction of motion, and a small vertical component of
that engine thrust from the angled attitude into the encountered airmass.
Engine power input above that required to sustain level flight is excess power.
Excess power causes an increased vertical component of engine thrust resulting in a
moment arm increase to lift the nose, rotating around the effective center of gravity, so
your aircraft will climb.
Decreased engine thrust from the sustaining thrust will cause a negative excess,
so the aircraft will descend (negative climb) with the sustaining thrust now
supplemented by gravity thrust force.
The throttle controls the engine power/thrust output and a manual mixture
control adjusts fuel/air for proper burning, enabling optimum fuel combustion for power.
For the pilot, this is control of lift.
The rudder, ailerons, and elevator flight controls are directing the engine thrust-
force.

Gravity-power
The potential energy of altitude is gravity, so is available only when inflight. Gravity
thrust is a vector, acting from the center of mass vertically downward toward the center
of the earth, no matter the attitude. Gravity can sustain flight, but using gravity power
requires descent.
There is no throttle for gravity. Gravity thrust force requires burning (descent)
altitude. It is a very large force requiring careful control to be contained.
The only aircraft control of gravity force is attitude control. Elevator pitch control
contains the force of gravity by diverting a component of the negative vertical force to a
horizontal component of thrust (gliding) to sustain the flight while the ailerons and
rudder maintain an upright attitude and direction.
Pilot input of elevator-pitch controls the horizontal component of gravitational
thrust, thereby sustaining an indicated-airspeed.

Summary
• Control of aircraft attitude revolves about the pilot. All control is to or away,
no matter the aircraft attitude or orientation.
• Ailerons turn an aircraft with a horizontal component of the lift when
maneuvering into a rolled attitude.

22
• Rudder steers the aircraft with yaw, directing the engine thrust, yawing the
nose left or right. In a turn, the rudder coordinates by correcting adverse
forces by direction of engine thrust force.
Change of thrust or elevator input steers the thrust with pitch to or from the
pilot.
• The elevator-pitch and thrust-lift maintain the angle-of-attack encounter into
the air-stream.
• Aerodynamic elevator loading and engine powered outward lift cause
location of the effective center of gravity to balance a given angle-of-attack
encounter into the airmass.
• Indicated-airspeed change is allowed by changing the size of the frontal-plate
area encountering the air stream and the resulting outward reactive
pressures required to maintain constant lift.
• Horizontal stabilizer or elevator trim and coordinated power allow setting a
fixed angle-of-attack airmass encounter for a constant indicated-airspeed
level flight.
• The engine provides the thrust for attainment and sustainment of flight.
Excess thrust causes increased lift for climb. Power is lift.
• Gravity is a strong acceleration force and requires careful handling. The
elevator-pitch control is the only flight control that can control gravity effect.
Elevator-pitch control causes attainment of the horizontal component of
gravity thrust for sustaining (gliding) flight.

23
24
 Chapter 2-------INDICATED-AIRSPEED

Relative motion within an airmass is required to cause an aircraft to fly. The

design of the aircraft is to fly; it wants to fly. This chapter discusses:

• Body-Angle
• Angle-of-Incidence
• Angle-of-Attack
• Relative-Wind
• Frontal-Plate Area
• Volumetric-Displacement
• Lift
• Control of Indicated-Airspeed
• Horizontal Stabilizer and Elevator tail and “g” Loading
• How to Change Indicated-airspeed
• Acceleration and Deceleration
• Controlling the Flight
• Attaining Flight
• What is speed?
• What is indicated-airspeed?
• How indicated-airspeed differs from speed.
• Attaining and sustaining indicated-airspeed.
• Criteria for maintaining safe indicated-airspeed flight.
• Operating within design limits.
• Summary

25
26
Body-Angle
Body-Angle is the angle of airflow encounter of the aircraft fuselage measured between
the direction of the relative wind and the longitudinal axis. Body angle is also Angle-of-
attack of the aircraft.

Angle-of-Incidence
The angle of incidence is the wing angle of attachment to the fuselage, measured
between the chord line of the wing and the fuselage longitudinal axis of your aircraft.
During manufacture, most aircraft have wings installed at a few fixed degrees of
incidence. It is a small upward angle of the leading edge of the wing relative to the
longitudinal axis as an attachment to the fuselage. The attachment incidence angle is
often two to four degrees.
The angle of incidence is a small preset angle for airmass encounter built into
your aircraft. You have no control of this angle. It is just nice to know.

Angle-of-Attack
The angle of aircraft pitch attitude above the relative wind. The elevator-pitch control
sets angle-of-attack to the encountering wind (relative wind). Reference is often in
regard to wing angle-of-attack, but it is the total airplane, fuselage and wings,
encountering the airflow.
Wing angle-of-attack by definition is the angle of airflow encounter between the
wing chord and direction of encountered wind. If there is no angle of incidence, wing
angle-of-attack will be the same as the body angle-of-attack.
For the pilot, there is no way to measure the angle-of-attack. The different
angles of attack of the aircraft create frontal plate areas and related encounter of
airmass pressures for maintaining different indicated-airspeeds.
Indicated-airspeed is an indirect measurement of angle-of-attack for operational
purpose. A pilot only knows angle-of-attack indirectly by reference to the indicated-
airspeed, so conduct of flight requires prior knowledge of the aircraft designed
operational indicated-airspeed limitations.
The wing angle-of-attack is often confused with the elevator-pitched attitude
angle, the body angle-of-attack of the airplane. In level flight, the two can appear the
same. When level, there is no angle of climb, so wing angle-of-attack, measured
between the wing and the oncoming free-airstream from the motion, within which it is
operating, differs only with any angle of incidence from the body-angle. Usual attitude
similarities of level flight often make the two terms seem the same.
The fixed angle of incidence of the wing needs no consideration of a pilot. You
control the aircraft indicated-airspeed with elevator-pitch input and the related elevator-
pitched aircraft angle-of-attack (body-angle).
In this book, all reference to control of indicated-airspeed and related elevator
controlled pitch is elevator-pitch and elevator-pitched angle-of-attack.

27
 Angle-of-attack change is elevator-pitched or engine-powered rotation around
the lateral axis at a changing effective center of gravity. Horizontal stabilizer or elevator
control inputs, as part of elevator-pitch angle adjustment, set indicated-airspeed.
For clarification, the elevator-pitch sets angle-of-attack for level and climbing
flight while either elevator-pitch or reduced power can change angle-of-attack for
descent. Reduced engine power will reduce angle-of-attack to the extent of its part of
the level flight sustaining elevator trimmed indicated-airspeed setting.
The elevator and engine are part of the fuselage body, and control these angles.
When referring to angle-of-attack settings or changes, it is a change of elevator-pitch
controlled by the elevator manual control, horizontal stabilizer-trim, elevator-trim, or
reduced power.

Relative-Wind, Direction of Motion

Your aircraft direction of motion creates an encountering wind as it moves into the free-
stream air ahead. This created wind called relative-wind, is always relative to, and
directly opposite, the direction of motion of your airplane.
The aircraft always flies with some angle-of-attack into the relative wind. In any
attitude, whether level, climbing, descending, or turning, any changed direction of
motion always opposes this directly opposite wind pressure force. This encountered
wind of motion will always be at some angle below the longitudinal axis.
Most reference in this book of relative wind will be as direction of motion.

Frontal Plate Area

The velocity of your aircraft motion causes the encountering pressure from the mass-of-
the-air experienced by your aircraft. The front-profile surface area of your aircraft, that
meets and diverts air relates directly to the velocity of the moving machine.
Your aircraft always flies with some small upward angle of the total machine as it
passes within the airmass. The inflight front profile of your aircraft has an area of the
underside of the fuselage and wings, which encounters and displaces the free-stream
air away from the underside, and a smaller area displacing the airflow away over the
top of the body and wings.
This total area or the aircraft surface that displaces free-stream air, called the
frontal plate area, changes with change of the angle-of-attack. The greater the angle-
of-attack, the greater the profile of the frontal plate area, so there becomes a larger
displaced volume of airmass moving over a greater distance around the aircraft’s form.
This allows reduced pressure per square inch (slowing of indicated-airspeed) to
maintain the same constant reactive lift force outward from the top of the aircraft.

Volumetric-Displacement
Your aircraft occupies a certain volume of space. It continually displaces its own
volume of the airmass encountered, and that volume must flow to replace itself after
passage. There are certain retarding pressure and friction forces involved during this

28
ongoing displacement. A sustaining thrust force overcomes the retarding or drag
forces to maintain the aircraft in flight. The volumetric-displacement of your aircraft is
constant at a given encountering frontal area and its related indicated-airspeed.
No matter the attitude, it requires the same sustaining thrust for continued
displacement at this indicated-airspeed. The aircraft can be in a climb, descent, turn;
any attitude, but will always requires a constant sustaining thrust for its associated
constant encountering volumetric-displacement. It requires excess thrust to attain and
maintain any attitude from straight and level for turn or climb.
Changing attitudes of pitch and turn require coordinated thrust increase or
decrease to maintain the vertical lift requirements of the maneuvering. The sustaining
thrust for a given indicated-airspeed at a set elevator-pitch remains constant throughout
the maneuvering.
You have no idea of your displacement volume of airmass. Do not even think
about it. What you need to know is; any change of attitude requires coordinated
power/thrust change. That means any maneuvering, of any kind, requires pushing or
pulling the throttle, unless, you want to change the indicated-airspeed (frontal-profile
and volumetric-displacement) during the maneuver. Then it requires an elevator-pitch
change, but still likely with coordinated thrust to maintain a desired attitude or altitude.
Technique for any flight maneuvering requires a hand on the throttle.

Attaining Flight

Indicated-airspeed in Flight
Throughout all of your flight, continued motion sustains the flight. Engine or gravity
power sustain this motion at the aircraft elevator-pitched angle-of-attack and indicated-
airspeed.
Power is from the engine or gravity. Anytime the engine power will not sustain
an attitude, gravity-power will supplement, but with descent at a new attitude.
Your flight preparation will set an elevator-pitch trim or horizontal stabilizer trim
setting for a safe initial flying indicated-airspeed. During the takeoff roll, you will
accelerate to this initial indicated-airspeed to become airborne.
During the takeoff roll, your aircraft accelerates to attain the required mass-of-
the-air encountering pressure around the aerodynamic form. When generating a
vertical component of lift, equal to the load of the machine, you become airborne. The
lift required occurs when the indicated-airspeed pressure into the frontal area reaches
that required with the particular elevator-pitch setting.
It is usual for pilots to input aft manual elevator control during the takeoff. Often
this is necessary to initiate a positive angle-of-attack attitude. There is no calibration of
elevator trim mechanisms, so it is usual to attain minimum flying indicated-airspeed
prior to the trimmed elevator-pitched indicated-airspeed as set.
If becoming airborne with manual elevator, you should reduce any aft elevator
control to continue allowing acceleration to the previously selected indicated-airspeed

29
angle-of-attack, or trim the elevator to a desired initial climb indicated-airspeed. At that
time, little, if any, further manual elevator control should be necessary during continued
initial flight.
Once you are airborne, it is usual for maneuvering flight to call for operation at
different indicated-airspeeds. Often, your initial indicated-airspeed used, called Vx
indicated-airspeed, is the indicated-airspeed for attaining maximum altitude in minimum
distance. Shortly after takeoff, when safely established in a departure climb, a usual
indicated-airspeed selected will be Vy, the optimum indicated-airspeed for attaining
most altitude over time.
Vy, being an optimum indicated-airspeed, means the aircraft is at the angle of
attack that is most efficient for climb under current conditions. Any increase or
decrease of angle of attack would require reduced rate of climb.
Throughout this book, the use of Vy as an optimum operating indicated-airspeed
for climb, cruise, and descent is inferred.
All indicated-airspeed control is by elevator-pitch. The engine powered vertical
lift balancing a particular indicated-airspeed is coordination of the angle-of-attack with
elevator-pitch. Added, excess, power will merely increase the engine outward lift as a
climb angle and increased altitude.

What takes place?

Your direction of flight is the direction of motion in space. In level flight, it would
be a compass direction moving horizontally above the earth’s surface. In climbing
flight, it would be a compass direction but gradually moving away from the surface.
Descending flight would be a compass direction gradually moving toward the surface.
There are many scenarios of turning, climbing, and descending maneuvers that cause
changed direction of motion.
Flight is power coordinated with controlled indicated-airspeed from elevator-pitch
and direction from changed attitude. The design and construction of your machine is to
fly. You only operate the aircraft. The power available and the operating indicated-
airspeeds necessary for flight are previously determined by the construction and
loading of the machine.
Operation of the aircraft on the ground is similar to operating an automobile.
The friction of tires to the ground and steering determines the direction of motion and
allows control response in two dimensions.
To become airborne; you taxi onto the runway, apply take-off power, and
accelerate until attaining an indicated-airspeed at which sufficient lift is generated and
the aircraft starts flying.
Well, you accelerate until attaining a velocity that creates sufficient mass-of-the-air,
encounter, and displacement flowing around the aircraft’s aerodynamic form. This
accelerated airflow generates reactive outward components of force from the top
surfaces of the aircraft, equal to, or greater than the weight of the machine.

30
 As the generated outward pressure becomes equal to the weight of your aircraft,
it becomes airborne.
Immediately upon becoming airborne, the aircraft, no longer affected by ground
to tire friction force, and now suspended in space, moves in three dimensions. At that
instant, acceleration ceases, and climb begins.
The suspended aircraft is flying level or climbing at a constant indicated-airspeed
with a sustaining engine thrust, and any additional excess thrust, causing climb. The
surface no longer affects your aircraft movement within the airmass. The direction of
motion within the airmass becomes that of the heading of the aircraft. The direction of
travel (related to the surface) is as affected by any movement of the airmass itself. The
aircraft, suspended in space, does not know the earth is below.

Indicated-airspeed
What is indicated-airspeed? A relative velocity through the air!
You have an indicator in the cockpit calibrated to read speed in miles per hour or
knots per hour. This indicator has a pointer that moves to indicate a current speed
called indicated-airspeed.
This is only an indication of a speed. The indicated-airspeed indicator senses air
pressure from a forward facing, open ended, tube, rammed with the mass-of-the air
from forward motion of flight within the airmass. This is a pitot system (invented by,
“Henri Pitot; 1723”), measuring pressure, yet displayed as indicated-airspeed.
The indicated-airspeed is merely sensing the impacting/rammed air pressure
into the forward facing open tube mounted on the aircraft. The instrument actuation is
pressure from the motion into the airmass, but calibration of the instrument presentation
is in units of speed, so is called an indicated-airspeed indicator (IAS).
Measurement of the air pressure into the pitot system is an indication to you, the
pilot, of the relative pressures generated around the surfaces of the aircraft. For this
reason, indicated-airspeed refers to the pressure the aircraft is encountering when
passing through the mass-of-the-air. Indicated-airspeed pressure is a reference to you
of the condition of attaining, and sustaining the flight. You control the aircraft as related
to the instrument reading of this air pressure-speed indication.
When your aircraft is sitting on the ground, the real wind of a moving airmass
can create some pressure, just as if the aircraft were moving. For this reason, if you
take off, accelerating into a real wind, it requires less actual speed on the ground, to
attain the indicated-airspeed pressure to cause flight.
During the takeoff roll, your accelerating aircraft creates increasing air pressure
from the increasingly rapid encountering and displacement of its volume through the
airmass. Generation of the reactive vertical component force takes place due to the
aerodynamic shape, and increases with increased velocity; to the extent, it becomes
equal to the weight of the aircraft.
It is all a matter of sufficient motion, speeding through and continuously
displacing mass-of-the-air (the quantity of the air as determined from its weight). There

31
must be enough pressure generated to sustain lift to hold your aircraft’s weight. The
indicated-airspeed indicator shows that pressure as a speed.
The performance of an airfoil directly relates to the mass-of-the-air displacement
pressure attained for the indicated-airspeed required for flight, and not related to
temperature, pressure altitude, or surface velocity. Those things contribute to the mass-
of-the-air, but the pressure relates only to the actual encountered mass at any instant.
An indicated-airspeed is an indication of pressure-speed, in any situation, and is
always an indication of current pressures affecting the airfoil. Though calibration of the
system shows indicated-airspeed, it is always measuring the pressure of the
impacted/rammed air, relative to the movement of your airplane.
The calibration of the indicated-airspeed indicator, the rammed air pressure, is
only an actual velocity relative to the ground on a standard day at mean sea level.
In that condition, it would indicate the actual velocity across the surface.
However, air density and temperatures vary significantly, so these readings are seldom
an accurate measurement of speed across the ground.
The specific encountered air pressures, on and around the aerodynamic form of
your airplane, result in generation of the reactive outward component force. This is the
reaction of rapidly displacing its volume of airmass under and over the aircraft, causing
the required lift for flight. The mass-of-air necessary to create a required reactive
outward force is constant for a constant load and indicated-airspeed (impacting
pressure).

Attaining and Sustaining Indicated-airspeed

For flight to occur, you achieve sufficient sustained velocity causing pressure from
continually displacing a mass-of-the-air equal to the aircraft’s volume.
The operation of your aircraft relates to this velocity. It requires continued motion
through the airmass by an associated thrust source to sustain the necessary pressures
for the particular conditions in any realm flight.
The displacement of your aircraft's volume results in it riding on a cushion of air,
displaced downward, and with a lifting force, generated over the top of the airfoil, by a
vacuum type sucking (reduced pressures) effect of the continuous replacement of that
deflected air.
When you become airborne, any accelerating power, the excess-thrust above
that required for sustaining your initial lift-off indicated-airspeed, will cause excess
upward lift from an outward component of the directed engine thrust, and instead of
increased indicated-airspeed, results in increased altitude, climb.
Any thrust greater than the level flight sustaining engine thrust is trying to
continue acceleration. However, being at the trimmed indicated-airspeed (pressure-
speed) lifting the aircraft weight, the excess lifting power causes climb.
Most texts will refer to excess thrust as climb power or climb thrust. However,
level flight maneuvering turns also require excess thrust for additional lift without climb.
The pilot should not be concerned. All maneuvering from level, constant indicated-

32
airspeed flight, whether turning or climbing, requires added thrust. It is maneuvering;
you do whatever is required, and you will always know any maneuver requires
coordinated power to control your aircraft.
Some Students may find visual interpretation easier by considering maneuvering
as merely climbing flight on a different reference plane. A level turn becomes an
angled climb with no vertical change but a constant velocity horizontal change of
motion.
When in flight, your aircraft requires sustained engine thrust for the indicated-
airspeed maintaining its weight. Excess-thrust applied increases lift, so you climb. If
reducing engine power below sustaining thrust, gravity thrust adds to maintain the
sustaining thrust, but always with descent.
Remember, the cause of lift is power/thrust. There is the sustaining-thrust
required to maintain the set indicated-airspeed, but level or climb maneuvering,
requires added (excess) engine thrust. Power/thrust controls lift!

What is speed?
Speed is your velocity, on or across, the earth’s surface.
You have to drive the airplane on the ground, until it has the velocity needed to
cause enough lift for flight. That requires you apply power for acceleration to attain a
required flying indicated-airspeed.
You need enough velocity within an airmass to generate an outward vertical
component of force equal to the aircraft’s weight to fly. For continued flight upon
becoming airborne, you need to sustain that indicated-airspeed which maintains that
lift.
Your aircraft does not know the earth is below. It merely maintains flight related
to the vertical pressure applied. The horizontal velocity results from the sustaining
engine thrust causing a required indicated-airspeed to generate the necessary lift.
In flight, your aircraft is passing through an airmass, and that airmass itself is
often moving. The movement of the aircraft within an airmass, relative to the surface, is
called true-airspeed, and when this same airmass is moving relative to the earth, the
resultant movement becomes ground-speed, the actual velocity of movement relative to
the surface.
True-airspeed is a true-speed referenced to your velocity relative the surface
and within the airmass through which you are moving. Only if flying through a
stationary/unmoving airmass is it the ground speed of your aircraft.
The actual density of the airmass at a given time relates to the true-airspeed of
sustained flight within that airmass.
At lower altitudes, temperatures, and humidity’s, a volume of air has more mass.
The encounter of mass sufficient to lift your aircraft occurs at slower true-airspeeds in
these more dense conditions. At higher altitudes, where the air is less dense, it requires
increased true-airspeed to encounter the same quantity of mass-of-the-air, though the
indicated-airspeed pressure remains constant.

33
 Changed density of an airmass causes your aircraft to move at significantly
different speeds across the surface, though it is maintaining a constant indicated-
airspeed (pressure-speed).
This all occurs while your aircraft is at a constant indicated-airspeed pressure.
The airplane doesn’t know. It just reacts to the encountered mass-of-the-air pressure
forces.
With higher temperatures or altitudes, the reduced mass-by-volume of the air,
requires a greater velocity relative to the earth, to maintain the same constant
indicated-airspeed generated pressures within the encountering expanded airmass.

Control of indicated-Airspeed
The manual elevator-pitch, elevator trim, and/or horizontal stabilizer trim allow you to
adjust the elevator-pitched angle-of-attack of your aircraft encountering the airmass.
Actuation of these controls causes pitch rotation around the lateral axis at the
effective center of gravity. This changes the encountering angle and associated frontal
plate area affecting mass-of-the-air from the motion.
When you change the elevator-pitch setting, your aircraft rotates into a new
pitched attitude. This relates to you, as to or from movement of the nose. Elevator-
pitch is an aircraft angular attitude setting (angle-of-attack) into the relative wind for a
desired indicated-airspeed.
Any change of indicated-airspeed will require an associated coordinated power
change to sustain the changed velocity when in level flight. There is always a small
outward component of force involved with power change. It is coordination of this
engine component force with the elevator-pitched aerodynamic force, which causes a
specific indicated-airspeed.
Pushing and pulling the elevator control is change of encountering angle, calling
for a different indicated-airspeed. A level flight indicated-airspeed change, with a
change of elevator-pitch and coordinated engine power change maintains the
horizontal direction of motion. This is normal indicated-airspeed acceleration or
deceleration of flight with indicated-airspeed change allowed by an elevator-pitch
change and caused with coordinated power change.
An elevator-pitch change without power coordination will allow a climb or
descent (zooming up or down) to occur. The aircraft’s kinetic energy adds or dissipates
with gravity potential energy to cause change of indicated-airspeed to the new
indicated-airspeed allowed by the change of elevator-pitch. The motion will re-establish
itself toward the initial direction of motion with slightly changed altitude.
Maybe you should just leave the elevator control alone unless you want a
change of indicated-airspeed. Oh, it is useful for initiating climb or descent pitch, but
other than that does not do much except make you work unnecessarily.

34
Tail and Thrust Loading
During the flight, you add increased angle of the wings and fuselage into the
encountering airmass (increased angle-of-attack) by use of the horizontal stabilizer
trim, elevator-pitch trim, or elevator aft control input causing reduced lift (negative
aerodynamic loading) of the aircraft’s tail.
Control of the encountering angle-of-attack is with changes of aerodynamic tail
loading and coordinated with the engine thrust vertical component force.
Downward (negative lift) aerodynamic loading on the tail surfaces adds a small
change to your total inflight aircraft load. A small change of aircraft balance results
causing increase of the elevator-pitch angle around a new effective center of gravity.
Increasing tail loading moves the effective center of gravity slightly aft resulting
in a small attitude rotation of upward nose pitch, increasing frontal area and allowing
reduced indicated-airspeed.
Elevator-pitch control is tail-loading change causing small changes of total
aircraft balance. This is negative tail loading creating outward lift from the bottom of the
tail surfaces.
Engine thrust causes a small outward lift force due to the body angle-of-attack.
This small lift force contributes to the balance of the aircraft in a similar manner, as
does the elevator-pitch. The engine outward lift component adjusts with the power
setting. It is only part of the angle-of-attack coordination for attaining a sustained flight
indicated-airspeed. When angle-of-attack is set, any excess engine-lift above the
sustaining thrust will now cause climb at that set angle-of-attack indicated-airspeed, so
altitude will increase.

“g” Forces/Load Factor

Aircraft load is the total outward force away from the bottom of the structure as
supported by the outward aerodynamic and engine-lift forces. This consists of the
weight plus aerodynamic loading of negative tail lifting and maneuvering “g” force lifting
for changing direction of motion.
The aerodynamic negative lift and centrifugal turning forces, now angled outward
from the bottom of the aircraft at the angle of maneuvering climb or bank, directly
oppose the direction of the aerodynamic lift.
When maneuvering in level or climbing turning flight, it requires increasing the total lift
forces. This is “g” force loading. The aircraft must continually create a vertical
component of lift to maintain the weight of the aircraft in the vertical direction plus
causing the horizontal centripetal, the negative aerodynamic tail loading, and
overcoming any added drag force. All these forces above the weight of the
aircraft are increases of total load called “g” forces. “g” force is a reference to the force
of gravity and is relative to “1g” equaling the mass weight of the aircraft. Loading
measured relative to the mass weight of a system is load-factor. A load-factor of “2 g’s”
means two times the weight of a system.

35
 The lift, out of the top of the aircraft, in a 30 degree banked level turn, will require
one “g” of vertical lift component for the weight of the aircraft plus .5 “g” for the
horizontal turning force plus the tail loading. This level turn will require a load-factor of
slightly over 1.15 times the aircraft weight. (sine 30°=.5, cosine 30°=.866)

Acceleration or Deceleration
Acceleration or deceleration requires adjusting to a related elevator-pitched angle-of-
attack for a new indicated-airspeed. For this reason, you can change power to cause
acceleration or deceleration, but you must first change the elevator-pitch to allow
acceleration or deceleration. If you do not change the elevator-pitch, an increase of
power merely causes climb-pitch of excess power at the current elevator-pitched angle-
of-attack indicated-airspeed.
Acceleration can occur without engine power change using an exchange of
altitude causing gravity force to provide the required power to change indicated-
airspeed. You still must change the elevator-pitch angle to allow this change.
Decreased elevator-pitch will allow increased indicated-airspeed, and by
descent, gravity’s vertical thrust force causes the increase, now at a different altitude
A zoom type climb from the current momentum will decrease indicated-airspeed
allowed with an increased elevator-pitch. This is using gravity’s opposite directed
vertical thrust force effect for deceleration.
Decelerated operation would now be at the changed indicated-airspeed, but at
some different altitude. The new reduced indicated-airspeed, sustained by the original
fixed engine power, depends on the initial indicated-airspeed; the zoom could end up
with some climb or some descent from the increased drag.
A decrease from sustaining thrust for normal descent reduces the engine
powered outward lift component associated with the elevator pitch trim, so results in
some decreased angle-of-attack allowing associated acceleration with the descent.

Cruise Control
You can control elevator-pitch angle-of-attack, with manual elevator input, though this is
not easy to hold constant, so is normally used only for initiating indicated-airspeed pitch
attitude changes.
When you set elevator-pitch with elevator trim or stabilizer trim, it holds a
constant elevator-pitch angle with minimum elevator control input required.
Elevator-pitch angle, set with stabilizer trim, relates to your airplane, as does a
“cruise control” for an automobile! You can accelerate an auto above its cruise control
set speed, and when removing input to the accelerator, it will decelerate to its original
set speed.
Similarly, inputted manual elevator-pitch will allow change of indicated-airspeed,
but when released the aircraft will seek the elevator-pitch angle of attack and the
associated indicated-airspeed previously set with the elevator trim.

36
 Just turn it loose (release manual elevator-pitch input) and it will seek the
indicated-airspeed corresponding to the elevator-pitch trimmed indicated-airspeed and
the current power setting, though, if power was changed, at some different altitude.

Operating Limitations
The design, loading, and control input of a machine determines the actual velocities
required for flight and flight maneuvering. Structural design and loading considerations
determine the maximum and minimum indicated-airspeed that any given machine
should attain or maintain.
It is required that you be knowledgeable of the requirements of your machine
prior to flight and that you conduct the flight within any indicated-airspeed and structural
loading limitations, as determined by the manufacturer.
Most incidents and accidents with aircraft occur operating, in some manner,
outside the design limits, whether intentional or unintentional. As a pilot, you must
learn, know, and operate within the specified limitations of your machine.

Summary
• Wing angle-of-attack is definition of the angle between the wing chord and
the encountering airflow the relative wind.
• Body-angle; body angle-of-attack is the angle of encounter of the fuselage
when in flight. This is the angle between the longitudinal axis and the
direction of motion, opposing the relative-wind.
• The relative-wind is the encountering airflow and is always directly opposite
the direction of the aircraft motion.
• The angle-of-incidence is the angle of wing attachment to the aircraft
structure. Often it is 2-4 degrees up at the leading edge relative to the
longitudinal axis.
• Aerodynamic lift is the outward force from the top of the aircraft caused by
reaction to pressures from encountered wind-of-motion airflow, on and
around the airplane’s aerodynamically formed surfaces and airfoils.
• Horizontal stabilizer trim, elevator trim, or manual elevator control balanced
with an outward lift component of engine power set angle-of-attack for
indicated-airspeed.
• Manual elevator-pitch control input changes the elevator-pitch angle, while
trimming allows changing the neutral control position of the horizontal
stabilizer or elevator for ease in maintaining indicated-airspeed control.
• Tail loading is aerodynamic lift, negative or positive, on the tail horizontal
airfoils, for controlling elevator-pitch angle, by attitude rotation around the
lateral axis, at an effective center of gravity.
• Thrust lift is the outward component of engine thrust at the engine
attachment.

37
• Acceleration and deceleration are increase and decrease of indicated-
airspeed, allowed by a change of elevator-pitched angle-of-attack, but
caused by engine power coordination, or gravity power by altitude zoom
climb, or descent.
• Elevator-pitch angle controls indicated-airspeed.
• The horizontal stabilizer and elevator trim are similar in control as an
automobile cruise control. They set an indicated-airspeed your aircraft will try
to fly, if you release the elevator control.
• Aircraft performance relates to the engine or gravity power available.
• Indicated-airspeed is a measurement of rammed air pressure impacting an
open tube facing the direction of motion. The cockpit display is an “Indicated-
Airspeed Indicator” calibrated in units of speed.
• Indicated-airspeed is the result of encountering the mass-of-the-air.
Resulting displacement pressures into and around the volume of the aircraft’s
aerodynamic structure creates reactive outward forces for lifting the aircraft’s
weight.
• Indicated-airspeed is a relative velocity of encounter of the mass-of-the-air by
movement through an airmass.
• Indicated-airspeed is merely a calibrated reading from the sensing of
encountered ram air pressure and not related to movement across the
earth’s surface.
• Indicated-airspeed allows the pilot a reference for the control of operational
airmass encountering pressures.
• True-Airspeed is a speed measurement of aircraft velocity within an airmass.
• Ground Speed is the actual velocity across the surface of the earth when
considering operation within a moving airmass.
• All aircraft have indicated-airspeed operating limits. Structural consideration
is the main criteria for the establishment of maximum indicated-airspeed and
loading limits.
• Minimum indicated-airspeed limits pertain to sustaining stable slow flight.

38
39
40
 Chapter 3------ENERGY—POWER—THRUST

When discussing power sources, you must include both engine power and
gravity power. In both cases, it is conversion of energy to attain thrust for sustaining
the required kinetic energy for continued motion.
This chapter discusses the part energy plays in flight.

• Energy and energy sources

• How airplanes fly
• Transference of energy
• Becoming airborne; space flight
• Sustaining-thrust and excess-thrust
• Maneuvering with coordinated thrust
• Gravity power effects
• Summary

41
42
Energy and energy sources
Energy is the ability of a source to cause work (force times distance).
Potential energy is energy in a fixed state until released. Fuel and altitude are
sources of potential energy. Burning fuel causes rapid expansion of gases while gravity
is attraction of earth’s mass to an object vertically away and directed toward the center of
the earth.
Kinetic energy is mass in a moving state, and reacts as a force while consumed by
friction (from momentum). The motion of your airplane is its kinetic energy.
Engines develop thrust force by burning fuel to extract the potential energy. The
resulting energy of burning fuel is expansion of gases pushing a piston, turning a
crankshaft and propeller to accelerate the mass-of-the-air. The reaction to accelerating
the mass-of-the-air (blasting air) is a thrust force to cause motion creating kinetic energy.
Similarly, the jet engine develops thrust force by burning fuel. The resulting energy
is expansion of gases turning a turbine and compressor, accelerating the mass-of-the-air.
Thrust is the reaction to accelerating mass-of-air (blasting air).
Remember; thrust is a vectored force directed to push or pull the machine. All
aircraft have engines for developing the power to generate thrust directed to cause
movement.
Your aircraft at altitude is a source of potential energy. The aircraft weight as
affected by gravity’s acceleration and directed by the flight controls produces thrust force
effect…with descent.
Velocity of the aircraft mass is its kinetic energy. The momentum of movement
can cause temporary thrust effect in the direction of motion by deceleration.
Flight control is energy management directing the conversion of the energy states
from one form to the other.
Energy is not consumed, but only changes form. Potential energy becomes kinetic
energy plus losses of friction or heat. Kinetic energy in flight becomes potential energy of
altitude which in turn becomes kinetic energy through descent.

How airplanes fly

What makes an aircraft fly? Money!
How does an airplane fly?
Do not worry too much about how. Engineers designed your airplane to be
aerodynamic and manufacturers built it to fly. It is a big chunk of aluminum sitting there.
You cannot change that. You just deal with it.
If started, and turned loose, it could fly by itself.
What is all the fuss about?
Your job, as the pilot, is the utilization of energy through thrust to enable safe,
controlled flight. Your airplane uses the potential energy from fuel, converted by the

43
engine for power, to develop kinetic energy by thrust to attain and sustain motion for
flight.

Transference of energy (Energy Management)

It is the thrust, from the reaction of blasting large volumes of the mass-of-the-air, which
pushes or pulls your aircraft.
Usual discussion in the industry has always related to jet engine motivation with
thrust and reciprocating engine motivation with power. In both cases, it is the thrust.
However, to keep the discussion standard, this book will use the term power
interchangeably for thrust as they both cause the same results. Power causes thrust.
Engine power and gravity power convert potential energy into thrust in both cases.
The reactive force of developing thrust will cause acceleration. That becomes the kinetic
energy of motion. If accelerated to sufficient indicated-airspeed, the aircraft becomes
airborne.
Just as in the beginning, you start the engine and turn it loose. All you do as the
pilot is guide the thing down the runway with a high power setting allowing acceleration.
When attaining sufficient indicated-airspeed to generate lift equal to the weight,
you become airborne.

Now what is going to happen?

First, you become airborne. Well, the design of the airplane is to do that, if it goes fast
enough. Now it is in the air. It requires control and direction to go somewhere. It needs
to climb to some higher altitude, so it does not run into anything.
You have lots of power. You became airborne after accelerating to a selected
indicated-airspeed. Now you are climbing. You are converting excess energy of engine
thrust to potential energy of altitude, gravity.
We now have available power sources from both, the engine and gravity. The
engine consumes fuel with combustion, and gravity consumes altitude with descent.

Becoming airborne; space flight

Is your aircraft indicated-airspeed still accelerating?
No!
The moment you became airborne the airplane quit accelerating. Now you are just
climbing at the indicated-airspeed at which it left the ground.
Why is that? Why did it quit accelerating?
You entered a new world…Space flight.
The instant of becoming airborne, your aircraft begins operating in three
dimensions. It can now go up and down.
Back on the runway, it was like driving a car. You just pushed the throttle to
accelerate and steered with the rudder pedals.

44
 Now, it has changed, and you will remain in space flight, until landing back on the
surface.
The instant of becoming airborne, the generated lift, was equal to the weight of the
airplane. The excess-thrust used for acceleration is still there.
In the air, the upward elevator-pitched angle the aircraft is traveling does not allow
acceleration. This means when the angle-of-attack remains constant, the excess outward
component of thrust is now causing climb. Climb is increasing altitude over time. There
is direction of motion, both horizontal, and away from the surface.
With the initial takeoff power unchanged, there has been no change of the engine
power, but the upward angle of encounter of airmass causes an upward component of
engine-lift and an initial climb angle of travel. The aircraft has attained a balance of lift
force with gravity force. It does not weigh anything! It is at a sustained indicated-
airspeed of motion at which all forces are balanced. Thrust equals drag and lift equals
load. The excess thrust is causing a climb angle so altitude is increasing.
When the aircraft has no weight, it takes little additional lift to cause increased
altitude. Excess thrust causing a small lift force is sufficient to cause additional climb.
The small nose up climb angle in the direction of motion is from this excess thrust causing
an outward component of the thrust force as a pitched climb angle. The forward
component of thrust is sustaining the motion. You are climbing.
The indicated-airspeed is remaining as set with an elevator-pitched angle of attack
generating enough lift to cause and sustain flight. The engine outward lift component of
thrust and the elevator-pitched aerodynamic lift are now balancing the climb attitude.
The additional engine outward thrust component is causing the aircraft to climb at
a rate commensurate to the excess applied power.
There is increased drag from a climb attitude. The actual excess engine power
required for a climb must be sufficient to sustain both, the increased vertical lift and
increased drag. The aircraft will then be at its elevator-pitch trimmed constant indicated-
airspeed with increasing altitude.

What goes on in space?

Well, you have to control the machine in three dimensions. You now can have excess
engine power causing an upward climb force. You also always have the continuous
gravity power pulling down on your machine.
The engine power, causing thrust with a component of force in its direction of
motion, is enough to sustain generation of aircraft lift equal to the weight. The excess-
thrust’s attempt to accelerate causes increased engine-lift. Instead of acceleration, there
is the added outward component of thrust force causing excess lift. You climb without
acceleration.
It is all part of the balancing act.

45
Sustaining-thrust
Your aircraft continues climbing, at the selected indicated-airspeed, generating lift to
maintain its weight, with increasing altitude. If you reduce the power, coordinating a
setting to cause a zero climb angle, it will allow the aircraft to level and fly at that same
constant indicated-airspeed, and now a constant altitude.
You find there is a certain power setting that sustains this constant altitude,
constant indicated-airspeed, and wings level attitude. This is the sustaining power for this
elevator trimmed indicated-airspeed. Every different indicated-airspeed requires its own
sustaining thrust force.
A sustaining thrust force is the thrust required to maintain the constant status for
the indicated-airspeed you have chosen to fly. The thrust is equal to the drag. There is
no slowing or increasing of indicated-airspeed. With coordinated thrust at the required
indicated-airspeed sustaining-thrust force, the altitude will be constant so the total vertical
components of lift equal the mass weight.

Excess-thrust
The thrust is continually overcoming the encountering air pressures caused by displacing
the aircraft’s volume of the airmass. That consists of the retarding displacement and
frictional drag forces involved. The weight and loading are essentially constant, so the
power for sustained, steady state condition is essentially constant.
What happens now? You probably will find it is necessary to maneuver to different
directions, altitudes, and indicated-airspeeds.
When operating at any indicated-airspeed, to maneuver without descent, you have
to add additional power. That is, you will need excess power above the sustaining power
of that indicated-airspeed. Increasing power will cause increased engine-lifting resulting
in climb. The original sustaining thrust continues to displace the airmass and
aerodynamically generate the lift of the aircraft weight. The excess thrust added causes
increased engine vertical lift, and overcomes increased horizontal drag force. You climb,
or if turning, relative to an angled reference plane of motion, the airplane behaves as if
you are climbing. Excess thrust at constant angle-of-attack causes climb or sustains
vertical lift in turns.

How do the Controls Work In-flight?

A strange thing happens when becoming airborne. The control of the aircraft changes
when in space.
On the ground, the throttle controls speed. The elevator and ailerons do nothing
while the rudder controls steer by mechanical connection to the nose wheel. This is
essentially similar to any ground-operated vehicle.
At takeoff, the flight controls become effective as acceleration attains sufficient
encountering airflow. Upon becoming airborne, the engine control changes. The throttle

46
controlling the engine power is now sustaining an indicated-airspeed and any excess
power is developing excess engine-lift. Throttle control of the engine is controlling lift!
The elevator-pitch now controls the angle-of-attack of airmass encounter for the
indicated-airspeed the aircraft will fly. Pulling or pushing the elevator control changes
angle-of-attack pitch, allowing change of indicated-airspeed
In-flight, the throttle is the control of altitude and elevates with lift. The elevator
position controls angle of attack for the indicated-airspeed the aircraft will fly.

Maneuvering with coordinated thrust

The reason you add power to maneuver is that, when level, at constant indicated-
airspeed, and constant altitude, the vertical components of lift forces exactly equal the
total load of the aircraft mass.
Maneuvering, in any way, changes the direction of the vertical component of the
aerodynamic lift. The lift, always being outward away from the top of the aircraft, if you
bank, or pitch the aircraft, it changes the direction of aerodynamic and engine-lift. That, in
turn, reduces the vertical component of all the lift forces while causing centripetal turning
force and climbing drag force.
The thrust required for sustaining indicated-airspeed does not change. The
aerodynamic lift does not change, just its direction. Therefore, with any maneuver, there
is a reduced vertical component of aerodynamic lift, opposing the constant vertical force
of gravity. Added thrust is required to cause an increased outward lift component of
engine thrust. With no change of indicated-airspeed, the aerodynamic lifting is constant.
When maneuvering in turning flight, you are causing increased aerodynamic
loading on the aircraft. The mass is constant, but with turning level flight, there are
centrifugal forces that resist the change of attitude. These forces add sustained load to
the structure during the maneuver.
In a level or climbing turn there is a horizontal component of the lift, the centrifugal
force, opposing turn. Added engine thrust to create centripetal force for making the turn
is required. This centripetal force, carried by the structure, is “g” loading.
If a thrust increase is coordinated with a bank angle there can be a level turn or a
climbing turn. If adding thrust without a turn, there will be climb. If making a turn without
added thrust, there is descent.
Well then, when maneuvering, if you want to stay level in your turn, what do you
need to do?
Pretty obvious, isn’t it?
You need to add to the engine thrust outward component of lift to maintain a
constant total vertical force. This added lift must also carry the increased “g” load on the
airplane.
All these effects require power coordination throughout any maneuver.
Remember, any constant indicated-airspeed maneuver other than descending requires
additional engine thrust.

47
Elevator Control in Turns
In usual flight, control by pulling the control wheel during a turn is often considered
normal. Most texts call for initiating a turn by simultaneously turning the aileron control
and pulling the control wheel. This procedure works to make a turn but will always cause
decreased indicated-airspeed.
Deceleration at higher indicated-airspeeds often is not a problem and is a common
control input when making shallow turns. However, at slow maneuvering indicated-
airspeeds, most usual at low altitudes, pulling the control wheel during turns can quickly
approach stall indicated-airspeed. This technique for slower indicated-airspeed
maneuvering is not practical and often unsafe.
Any slow indicated-airspeed maneuvering at low altitudes that requires pulling the
control wheel is probably a maneuver the aircraft cannot make. The increased “g” loading
created by increased pitch in level turning also increases the stall indicated-airspeed. It
takes very little maneuvering to increase stalling indicated-airspeeds into the range of
normal wings level slow indicated-airspeed operation. Just use power to make turns.

Why do you have to do that?

An additional effect of turning flight is “g” loading. There is a horizontal component force
causing turn, sustained with added power. It becomes a situation of both, maintaining a
constant vertical component of lift and added centripetal loading. An example: a 30
degree banked level turn causes a 1.15 “g” load on the aircraft structure. 45 degrees of
bank is 1.4 “g” and 60 degrees of bank is 2.0 “g”!
The level turning maneuver increases the effective structural gross weight of the
aircraft. For level or climbing flight, only added power can carry this load. Most small
aircraft do not have enough power to sustain a level 60-degree banked turn.
Turning flight without excess power applied will result in descent with gravity force
sustaining the indicated-airspeed. There would be descending flight with no increased “g”
loading if no added power or aft elevator control were applied.
Climbing and turning flight causes the aircraft lift forces to be directed slightly aft
causing an increased drag component of the lift force. A climb or turn requires excess
power for maintaining constant vertical lift and countering increased drag.

How to do that?
What would happen if you pull the elevator-pitch control to make a turn? A common
reaction to entering a turn, if power increase is not being coordinated, is to pull the
elevator control. Well, we know that increases the angle-of-attack allowing the aircraft to
slow. At a slower indicated-airspeed, it requires less airmass encountering pressure to
maintain lift, so we will be exchanging momentum for some lift…until we run out of
sufficient indicated-airspeed or increase the angle-of-attack to the extent we stall.
Slowing or stalling is not a desired outcome when making level constant indicated-
airspeed turns at any time.

48
 If you want constant indicated-airspeed, constant altitude turns, simply add
coordinated power.
As you roll the aircraft into a turn, you coordinate by adding enough power to keep
the vertical component of lift constant. Pretty simple isn’t it.
That coordinated power thing applies to all constant indicated-airspeed aircraft
maneuvering. Anytime you even wiggle away from the coordinated steady state level
flight, it affects the vertical lift component. There must be a coordinated power change to
keep the constant vertical lift of the aircraft mass.
Remember, a maneuver of any kind, from wings level, constant altitude, and
steady-state flight, will reduce the vertical component of aerodynamic lift and any banked
attitude, level or climb, will create centrifugal force.
What you know now is, coordinated engine thrust and the aerodynamic form at an
indicated-airspeed creates lift to sustain the aircraft weight. These are constant at a
constant indicated-airspeed.
Maneuvering at this same indicated-airspeed requires added power from the
engine or gravity to cause any needed constant vertical lift or turning force as the
aerodynamic lift is constant.
It is excess power that provides the climb-pitched lift for maintaining or increasing
altitude with any maneuvering. Remember, maneuvering from wings level is the same as
climbing or descending…just on a different reference plane. The aircraft doesn’t know.

Gravity power effects

Both, Engine and Gravity power cause lift. If you did not add power when maneuvering,
what would happen?
You would descend, wouldn’t you?
Why is that?
Well, gravity is always out there, and it is a substantial force, directed vertically
down. If your vertical lift opposing gravity is not equal to the weight of the machine, then
gravity will maintain the necessary sustaining force for that indicated-airspeed and you
are going to descend…every time.
The coordinating power sources for maneuvering come from the engine and
gravity. If there is not enough power available from the engine, gravity power coordinates
the sustaining force, but always with descent.
Gravity power will always balance the engine power to the sustaining indicated-
airspeed for the current aircraft angle-of-attack and always by burning altitude with
descent.
For this reason, there is restricted maneuvering of most aircraft because of their
having limited engine power.
You can maneuver the aircraft into any attitude, but can only attain or sustain that
attitude if there is sufficient power.

49
 An attitude that engine power alone cannot sustain will result in descent from
gravity power, causing the aircraft to continue to fly, but at some different attitude and
altitude.
You can do nothing. If unable to sustain the airplane indicated-airspeed because
of engine power limitations, gravity does it for you, and always with descent.
It requires care when utilizing the gravity force directed downward. The
acceleration force of gravity is very large.
The equivalent vertical thrust of gravity is equal to the weight of the aircraft. The
normal maximum rated engine thrust of your aircraft is probably little more than one-fourth
the aircraft weight. Gravity is very strong.
If you insist on manually forcing control into an attitude the machine does not have
the power to sustain, it will decelerate into a stall and then still descend, uncontrolled!
In all cases, you will descend. Just be sure there is altitude below.

Summary
• It is all energy. Chemical energy is the potential energy processed within an
engine for thrust to make kinetic energy of motion, and kinetic energy of motion
through the airfoils causing lift, transforms to gravity potential energy, which, in
turn, descent consumes until landing. It is all energy management.
• Becoming airborne, you are in three-dimensional space. At the instant of
becoming airborne, some things change; acceleration on the ground becomes
climb in the air. Motion can now be in three dimensions.
• Flight requires sufficient thrust for sustenance. Flight requires excess engine
thrust for maneuvering without descent.
• Increased lift comes from the outward component of increased engine thrust.
• Engine Power is lift.
• All maneuvering requires coordination of power.
• If you maneuver the aircraft to do something it does not have the engine power
to sustain, gravity will add its power, with descent. If you force the airplane with
elevator control, attempting to do something it does not have the power to
sustain…you stall.

50
51
52
 Chapter 4---------------ATTITUDE

The attitude orientation of your aircraft results from the input of the flight controls, power,
and elevator-pitch trimmed angle-of-attack. In all cases, attitude results by maneuvering
with control.
This chapter introduces and discusses the different aspects of attitude and attitude
maneuvering.

 Attitude
 Operation in Space
 What are Attitudes?
 Attitude Control
 Pitch
 Elevator-Pitch
 Climb-Pitch
 Climb/Descent
 Pitch Attitude
 Elevator Effect on Pitch
 Maneuvering for Attitude Change
 Summary

53
54
Attitude
Attitude is orientation in space. Flight controls maneuver attitude change, but require
coordinated power input to attain and maintain change.
The flight attitude control devices used to orientate the aircraft, are the Ailerons,
Rudder and Elevator. These devices cause aerodynamic forces to direct attitude change.
Change of engine power or gravity power cause the attitude change or set constant
attitude for continuous operation in some desired attitude (such as straight and level
cruise attitude).
Input to the attitude controls causes the airplane to change its orientation relative
to the earth. The ailerons cause attitude bank/roll around the longitudinal axis. Rudder
causes yaw/steering/directional rotation of the attitude around the vertical axis. Power
and/or elevator cause pitch (up/to and down/away) around the lateral/transverse axis,
steering the thrust to or away.
A pilot should carefully consider airplane attitude. The pilot always sits in the
airplane and the controls function relative to him. When the pilot makes a flight control
input, placing the airplane into an attitude, returning the control to its neutral position
stops the input, and the airplane remains in the newly selected attitude…if there is
sufficient coordinated power.

Operation in Space
The flight control devices attached to the aircraft surfaces control spatial orientation.
These devices enable directional change in the three dimensions of space within which
you operate. The input to the controls directs the changes in orientation while lift, gravity,
and elevator-pitch angle dictate the resulting changed attitude and indicated-airspeed.
The three dimensions of space are not the same as the axes of rotation of your
aircraft. These dimensions, related to the surface of the earth, are level, vertical and
directional.
You must understand how the controls work and changes expected from input to
the controls as affected by the lift of the wings and engine (toward the top of the aircraft)
and gravity (vertically negative toward the surface). The lift force and the gravity force are
seldom orientated directly opposite each other.
Manipulation of power and the flight controls maintains the balance of your aircraft.
Control trim devices aid in setting constant settings of the control surfaces for ease in
continuous operation.

What are Attitudes?

Your airplane attitude is its position relative to the surface of the earth. The attitude
orientation can be straight and level (wings level, constant direction and altitude), straight
with nose up or down for an angle of climb or descent, rolled left or right to any angle of
bank, or a combination of these including, straight up, down or inverted.

56
 Although attitude can be in any orientation in space, in most aircraft your normal
flight maneuvering is within 20 degrees nose up or down with reference to the horizon,
and seldom more than 45-50 degrees angle of bank/roll.
As the pilot, you must be aware that airplane orientation matters because of the
continuous, large, gravitational force effect, and usual limited engine power available.

Attitude Axes
Maneuvering is a function of controlling your aircraft about the three axes of aircraft
rotation, longitudinal, lateral (transverse), and vertical.
You control pitch attitude for orientation of the airplane's longitudinal axis, by
rotation about the lateral axis. That means the nose angled upwards, level to, or angled
downwards relative to the surface.
Aileron input turns with banking/rolling the airplane left or right to a degree of angle
necessary. Roll is rotation around the longitudinal axis.
The rudder provides side motion of the fuselage nose and tail rotating around the
vertical axis from rudder input. This is yaw of the engine sideways steering the direction
of the thrust and allows coordination of any opposing gyroscopic turning forces from the
engine or propeller, and turning induced aerodynamic drag.

Dimensional Axes
The dimensional axes of attitude describe the orientation of your aircraft as related to the
earth. These axes describe your aircraft position and attitude relative to the earth.
Pitch is the angle between the horizon and the longitudinal axis. Roll is the angle
of bank as referenced to the horizon. Direction is the compass-heading angle as
referenced to the earth from North.
The close relationship of normal aircraft attitude relative to the earth has caused
many pilots to consider aircraft attitude axes and dimensional axes the same.

Pitch
We consider the term pitch in two ways.
1. Pitch refers to inputting a pitch control to cause to or away attitude change
relative to you in the cockpit. This refers to controlling the “to” and “away”
movement of the nose of your aircraft. As the pilot, you pitch the aircraft nose
to or away with engine-lift from power change or movement of elevator control,
both causing attitude change.
2. Pitch or pitch attitude can refer to the position of your aircraft nose. This is
pitch angle. Pitch angle is a definition related to a profile attitude angle
between the horizon and the aircraft longitudinal axis. Because of power
limitations, in most aircraft, the pitched attitude will seldom exceed 15-20
degrees nose up or down. However, in aircraft with sufficient power it is

57
 possible to have flight pitched to any given angle from level to vertically up,
down or inverted.
Your aircraft always has some pitched attitude for enabling lift generation.
Pitch occurs in two ways, elevator or horizontal stabilizer position and engine
thrust.
1. The elevator-pitch control causes pitch by aerodynamic tail loading and rotation
around the lateral axis, maintaining inflight attitude and balance for a specific
angle of attack indicated-airspeed.
2. A component of thrust from engine positive angular attitude causes a lift
component outward from the top of the engine mounting.
The resulting elevator-pitch angle plus the outward component of sustaining
engine thrust together set the angle-of-attack for an indicated-airspeed.

Engine-Pitch!
The aircraft is always encountering the airmass at a slight upward angle from the direction
of motion (relative wind). This angle causes a small outward component of lift from the
engine thrust.
The outward component of lift from sustaining engine thrust contributes to the
angle-of-attack when level or climbing while added or excess engine thrust causes
increased upward lift for a climb angle.

Elevator-Pitch!
You use the elevator control wheel, forward and aft movement, to adjust elevator-pitch.
Elevator-pitch adjustment is rotation of the fuselage around the lateral axis. Elevator or
horizontal stabilizer trimming systems set a desired elevator-pitch to a neutral control
position for ease of pilot input.
Elevator-pitch sets angle-of-attack. In level flight, the climb angle is zero, so the
body-angle set with elevator-pitch and the small outward lift component of engine
sustaining thrust cause the total aircraft pitch angle, the angle-of-attack.

Climb-Pitch!
Excess thrust adds to the outward engine-pitched lift component, resulting in climb. This
will cause nose up pitching of your aircraft with a changed direction of motion (relative
wind). The angled elevator-pitch indicated-airspeed remains constant as previously
balanced with the sustaining engine-lift.
Climb-pitch causes a change in the direction of motion. A climb is movement up
away from level flight with continued constant horizontal travel, but increasing altitude.
The resulting total aircraft pitch angle from the surface will be the excess powered
climb angle plus the body angle (angle-of-attack) of combined elevator-pitch and
sustaining engine-pitch.

58
 The total aircraft pitch angle is from the horizon to the longitudinal axis, the climb-
angle, plus the body-angle.

Vy CLIMB from EXCESS THRUST

Angle of Attack: 6°, Angle of Climb: +6°,
Direction of Motion (Relative Wind): +6°

Direction of Motion

+6° Angle of Attack from Elevator & Engine Pitch

+6° Climb Angle from Excess Thrust

Level
HORIZON

Climb Angle (6°) plus Angle of Attack (6°) = Pitch Angle (12°)

Fig. 4-1

Climb
You are flying along in a stabilized, wings level condition. What happens when you add
power?
The aircraft, in level flight, has a small upward angle of encounter with the
oncoming free stream air (wind of motion, relative wind). This maintains the small
outward component of force from the engine thrust that is a portion of the elevator-pitch
trimmed angle-of-attack.
Increasing your engine power causes increase of the engine powered outward
component of thrust. The forward component of thrust (sustaining thrust) remains the
same but changes to a new direction, a small angle up from the earth. Instead of
accelerating, the aircraft maintains its current indicated-airspeed with increasing altitude.
In this condition, there is the sustaining power for the indicated-airspeed pressure,
the constant elevator set frontal-plate area displacing the mass-of-the-air, and excess
engine power with its increased angle of motion from the increased outward component
of engine thrust, so increases altitude, climb.
The excess thrust also offsets increased drag from the aerodynamic lift caused by
the changed direction of total lift from increased pitch angle. The increased altitude of

59
climb results in conversion of chemical energy through the engine to increased storage of
the potential energy of gravity. The indicated-airspeed of motion (kinetic energy) has
been constant.
So what do you have?
You have climb occurring at some angle and at a continued set elevator-pitched
indicated-airspeed.
— SUSTAINED CLIMBING FLIGHT—
Engine-Lift from nose-up attitude

Lift Component from

Sustaining Engine Power
Direction
of Thrust
Vertical Thrust
Direction
of Motion

Horizontal
Component
of Thrust

H O R I Z O N

Effective Center
The Angle of Attack is combined elevator-pitch plus engine- of Gravity
pitch as set with elevator control and coordinated with
sustaining thrust for level flight.
The Climb Angle is added engine-pitch from excess thrust
Mass Weight

Fig. 4-2

O.K., so what? I have to wonder myself. Let’s just say it is a little reference for
understanding the vernacular. It is also a real big help as an explanation of control
response. Now you know, if increasing power from sustained level hands-off flight, the
aircraft will pitch up and climb, or if coordinated when turned at some angle of bank,
remain level at the same indicated-airspeed.

Descent
You are flying along in a stabilized, wings level condition. What happens when you
reduce power?
The aircraft, in level flight, has its small outward angle of encounter with the
oncoming free-stream air (wind of motion, relative wind). This, we have determined,
involves the small outward lift component of force from the engine thrust.
A decrease of thrust reduces that outward component of engine thrust force that
was contributing to the elevator set angle-of-attack. The effect is a decrease of the
aircraft angle-of-attack pitch.
60
 At the same time, reducing engine thrust below the sustaining thrust causes a
horizontal component of gravity force adding to maintain the sustaining thrust. This then
results in decreased effective elevator-pitch angle of aircraft attitude.
There is now a negative climb angle (descent) and some acceleration from the
small reduction of angle-of-attack lift of the reduced sustaining power.
The aircraft descends. The use of gravity always requires burning of altitude. The
indicated-airspeed of descent will be at a reduced engine-lift and associated elevator-
pitched angle-of-attack. If no increased elevator-pitch is applied, the indicated-airspeed
will rapidly increase to some slightly higher indicated-airspeed. This situation requires
coordination of elevator-pitch trimming to establish a specific descending indicated-
airspeed or rate of descent since the engine is now providing a reduced, or if at idle
almost no, pitch control.
Gravity thrust is acting vertically downward from the center of mass. Gravity thrust
causes gliding. With reduced or partial thrust, there is partial gliding. With total loss of
power, the aircraft is a glider with no throttle control since the engine is no longer
available. Elevator-pitch controls the indicated-airspeed and is the only method of gravity
thrust control.

—Sustained Constant Indicated-Airspeed

Engine-out Gliding Flight—

1620# Aerodynamic LIFT

160# Horizontal Thrust

from Gravity
1600# Drag

20# Negative Aerodynamic Load

Gravity Force
Aircraft 1600# Mass Weight
Thrust equals Drag ––Lift equals Load
The depicted vectors are not proportioned relative to actual aerodynamic forces involved.
(Approximately one lb. thrust will generate ten lbs. of lift, i.e. approximately 160 lbs. of thrust
sustains a 1,600 lb. aircraft @ Vy airspeed). (sine 6 = .1), (Mass loaded ahead of Aerodynamic
Center of Lift).
Figure 4-3

61
Pitch Attitude
Pitching means moving the nose up toward or down away from you, the pilot. There are
the three ways pitch changes occur. Adjustment of elevator-pitch control, engine powered
outward component of thrust, or changed airflow over the horizontal stabilizer and
elevator.
Pulling or pushing the control wheel changes the elevator-pitched angle-of-attack
attitude, allowing a related indicated-airspeed change. The control wheel moves the
elevator to generate changed aerodynamic lift forces on the tail of the aircraft, causing
aircraft rotation around the lateral axis. This result is a new effective center of gravity,
change of aircraft pitched attitude, and changed frontal area.
Excess thrust increases the outward engine-lift force causing climb-pitch with
increase of altitude. This excess engine power causes climb-pitch while maintaining the
initial engine powered and elevator-pitched angle-of-attack indicated-airspeed.
Decreased thrust causes decreased pitch from reduction of the engine outward lift
force. Thrust below sustaining thrust allows descent with some reduced elevator-pitch
effect.
The structural location of the horizontal stabilizer of your aircraft can allow change
of propeller blasting air to cause some loading change across the horizontal stabilizer and
elevator. Airflow downwash across the wings may also affect elevator-pitch a small
amount in the same way. These effects vary by type of aircraft according to the designed
structural placement of the horizontal stabilizer.

Maneuvering for Attitude Change

Beginning the discussion from a stabilized level flight with constant cruising Vy indicated-
airspeed, and wings level, you have the indicated-airspeed set with elevator-pitch trim
and power coordinated to sustain this altitude. This is hands-off flight. Your aircraft is
flying by itself.
In the stabilized hands-off level flight, your aircraft has its set upward angle-of-
attack of the fuselage and wings that has established this constant cruise indicated-
airspeed. You have coordinated the engine power to cause and sustain a constant
altitude.
A typical side profile of your aircraft nose up attitude in level cruise flight at this
indicated-airspeed will be a pitch attitude of six to eight degrees. This means, if your
angle-of-incidence were three degrees, there is an associated elevator-pitched body
angle of three to five degrees.
At this time, your aircraft has zero climb angle and three to five degrees nose up
body angle. The relative wind is opposite the direction of movement, so is also level with
the horizon.

62
 Maneuvering is any change of attitude controlling away from this engine powered,
sustained, wings level, constant indicated-airspeed, and constant altitude flight. Input of
flight controls, power, or elevator trim will result in maneuvering into a new attitude.
Normal flight maneuvering consists of climb, descent, turns, and combinations of
these attitudes. A changed elevator-pitch attitude allows acceleration or deceleration for
change of indicated-airspeed.

Maneuvering with Excess and Decreased Thrust

Excess thrust causes climb. Excess thrust is that thrust above that power setting
coordinated to sustain the constant altitude and indicated-airspeed flight.
Maneuvering from a wings level attitude changes the direction of the aircraft
aerodynamic lift, so there becomes a reduced component of aerodynamic vertical lift,
requiring added engine power for lift coordination, to maintain level or climb. Excess
thrust is required or gravity power will cause descending attitudes.
Decreased thrust causes descent. The aircraft maintains its indicated-airspeed
when maneuvering in descent only if there is elevator-pitch input to not allow acceleration
from loss of the engine-lift of sustaining thrust.
In all cases of maneuvering, there will be a requirement for coordination of engine
power and gravity power to attain and maintain any attitude.
Engines mounted vertically away from the longitudinal axis have thrust acting parallel to
the axis and will cause additional lift pitching by torque effect with power change. Torque
is force acting on a moment arm (lever) causing rotation. This can result in the same
outward lifting effect as centerline thrust mounted engines.
Engines mounted on the tail, behind the center of gravity, will have their vertical
component of thrust acting on the tail with nose down pitch. A pilot must be aware of how
the control inputs can occur based on his specific aircraft airfoil and engine placement
design.

Maneuvering from Vy Indicated-Airspeed

Vy is an optimum indicated-airspeed for flight. Any change of indicated-airspeed
from optimum, whether and increase or decrease, will require some increased thrust from
the engine or gravity change of altitude.

Thrust Placement Effects

Engine placement determines the specific effect of power change to the outward
component of thrust. Engine outward lift when mounted forward of the center of gravity
will rotate the aircraft nose up. When mounted aft of the center of gravity, engine vertical
lift will rotate the nose down.

63
 ENGINE MOUNTING THRUST EFFECT

Level Flight: Horizontal Movement into the Free Airstream (Relative Wind)
Attitude: 6 degrees nose up Indicated-Airspeed: Vy

Effective Center of Gravity

Engine mounted forward of Center of Gravity will rotate nose up with

increased vertical component of thrust. Engine mounted aft of Center of
Gravity will rotate nose down with increased vertical component of thrust.

Fig. 4-4

Descending Flight Maneuvering

Our study of aircraft control has led to the understanding of each control function in
flight. This discussion has involved the relationship of control in steady-state flight.
We must also consider the normal dynamics of maneuvering flight, especially the
use of controls in maneuvering during descending flight.
Usual indicated-airspeed control is a setting of angle of attack with elevator-pitch
trim. When maneuvering in level or climbing flight, any related power changes above the
sustaining thrust will merely lift the nose for climb angle control in turns and climb.
Power change below level flight sustaining thrust will affect the angle of attack to
the extent the reduced engine thrust contributes to the elevator trimmed setting for that
indicated-airspeed.
Engine-lift contributes to the angle of attack pitch to the extent of attaining level
flight sustaining thrust setting. Thereafter, additional engine-lift contributes to climb angle.
Reduced or idle power (partial gliding) or engine-out (gliding) flight requires setting
the angle of attack with manual elevator-pitch control or elevator-pitch trim (the controller
of gravity thrust) to maintain a desired indicated-airspeed.
Flight control below level flight, descending flight, with engine power changes
requires associated adjustment of elevator-pitch to maintain constant angle of attack

64
indicated-airspeed. For this reason, a stabilized approach, allowing minimum thrust
change throughout, reduces the required changing of elevator-pitch when attempting
constant indicated-airspeed approach to landing.
Knowledge of the relationship of engine-power lifting and elevator-pitch control
when below sustaining thrust allows anticipation of attitude change with changing engine
thrust. It is easy to see increased engine power will allow some indicated-airspeed
decrease with the increased angle of attack from engine-lift. Similarly, reduced thrust
decreases the engine-lift portion of angle of attack, allowing some increased indicated-
airspeed.
This relationship of changing angle of attack with power change is the explanation
of many Pilots considering power controls indicated-airspeed. In reality, engine power
changes below sustaining thrust do not control the indicated-airspeed, but allow change
of indicated-airspeed. As always, power causes the change, and in the case of descent,
the power is gravity, now caused by the gravity controller, the elevator-pitch, descent for
acceleration and zoom climb for deceleration.

Maneuvering with Gravity

The flight controls are the only control of gravity thrust. You have no throttle for gravity,
only aircraft attitude. Maneuvering with flight control input to attitudes that reduce the
vertical component of gravity thrust is the only way to throttle back gravity acceleration.
The set elevator-pitch in normal flight attempts maintaining a constant indicated-
airspeed, but with any low-pitched attitude, the acceleration from gravitational thrust could
be more rapid than the response of a set control, resulting in the need for temporary drag
increase with manual aft elevator control input.
With a large descent angle, it is often necessary to use some manual aft elevator-
pitch control to cause increased pitch for more rapid attitude change and related
deceleration. This can result in increased structural load factor (“g” loading), and requires
careful input. The sight picture across the windshield in this extreme example might show
mostly surface and little sky.
Manual elevator-pitch nose down input can initiate descent. You must exercise
caution with manual down elevator-pitch for descent. The indicated-airspeed will rapidly
increase with any elevator-pitch nose down input. Decreased elevator-pitch can cause
rapid acceleration from the large gravity thrust force.
An example; A 1,600 pound aircraft with a 12 degree descent angle will have a
horizontal thrust component from gravity of 320 pounds (sine 12 degrees =.2). That is
almost the equivalent of full engine power. Acceleration can be very rapid even in
shallow descents.
The amount that the indicated-airspeed increases by holding down elevator-pitch
and the resultant reduced pitch could cause approaching or exceeding the never-exceed
speed (Vne) to the extent structural damage might occur.

65
 The combined effect of manual aft elevator control and high indicated-airspeed can
generate large downward loads (g-forces) that could stress the structure. It requires
awareness to avoid excessive descent attitude and careful control input with large angles
of descent.

Summary:
 Attitude is orientation in space.
 Flight controls cause change of orientation.
 Orientation is rotation around the space axes.
 Engine power maintains altitude.
 All lift is outward from the top of the aircraft structure.
 Gravity force; directed vertically downward toward the center of the earth.
 Pitch (verb) input describes the resulting action of elevator-pitch control input
causing rotation around the center of gravity or from power changes causing climb-
pitch or descent-pitch. This needs careful consideration to determine the result of
any pitch input.
 Pitch (noun) describes the angle between the horizon and aircraft longitudinal axis
(body-angle).
 Elevator-pitch input causes an aerodynamic loading change on the horizontal
stabilizer and elevator causing rotation around the center of gravity for changing
the elevator-pitched angle-of-attack and a related indicated-airspeed.
 Climb-pitch is a change that does not affect the horizontal stabilizer and elevator-
pitch but causes a climb angle from increasing the vertical component of lift with
engine power. Climb changes direction of motion, which is changed direction of
the relative-wind.
 Engine powered pitch change can be any additional angle by climb or descent that
the aircraft power can attain, including straight up. The indicated-airspeed as set
with elevator-pitched angle-of-attack always relates to the encountering relative-
wind, no matter the direction of motion.
 Blasting airflow is the accelerated mass of air caused by the propeller or jet engine
when generating thrust. Depending on the structural placement, changes of
blasting airflow can affect the elevator loading on many aircraft.
 Wing downwash is airflow across the top of the wing deflected by airflow
displacement over the wing, and depending on its design placement, can affect the
horizontal stabilizer loading.
 Torque is the result of force acting on a moment arm (lever) causing rotation.
 Engine placement vertically away from the longitudinal axis can cause pitching by
torque effect of power change.
 Thrust Line is a line parallel with the longitudinal axis of the engine and at which its
thrust is acting.

66
 Maneuvering is adjustment and control of aircraft attitude.
 Control of gravity thrust is with the flight controls.
 Reduced angles of attack from elevator-pitch during descent require careful
handling to avoid structural over-speed or “g” loading over-stress of the aircraft.

67
68
 Chapter 5------------ATMOSPHERE

Your aircraft operates within the earth’s atmosphere. This is an environment of air
with varied volumes of mass affecting the performance of the aircraft’s engine.
This chapter discusses the factors related to flight within the earth’s atmosphere
and the effects involved with flight at higher altitudes with low-density air.

• Atmosphere
• Atmospheric Pressure
• Density and Atmosphere
• Flight and the Atmosphere
• Air Density and Your Aircraft
• Air Density and Your Engine
• Engine Power
• Engine Fuel/Air-induction
• Small Aircraft Thrust Performance
• Summary

69
70
Atmosphere
The earth’s atmospheric system is an enormous mass of gas that covers all the
earth’s surface. The atmosphere of gas is air. Air contains a mixture of approximately
78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen plus minor quantities of other elements.
We cannot see the gas, air, but though not seen, air has mass, and therefore,
weight. The gravitational attraction by the earth, which causes weight, compresses the
mass-of-the-air upon itself toward the earth’s surface. Compressed upon itself, the air is
most dense at the surface and becomes gradually less dense as altitude increases.

Flight and the Atmosphere

The mass-of-the-air allows flight. Once your airplane leaves the ground it is in space
flight. While still relatively close to the earth, there is the force of gravity and the earth’s
atmosphere that continue to affect the behavior of the machine. In reality, airplanes never
go far enough away from the earth to rid themselves of the effects of gravitational forces
or the earth’s atmosphere of air.
Use of the atmosphere allows airplanes to fly with much less power than otherwise
would be required. Without the mass-of-the-air in the atmosphere, all flight would require
enough power to fly straight up and sustain that power to remain airborne. Movement in
an atmosphere of air within which to “float” requires much less power than would
otherwise be required.
It takes approximately a 10:1 ratio of weight to thrust to sustain most small aircraft
in flight. A 1,600-pound aircraft requires approximately 160 pounds of thrust to sustain
level flight at an optimum, constant indicated-airspeed, the most efficient indicated-
airspeed for conditions at a given time. However, this always requires sustained velocity
within the airmass.
Without the mass-of-the-air within which to float, it would take continuous 1,600
pounds of vertical thrust to sustain flight of this aircraft.

Air Density and Your Aircraft

Air has mass, therefore, your aircraft floats or rides on and within a cushion of air that it
must continually displace to produce necessary lift from reaction of this motion to the
airmass.
The response of an aircraft in flight is similar to the behavior of a boat floating on
water. Major differences are, when airborne, your aircraft operates in three dimensions,
and it is operating within the air, not on top of the mass-of-the-air as a boat on the water.
It also requires constant and continuous motion sufficient to cause its required lift.
This operation requires the constant displacement of your aircraft’s total volume,
while maintaining a velocity that causes reactive vertical component lift pressures to
sustain your flight.

71
 Your aircraft flies by reaction to the outward component forces from the top of the
fuselage and wings. This is from the encountering displacement pressure caused by
velocity of motion through the airmass.
The denser air at lower altitudes requires less velocity to encounter and displace a
sufficient mass-of-the-air. As altitude increases, the velocity of the aircraft, within an
airmass, must increase to sustain the required indicated-airspeed pressure of
encountered mass-of-the-air. We call the velocity relative the surface within an airmass
true-airspeed.
When airborne, your airplane is operating suspended within the airmass and does
not know there is a real wind blowing. It flies at the set elevator-pitched indicated-
airspeed. The airplane does not know temperature, wind, density altitude, or attitude. As
long as the indicated-airspeed pressure is at or above its minimum required flight
indicated-airspeed it continues to fly.
If your airplane flies at a particular indicated-airspeed pressure, it will fly at that
indicated-airspeed any time achieving it, no matter the temperature, air density, or
altitude.
If your aircraft does not have the engine power to maintain a minimum indicated-
airspeed, it will continue to fly, but with descent at the elevator-pitch trimmed indicated-
airspeed, using supplemental power from gravity to provide the sustaining thrust, until the
engine power available is capable of level flight…or contact with the earth’s surface.
The fact remains; for a pilot, understand airplanes know nothing! Their
performance relates directly to the engine power available and the encountering mass-of-
the-air displacement pressures sustaining the indicated-airspeed.

Air Density and the Engine

Air density results from atmospheric air pressure, temperature, and humidity. It has no
effect on the elevator-pitched indicated-airspeed; however, it affects the power available
from the engine dramatically.
Your engine provides power based on the availability of oxygen to burn fuel. High
temperatures, humidity, and altitude reduce the mass-of-the-air by volume. A unit volume
of air, in low-density air, has reduced quantities of elemental mass of the nitrogen and
oxygen.
The fuel/air-induction system of your engine has fixed size routing and can only
intake a certain volume of air. In low air density conditions, with the reduced oxygen by
unit volume, the engine cannot intake sufficient oxygen for burning fuel to produce its
maximum rated power.
Increased altitude, with gradual reduced available oxygen, the engine can only
burn a reduced quantity of fuel. The result is a significant reduction of engine power
available in the low-density air.
As the available engine thrust gradually decreases when climbing to higher
altitudes, the climb rate gradually decreases. If continuing, at some maximum altitude,
72
the engine will only produce the sustaining-thrust for the set indicated-airspeed. The
aircraft will then be flying level at that same constant indicated-airspeed.

Engine Power!
Engine power is what sustains the aircraft. The engine power maintaining a constant
indicated-airspeed, constant altitude, wings level flight is providing a sustaining-thrust. At
any altitude or attitude, it requires a constant mass-of-the-air displacement and its
constant encountering mass-of-the-air pressure for the selected indicated-airspeed
condition. The drag and frictional forces involved remain essentially constant.

What has happened?

It is volume of air vs. mass-of-air!
The atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude increase. The mass-of-the-air,
by unit volume, decreases. That means there is less oxygen in each volume of air intake
to the engine. There is reduced available oxygen for burning of fuel. Therefore, the
engine cannot maintain rated power as altitude increases.
There is a linear reduction of atmospheric pressure as altitude increases, and for
this reason, engine power decreases on the same basis. Rating of engines is relative to
sea level standard conditions. The 160 horsepower rated engine can produce the 160
horsepower only at sea level on a standard day. All flight is above sea level.
As an example, if your engine, at full throttle, maximum rated sea level power,
produces 500 pounds of thrust, but will produce only the sustaining-thrust of 160 pounds
at slightly below 14,000 feet, this is a 340-pound reduction of possible thrust.
In this example, there is a 25-pound reduction of thrust for each 1,000 feet of
increased altitude. At 5,000 feet, you can expect to have 375 pounds of thrust available
but only 215 pounds of excess thrust for maneuvering. At 10,000 feet, you will have 250
pounds of thrust available but only 90 pounds of excess thrust for maneuvering. At just
under 14,000 feet, there will be only 160 pounds of thrust. Maneuvering at that altitude
will require descent to increase the density to attain maneuvering thrust.

Engine Fuel/Air-Induction
The conditions of atmospheric temperature and pressure affect the performance of
air-breathing engines and their power output. The decreased mass per unit volume of air
available at higher altitudes, and the humidity, or temperatures (reduced airmass density)
limits the engine power.
As altitude increases, into less dense air, the mass of oxygen in a volume of air for
burning fuel decreases. There is also decreased atmospheric pressure to inject the air
into the induction system, so it results in a continuous small reduction of engine power as
altitude increases.

73
 Your engine needs oxygen to burn fuel, but a fixed size induction system restricts
the mass-of-the-air available for burning when operating within reduced air density
conditions.
Reduced air density limits the mass (quantity) of oxygen in a unit volume, so
requires reduction of the fuel (leaning the mixture) to maintain optimum fuel-vapor/air
ratio, for proper burning.
Leaning with the mixture control reduces available fuel causing reduced power
output. The operation is as if slowly retarding the throttle throughout climb.

Small Aircraft Thrust Performance

On a standard day, at sea level, the engine of a typical 1,600-pound aircraft at idle power
will produce approximately 70 pounds of thrust and at full forward throttle a maximum
power of around 500 pounds of thrust.
Sustaining flight means having thrust enough to allow the passage of the aircraft
through the airmass at some constant velocity. In this example of a small aircraft, we
have said it takes 160 pounds of thrust to sustain constant altitude level flight at its
optimum Vy indicated-airspeed.
Passing through the airmass requires continual volumetric displacement by the
aircraft. The thrust required is dependent on the resultant induced drag of encountering
air pressure and frictional forces involved around the particular aircraft’s physical form. At
any constant indicated-airspeed, there is a required constant sustaining-thrust force.

The following climb chart indicates the thrust required for a simulated 1600 pound
aircraft Vy climb or maneuvering capability based on the thrust available at
different altitudes. The assumption used is 160 pounds of Volumetric Thrust is
required to sustain flight steady state altitude at Vy airspeed. The aircraft at Vy
will require that amount of thrust to maintain level flight plus additional thrust for
any attitude change such as climb or level turn. The climb attitudes at different
pitch angles with constant angle of attack for the Vy airspeed are shown.
Climb Wing A/C Excess Thrust Thrust Thrust Thrust Thrust
Pitch Pitch Total Climb required Available Available Available Available
Angle Angle Lift Lift (lbs.) Sea Level 5,000 Ft. 10,000 Ft. 12,000 Ft.
(lbs.) (lbs.) (lbs.) (lbs.) (lbs.) (lbs.)

0 3 1603 0 160 500 375 250 200

1 4 1605 2 195 500 375 250 200
2 5 1608 5 230 500 375 250
3 6 1611 8 265 500 375 250
4 7 1615 12 300 500 375
5 8 1620 17 335 500 375
6 9 1625 22 370 500 375
7 10 1630 27 405 500
8 11 1637 34 440 500
9 12 1645 42 475 500
Fig. 5-1

74
 It does not matter the attitude, altitude, or direction of flight. At all times, it requires
that specific sustaining-thrust force, for a particular constant indicated-airspeed condition
to displace the volume of the airmass and maintain the encountering air pressures for that
indicated-airspeed.
The same aircraft, with a more powerful engine, will continue climbing to some
higher altitude, at which it eventually will produce only the required minimum 160 pounds
of sustaining-thrust.
That will then be the ceiling for the aircraft with the more powerful engine. At that
higher altitude, the aircraft will maintain a level flight attitude at the same sustaining
indicated-airspeed until changing its conditions.
If this aircraft engine provided 160 or more pounds of thrust at thirty thousand feet,
it could continue climbing to that altitude. The thrust available to sustain the aircraft is the
limitation to flight altitudes.
Limitation to flight performance relates to the availability of thrust.

Summary
 The atmosphere is composed of a gas called air. Gravity force compresses the
mass-of-the-air upon itself over the surface.
 Standard barometric pressure is 29.92 inches of mercury.
 Atmospheric pressure, temperature, and humidity cause air density.
 Air temperatures and friction from the earth’s rotation creates individual huge
masses of air.
 Velocity within an airmass is true-airspeed.
 Riding within and on the mass-of-air allows flight with reduced power requirements.
 Your aircraft performs only with power and indicated-airspeed pressure.
 It is mass per unit volume of the air. Low altitude has high mass per unit volume
vs. high altitude with low mass per unit volume.
 Low altitude flight encounter of sufficient mass for lift occurs at a lower velocity
relative to the surface. Oxygen mass is sufficient for maintaining a higher-rated
power output.
 High altitude, encounter of sufficient mass for lift requires a greater velocity true-
airspeed. Oxygen mass for burning in the engine becomes insufficient,
substantially reducing possible power output.
 Reduced density of the atmosphere at higher altitudes reduces the mass-of-air per
unit volume. Reduced oxygen mass by volume at higher altitudes reduces the
quantity of fuel burned.
 The fixed size of the fuel induction system reduces engine power capability by the
fixed intake volume of airflow. The mass of oxygen, by unit volume available for
burning, decreases with decreased density of the air.

75
 Airplanes have altitude limits because of power. They don’t perform well with
reduced power, so there are maneuvering limits at higher altitudes. Don’t ever
forget that.
 There is very limited excess engine thrust available for maneuvering at higher
altitudes. Climb can become limited for takeoff. Very high altitude runways may
require initial airborne acceleration by maintaining ground effect flight.

76
77
78
 Chapter 6-------------VISUAL FLIGHT

Visual flight control involves sighting of distant objects and maneuvering for them
to be unmoving relative to a reference point on your aircraft.
Understanding how attitude relates to distant unmoving objects allows visual flight
control. The following considerations are for visual control of your aircraft.

 Visual Attitude Flight

 Visual Flight
 Attitude Axes
 Dimensional Axes
 “Directed Course” Visual Flight Control
 Vertical Attitude
 Normal Roll/Bank-Turns
 Visual Flight Attitudes
 Approach and Landing Attitudes
 Summary

79
80
Visual Flight
Visual flight is a method of controlling your airplane by maneuvering in relation to sighted
references, a “sight picture”. You direct the machine into a desired attitude based on
visual reference of the surface, horizon, and sky. It is necessary you, as the pilot,
understand the importance of what you are trying attain.
The relationship between your airplane's nose cowling or points on the windshield
and windows, as related to the surface and horizon, provide you primary visual reference.
Flight is with control. Power controls the rate of climb or descent. Ailerons control
the turning and rudder or pitch the steering. The horizontal stabilizer and elevator-pitch
control the pitch angled indicated-airspeed pressure from motion.
Changing of any one of these controlling elements adjusts the referenced sight
picture for attaining and/or maintaining a desired attitude required for a maneuver.
You can crosscheck the aircraft flight instruments to confirm the indicated-
airspeed, altitude, heading, or rate of climb/descent, information.

“Directed Course” Visual Flight Control

A directed course (collision course) is a referenced object, unmoving relative to your
sighting toward a point on the windshield or window. Any attitude attained, which
maintains a nonmoving reference to an object, results in a directed course (collision
course) to fly to that object.

Horizon maintained level

Point on Horizon for Steering and unmoving across the
x windshield
Horizon maintained at a
constant distance above the
glareshield

“DIRECTED COURSE” VISUAL REFERENCE FLIGHT

NORMAL CRUISE SPEED, LEVEL FLIGHT

Fig 6-1

81
 Pitch, roll, and yaw are the three components of control to your airplane's attitude.
These maneuver your aircraft attitude, to attain an unmoving visual picture of the surface
and horizon, relative to the windshield, and toward which you want to fly. This is a "sight
picture".
You can maintain or change the indicated-airspeed, altitude, and direction of flight
(heading) using the airplane flight and engine controls. The controls adjust your rate of
climb or descent, and rate of turn (bank angle). The controls adjust your aircraft to a
desired, inflight referenced, sight picture for attaining and/or maintaining an attitude
required for a maneuver.
It is essential you understand what is happening, when referencing your airplane
attitude to a fixed or unmoving picture, relative to the earth’s surface. It is flying a directed
course (collision course)!
The primary visual reference (sight picture), used in your airplane, is the
relationship between the airplane's nose-cowling and points on the windshield or
windows, to something on the ground or horizon.
The fixed line of the horizon, sighted unmoving across your windshield in level
flight, is a wings level collision course toward the horizon. The fixed point or object on the
horizon, referenced to the windshield for directional control, is a potential collision with
that distant reference.
A descent, toward a destination on the ground, is directing your airplane onto a
fixed or nonmoving referenced course (directed course) toward that location on the
surface.
When established on the final approach to a landing, The landing spot you have
chosen for touchdown becomes a directed course (collision course) to that area, or point,
on the runway,.
A sight picture on the windshield, created by maneuvering your aircraft so that
referenced point on the horizon or surface does not move, becomes a directed course.
You then coordinate the power and flight controls to maintain the unmoving picture,
causing your aircraft to fly directly toward that point.
In this publication, the term “Directed Course” refers to normal visual maneuvering
of flight courses and attitudes. The term “Collision Course” refers to a course relative to
another in-flight aircraft or object that could lead to an actual collision. An actual collision
course sighting then requires you maneuver to cause the other aircraft or object to
become moving relative to your aircraft.
Maneuvering attitudes are combinations of level, turning, climbing, and descending
flight. The associated sight pictures allow your confirmation of proper attitude for attaining
and sustaining these attitudes.

Vertical Attitude
Vertical Attitude is the angular relationship between your aircraft and the horizon. This
angular or pitched attitude is the sighted ratio of the visible sky to the ground in the view
82
ahead through the windshield. The ratio of the sky to the ground sighted in the windshield
will change if the pitch angle changes. It requires a new sight picture for any attitude
change.
In your typical small airplane, the ratio might be 1/3 ground and 2/3 sky with your
airplane in a wings level constant altitude cruise attitude. Maintaining a distant unmoving
point of reference (no movement relative to the windshield), results in desired direction of
travel.
Level flight indicated-airspeed deceleration, increases the vertical angle, causing
more sky to be visible. The ratio of ground to more sky occurs as the indicated-airspeed
slows.
Level flight acceleration, decreases the pitch attitude, causing less sky to be
visible. This changes the ratio to more ground and less sky and happens as indicated-
airspeed increases.
The same kinds of reference change will occur with climbs, descents, and turns. In
all cases, the sight picture will correspond to a current attitude of the airplane.
You maneuver into the attitude desired, and note the visual sight picture, relative to
the surface, and horizon. You then adjust the power, to maintain that sight picture,
unmoving, relative to a point on the windshield or cowling.
In any attitude, the rate of climb, or descent, will be dependent on the coordinated
power, at the elevator-pitched indicated-airspeed as set. You always note visual
reference as a ratio of ground and sky, by fixing the horizon as a line across the
windshield, or at an angle when banked for turning.
Maintaining a fixed sight picture of the horizon requires you coordinate power for
maintaining the attitude for a constant pitch angle in either wings level or turning flight.

Normal Roll/Bank-Turns
Roll or bank is an angle (tilt) to the left or right of your aircraft nose as referenced to the
horizon. You sight the angle of the horizon across the windshield. Your reference point
on the aircraft moves level along the horizon throughout a constant altitude level turn.
Normal bank angles range from zero to about 45 degrees. Larger angles of bank,
as much as 90 degrees, are common in aerobatics or air combat type flight. Changing
the banked attitude is a change of bank angle.
When you roll/bank into an attitude, there becomes a horizontal component of your
aircraft’s lift forces, creating a centripetal turning force. This is the component of the
aircraft lift causing your airplane to change heading, resulting in turn.
The horizontal lift is a component of the aircraft lift. When entering a rolled
attitude, there becomes an accompanying reduction of the vertical lift component, so to
maintain the required vertical lift component of the aircraft weight constant, you must
coordinate, by adding power, increasing the required total lift.

83
 “DIRECTED COURSE” VISUAL REFERENCE FLIGHT
22° STANDARD RATE LEVEL LEFT TURN

Horizon Tracking

Referenced
sighting spot on
windshield

Add power as necessary

to keep the reference spot
tracking the horizon

Fig. 6-2
The total load on your aircraft in a turn is the aircraft weight, any negative load of
elevator-pitch control, plus the added loading that causes the opposing horizontal
component, the centrifugal force. An example; a 45 degree banked turn requires 1.4
times the wings level load of an aircraft to maintain a level, on indicated-airspeed turning
flight. That is a significant increased lift requirement.
If there is no increase of vertical lift component to maintain your aircraft load, the
nose position, sighted relative to the horizon, starts down, and will result in the airplane
descending, as it tries to maintain the set elevator-pitch indicated-airspeed.
In order to make any level constant indicated-airspeed turning flight, you must
always add coordinated power. The referenced sight picture, moving level horizontally in
the turn, is with a controlled, constant, vertical component of lift from the increased
aircraft-turning load.
With an understanding of the cause of lift and indicated-airspeed, it soon becomes
apparent that, in turns, you do not need to pull on the control wheel. Just gradually add
coordinated power as you roll the aircraft into the turn and gradually retard that power as
you roll out level on a desired heading. Perfect level, constant indicated-airspeed turns
result.

84
Visual Flight Attitudes

Takeoff attitude
Your takeoff attitude is similar to a climb attitude with a sight picture of the nose cowling
being at or near the horizon. This will be a sight picture of the horizon being low and level
across the windshield. The actual position of the sight picture of the horizon low on the
windshield will vary depending on your selected indicated-airspeed and the climb angle
from excess power available.
You are also required to select a point or object on or toward the horizon for
directional control. With the excess power and fixed elevator-pitch trimmed indicated-
airspeed, your aircraft is attempting to maintain a constant climb, at that trimmed elevator-
pitch indicated-airspeed.
The aircraft is flying by design, you are directing.

Horizon low across the windshield

with climb angle at takeoff angle
of attack. Sighting to a selected
point for a “Directed Course”. HORIZON
x

“DIRECTED COURSE” VISUAL REFERENCE FLIGHT

TAKEOFF AND CLIMBING WINGS LEVEL FLIGHT

Fig. 6-3

Climb attitude
To initiate, and maintain a climb, you increase from the sustaining engine power by
adding excess power. The change in power may cause increased propeller blasting
airflow over the horizontal stabilizer and the elevator, resulting in a small, changed
elevator-pitch.

85
 Simultaneously, as power increases, there is an increase in engine powered
outward lift that causes climb. When you set power to make a normal climb (increase
altitude), at a constant indicated-airspeed, the nose attitude adjusts (increase of climb
pitch) itself showing the horizon sighted lower across the windshield.
For many light airplanes, the normal climb sight picture will appear to have the
nose on, or just slightly above the horizon. When you initiate a climb, an attitude change
will occur without horizontal stabilizer or elevator-pitch input, as your aircraft will attempt
to maintain its trimmed indicated-airspeed (elevator-pitched angle-of-attack), previously
set with the horizontal stabilizer or elevator-pitch trim.
The amount of pitch change for climb angle is dependent on the excess engine
power available. Climbing into the reduced density of the atmosphere gradually limits
available power, so throughout any climb, there is a gradual reduction of the climb angle
and the related sight picture ground/sky ratio will very slowly change.
In all cases of attitude change, you will reference the horizon to enable attaining a
sight picture for relating to the desired climb performance. With the application of excess
power, your aircraft, while at a constant elevator-pitch, seeks its own climb-pitch angle.

Cruise attitude
In cruise flight, your properly trimmed airplane maintains a constant indicated-airspeed
and altitude. The range of attitudes at different level flight indicated-airspeeds is relatively
small, usually being less than ten degrees, and often not apparent to a pilot. The sighted
horizon will be level across the windshield close to one-third to one-half up from the
bottom.

Fixed point for directed course Heading.

Fixed distance below horizon for Horizon higher across the windshield
constant attitude. x
Sighting for “Directed With lower angle of attack for high airspeed
Course”.

“DIRECTED COURSE” VISUAL REFERENCE FLIGHT

HIGH SPEED CRUISE, LEVEL FLIGHT

Fig. 6-4

86
Descent attitude
To make your airplane descend (decrease altitude), you will initiate a small power
reduction, which lowers the nose below that of the level cruise attitude. Normal descent
will occur with the nose lowering by reduction of outward engine-lift. For most light
airplanes, this will become a sight picture at which the airplane nose appears to be close
or slightly below the horizon.
Power reduction for descent will reduce the engine powered lift portion of the
indicated-airspeed angle-of-attack set with elevator-pitch. A slight decrease of propeller
blast across the elevator may occur with the slight decrease of engine power. These
changes will result in a small increase of indicated-airspeed unless there is some added
elevator-pitch input.
Fixing your descent destination as a directed course, unmoving, near the center of
the windshield, enables you to fly a descent path directly to that destination. Adjustment
of power will keep your destination point fixed, and the airplane will continue at an
elevator-pitched indicated-airspeed set by the elevator trim.
The start of descent will be when the sighted destination has moved to the bottom
of the windshield. A small reduction of power will maintain that sight picture. The sight
picture across the windshield in this example might show mostly surface and little sky.
This type descent will have the aircraft altitude at traffic pattern altitude approximately 1-2
miles from the destination.

Destination

Elevator-Pitch trimmed to a desired descent indicated-airspeed.

Visual descent; idle-power, partial powered, or engine-out to a
destination.

Fig. 6-5

87
 Airport environment as a sighted
point at a fixed position on the HORIZON
windshield for a “Directed x Note—Horizon high across the
Course” descent Decent
Destination windshield in descent.
Sighting for Directed
Course

Extract 14

“DIRECTED COURSE” VISUAL REFERENCE FLIGHT

Descent Toward Distant Destination
Fig. 6-6

Approach and Landing Attitudes

Approach Descent Attitude

In the traffic pattern, you will normally fly an extended downwind leg of such length that it
will require some power during the descending final approach. This allows more precise
and stable control throughout the approach.
The recommended indicated-airspeed on the final approach descent will
approximate 1.3 times the stall indicated-airspeed of the airplane in landing flap
configuration. Early configuration and stabilization of indicated-airspeed is primary.
You should be able to demonstrate, and be proficient, in making approaches at
various descent angles of approach. A normal visual approach rate of descent will be
approximately 300-600 ft/min. A usual sight picture, for landing approaches, places the
landing point centered close to the bottom of the windshield.
Approach descent pitch angle can be adjusted by changing the fixed visual picture
up or down on the windshield. The steeper the descent angle desired, the lower the
landing point, sighted on or below the windshield.

88
 Flying a directed course (collision course) will maintain the landing-point sight
picture, in a constant position. Once the landing spot is orientated nonmoving on the
lower window, you control the airplane with small power changes to fly to that point.
Prior configuration and indicated-airspeed (elevator-pitch) will remain almost
constant. Vertical control will be with minor power adjustment and heading input (with
rudder/aileron) to maintain this desired sight picture.

Runway environment with

landing point unmoving 1x4
on the windshield for a
“Directed Course” descent
Sighting for “Directed
Course”

“DIRECTED COURSE” VISUAL REFERENCE FLIGHT

Landing Approach, Wings Level Flight
Fig. 6-7
Begin aircraft heading control with rudder on the approach short final. The rudder
is primary for main wheel (longitudinal) alignment with the direction of motion and
opposite aileron will provide side-to-side tracking correction as necessary to compensate
for any crosswind drifting for maintaining the centerline of the runway. This is forward
slipping the aircraft.

Roundout Attitude
When approaching the landing spot, just above the ground, you will (aft/back/to) manual
elevator input, leveling (roundout) gradually to slow the indicated-airspeed while
decreasing the descent rate.

89
 Gradual manual leveling causes decreased rate of descent and slowing of your
indicated-airspeed. The attitude becomes similar to the cruise attitude sight-picture on
the windshield.
You accomplish this by steadily increasing the angular (pitch) (manually raising the
nose with aft elevator-pitch input) attitude as approaching approximately ten to fifteen feet
above the ground. At the same time, you gradually decrease power adjusting, as
necessary, toward idle throughout the landing roundout and flare.

Flare Attitude
The flare is a continuation of manual aft elevator-pitch control beyond the roundout level
attitude. It causes continued slowing of indicated-airspeed and reduction of the sink rate.
The attitude becomes slightly nose up (increasing elevator-pitch) with continued manual
aft elevator-pitch input. Your sight picture will approximate the lift-off attitude with the nose
being near the horizon.
As you approach touchdown, the surface alongside the runway, sighted
peripherally, begins rising toward you around the sides of the aircraft, becoming similar to
the visual picture seen during takeoff. You will steer sighting down the runway centerline,
while adjusting descent from the peripheral sighted visual sensing along the forward sides
of the runway.
The objective is to descend at a minimum descent rate and reduced forward
groundspeed. When performed correctly, your airplane main wheels will gently contact
the ground with power at idle, a slight nose high attitude, at a minimum descent rate, and
the indicated-airspeed approaching the stall indicated-airspeed. The stall angle-of-attack
is probably 15 degrees or more so you can expect touchdown near that nose-up attitude.

Landing/Ground Roll
At touchdown, your decelerating airplane should be tracking the center of the runway,
using rudder for directional control, and with the ailerons turned fully into any wind.
Gradual release of the elevator-pitch control, which holds the nose-wheel off after
touchdown, allows nose-wheel ground contact and surface friction steering.
The aircraft is now in a high-speed taxi. Your sight picture has returned to the taxi
picture. Initiate additional deceleration and directional control with gradual braking, as
necessary.
Forward sighting of the runway centerline for guidance and directional control
maintained with rudders and brakes until stopped, completes the flight.

Summary
 Visual attitude is orientation with respect to the ground and the horizon.
 Normal flight is within plus or minus 10-15 degrees of pitch and 45-50 degrees of bank.
 Visual flight control is referencing sight pictures of the ground and horizon as an unmoving
line and point relative to your aircraft.

90
 Flight attitude control is with power for climb or descent, Aileron and rudder for turn and
elevator-pitch for indicated-airspeed.
 Any change of attitude changes the sight picture.
 Attitude control is rotation around the aircraft control axes; the longitudinal, lateral
(transverse), and vertical axes.
 The axes of orientation are references to the earth. The dimensional axes are the vertical
axis, horizontal axis, and directional axis.
 Directed Course is maneuvering toward a point or destination as a collision course, an
unmoving sight picture, as referenced to a point on the aircraft.
 Visual orientation of the horizon, level across the windshield, is a sight picture of wings
level flight. Adjusting power will raise or lower the horizon picture if changing indicated-
airspeed, climbing, or descending.
 Turning is roll attitude change for the horizon sight picture to be at an angle across the
windshield and coordinated power to maintain level, climbing, or descending flight.
 Approaches to landings are sighting of a touchdown point, maneuvered and sighted,
unmoving centered in the windshield. Approach flight will be at the flap-configured
indicated-airspeed, with aileron and rudder for directional control, and power adjustment
for descent rate control.

91
92
 Chapter 7--VISUAL APPROACH AND GO-AROUND

Every final approach and landing is conducted visually. This chapter discusses the
procedures for visually attaining and maintaining stabilized approaches for landing and
the procedures necessary for continuing the landing or abandoning an approach if
required.
• Visual Approach
• Base Leg to Final Turn
• The Normal Approach
• Idle-Power Approach
• Straight-in Idle-Power Approaches
• The Go-Around
• Aborting
• Preparing for Abort
• Initiating an Abort
• Abort Procedure
• When to Abort
• Abort after Touchdown
• Summary

93
94
Visual Approach
Whether flight is in visual, or instrument conditions, it requires visual contact for all
approach short finals to landing touchdown, so understanding the sight picture and being
aware of visual references, is significant.
Power adjustment, and flight control input, maneuvers the aircraft to a directed
course for the selected landing spot at the runway approach end, centered, and unmoving
low on the windshield.
If not attaining proper stabilization for normal flight, you can always abort the
approach with landing go-around procedures.
At, or before, establishment on the visual downwind leg, complete the landing
briefing and checklists at least to the final landing flap setting. Make adjustment of the
downwind and base leg, closer or further from the runway, as necessary for the approach
and wind conditions encountered. Most small aircraft fly the downwind leg from ½ to 1
mile away from the landing runway.
Departures

STANDARD LEFT HAND

VISUAL TRAFFIC PATTERN

All turns are left turns.

Non-standard visual
traffic pattern, all turns
are right turns.

Fig-7-1
A standard approach pattern extends the downwind leg, 20-30 seconds, flying
beyond the runway end, before turning onto the base leg. Extending the pattern requires
using partial power when maneuvering throughout the approach. This results in more
stable and positive control for an approach with added time and space for correcting
possible ground tracking error during final approach alignment.

95
 An idle-power approach begins with a descending base turn within 10-15 seconds
after passing the runway approach end, with a continuous descending turn with descent
rates as much as 700-800 feet per minute.

Base Leg to Final Approach

The standard rectangular visual traffic pattern requires a descending banked
attitude for the two 90 degree turns from downwind leg, to base leg, and onto the final
approach leg.
Approaching the extended runway centerline from the base leg, adjustment of the
turn to final approach ground tracking is maneuvering to roll out toward the landing
runway and over the extended centerline. Control the maneuvering to establish the
descending directed course to have the landing spot, unmoving low on the windshield.
When flying inbound on initial final approach, the landing point will move down on
the windshield. Retarding some power starts descent to maintain the touchdown point
sighted unmoving and centered on the lower portion of the windshield.
Initiating descent to maintain the landing point sighted unmoving on the lower
windshield creates the same approach angle for all approaches.
With final flaps selected, indicated-airspeed adjusted to V1.3so, and with the landing
checklist completed, the approach can continue.

Base Leg to Final Turn Overshoot

The base leg to final approach turn has a history of inadvertent stalls. This turn is the
time a pilot is attempting to direct the aircraft toward the runway end and align over the
extended runway centerline.
Attaining appropriate alignment requires previous positioning on the downwind leg,
to allow sufficient space for controlling the ground tracking of the descending base leg
and final approach turn visually to roll out on the extended centerline of the landing
runway.
Conditions that can cause misalignment of the final turn are common, and usually
the result of improper initial downwind positioning for the turn by the pilot.
Often it is flying the downwind too close to the runway, so there is not sufficient
ground track to make the turn normally.
A strong crosswind on downwind can cause the aircraft to be drifted toward or
away from the runway. Continued drifting, when flying the base leg and the base to final
turn, also can lead to an overshooting condition.
Any condition of wind or maneuvering misjudgment can create the situation of
overshooting or undershooting the final approach.
When substantial overshoot becomes obvious, there is a strong tendency for a
pilot to apply rudder with the turn, while holding some fixed bank angle, in an attempt to
increase the turn rate without extreme bank angle. This easily becomes an in-advertent
cross-controlled stalling situation.

96
 At the same time, in this banked attitude the pilot may try to pull the nose up with
aft elevator-pitch input, as an added attempt to increase the rate of turn.
The aircraft would now be in a steep cross-controlled turn, requiring added power
to prevent too much descent, and at the same time, the indicated-airspeed decreasing
due the back elevator-pitch input. The aft elevator input will simultaneously increase “g”
loading, increasing the stalling indicated-airspeed. When controlling the descent rate with
the back elevator-pitch input, continuing this steep banked condition can easily cause a
low altitude stall from pulling the control wheel.
It is interesting to be aware that the use of added aft elevator-pitch control is what
caused the aircraft to stall. The attitudes attained in the steep cross-controlled turn with
added power will not cause stall. The aircraft will respond with continued descent, or if
added power is sufficient, level or climb.
During all this time, an unaware pilot, fixated on attaining the landing approach
positioning, is attempting to direct the aircraft to the landing spot. The slower indicated-
airspeed during approach has reduced control input resistance, and the steep bank angle
does not have the appearance of a nose-high attitude.
The reduced control feel and visual feedback sensing may not alarm the pilot while
concentrating on correcting the aircraft tracking.
Adding to the confusion can be a common mental attitude of pilots, that when the
runway is in sight, nothing interferes with the landing. The last thing likely to come to
mind is going-around…unless briefed before the approach.
Increasing the turn rate with the descending steep turn must be with increased
engine-lift by adding power. In the steep turn, the outward engine-lift component forces
are pulling the turn and lifting the nose. Reduced aft input or pushing the elevator control
will allow continued safe indicated-airspeed.

The Normal Approach

It should be the intent for all final approach and landing procedures to be as similar as
reasonably possible.
All approaches to landings are essentially the same. On any approach, from the
moment sighting the runway, the directed course procedure allows controlled flight to the
selected landing area.
Final approaches operate at the target indicated-airspeed required for weight and
wind conditions and with descent rates to maintain the glideslope or approach angle.
With wings level and the aircraft aligned over the extended centerline, the visual
placement of the landing spot in the same general position relative to the lower windshield
makes all approach descent angles similar.
If turbulence or wind shear exists, adjustments to approach indicated-airspeed are
appropriate but visual cues remain the same.

97
 The intent, for an approach, is to arrive at the selected touchdown spot, at a
minimum indicated-airspeed, but one that allows the roundout, flare, and touchdown to be
positively controlled.
The sighting of the landing spot, with reference to a spot on the lower windshield
(directed/collision course), allows positive awareness for control of the proper descent.
Engine power, coordinating the descent rate, and at the trimmed indicated-airspeed, the
sight picture of the landing spot remains constant on the stabilized approach.
This technique is especially helpful at night with either power on or idle
approaches. Flying to the airport, until the landing spot has moved down until sighted
visually at the bottom of the windshield, will avoid descending too early if over unfamiliar
terrain.
If the sighted landing area moves down, relative to the point on the windshield,
reduce power slightly to increase descent angle. If the landing area moves up, relative to
the point on the windshield, increase power to reduce descent angle.
Directional steering control is with rudder input coordinated with aileron input.
Rudder steering for direction allows having main wheel alignment in the direction of
motion at touchdown.
A successful landing will result from a stabilized approach, roundout, flare, and roll
out.

Idle-Power Approach
The concept of making approaches and landings at idle power evolved in the beginning of
flight. Unreliable engines required making approaches within the engine out gliding
distance of the airport. This resulted in steeper descent and steeper banked approach
procedures considered the cause of many turning stall incidents.
This led to the procedure of extending the landing approach as a safer method.
Consideration of remaining within gliding distance of the airport no longer is as important
as attaining stabilized engine powered visual approaches.
The extent of this thinking led to the elimination of the requirement to learn the
engine idle-power approaches and landings during initial training. The idle-power landing
procedure became a commercial pilot maneuver, demonstrated after attaining advanced
flight proficiency.
Idle-power glide approaches are to teach the pilot steep approaches with
appropriate use of flap and slip drag for descent control. These procedures are similar to,
and require similar maneuvering proficiency, as required for emergency power out landing
approaches.

98
 Idle Power
Approach

Fig. 7-2
In reality, though not a required maneuver for the private pilot, the lessons learned
in doing the engine power-idle approach are just as valid as they have ever been. The
beginning pilot can learn flight planning, judgment and control in this manner that is
applicable to both, the normal and emergency approach and landing.
If done at the beginning level, the pilot, required to practice and drill aircraft
maneuvering and control from the first flight, quickly becomes more proficient in all
landing maneuvers.
It is necessary to establish a directed course on any approach to allow judgment
that is more precise and allows more time for descent rate and ground tracking
adjustments.
There must be an understanding that all approaches whether with or without power
should be essentially the same. It is the recognition and practice of learning how to direct
the machine performance. Every approach is controlling to a chosen landing area/spot on
the runway.
When established on a directed course, more accurate control of the flight path,
approach indicated-airspeed and glide angle is possible. The control necessary to make
that happen is always the same.
Idle-power approaches require ground track and descent angle control with aircraft
maneuvering and drag from configuration change.
99
 Judging when to turn to the final approach determines attaining the idle-power
approach tracking. Adjust undershooting or overshooting by altering the beginning of the
turn toward final approach. “S” turns may be possible when aligned straight in on the final
approach though they are not too effective unless used early on the approach.
The use of flap extension changes, small pitch adjustments, and sideslip can
control the descent rate with idle-power.
Lowering the elevator-pitch attitude in an idle-power approach that is too high
increases indicated-airspeed, possibly forcing the airplane to float past the desired
touchdown point. Raising the elevator-pitch attitude in a “too low” idle-power approach in
an attempt to increase the glide distance will cause the airplane to sink more rapidly due
to a lowered indicated-airspeed and possibly approaching a stall.
If using full flaps during an idle-power approach and it becomes apparent
undershooting is occurring, depending on the aircraft, it may be necessary to retract the
fully extended flaps to reduce drag. This requires knowing the required indicated-
airspeeds with partial flaps and full flaps, and if those indicated-airspeeds are appropriate
at the time.
All prolonged operations at idle power require clearing the engine periodically, by
increasing the rpm momentarily to avoid possible loss of power.
Though it is good practice for simulated engine-out procedures, the engine power
is still available, when at idle-power, for correcting the approach if necessary.
It is appropriate, for a pilot be proficient in idle-power approaches, before the first
solo.

Straight-in Idle-Power Approaches

When established straight-in on a power-off or idle-power approach, a visually directed
course is primary for maintaining control.
Sight the landing area, unmoving, low in the middle of the windshield. As the flight
progresses, if at best glide indicated-airspeed, the aircraft cannot reach the landing area if
the selected area moves up on the windshield. If the landing area moves down on the
windshield, the aircraft will overshoot. Only when the landing area remains unmoving in
the same position sighted through the window will the aircraft reach the chosen landing
area.
This is how to recognize a “directed course” (collision course) to a landing spot.
Use this procedure for establishing the flight path of the airplane for all approaches,
especially when flying any gliding approach with power-off.
The power will remain in the idle position during this approach. Change of glide
angle will occur with drag from changes of flap settings or slips. Initially fly engine out or
idle-power approach indicated-airspeed, based on the best glide indicated-airspeed, for a
current configuration.
There must be a decision to fly above or below the best glide indicated-airspeed. It
then becomes possible to extend the glide by returning to best glide.
100
 Pitching up, when faster than best glide indicated-airspeed, corrects an
excessively low approach. The indicated-airspeed decreases toward the best glide
indicated-airspeed, extending the gliding range. Pitching down from indicated-airspeed
slower than best glide indicated-airspeed enables an increase to the best glide indicated-
airspeed, which again extends the glide distance.
Retraction of a portion of the flap extension reduces drag on most aircraft. Pilot
initial checkout must include the effect of flap extension when gliding at the different
extended positions.
When gliding, adjusting pitch down to correct a high approach will increase the
indicated-airspeed, reducing the gliding range while increasing the possibility of a floating
condition before touchdown. The additional indicated-airspeed may carry the aircraft
beyond the desired landing area. It is better to lower some flap or slip to reposition the
airplane to the appropriate glide path while maintaining the desired indicated-airspeed.

Crosswind Landing Approach

With stronger crosswinds, you should always consider the go-around in your approach
planning in the event initial alignment from the base turn is not satisfactory, or a stabilized
approach not attained.
The aircraft, angled (crabbed) into the wind for maintaining the final approach
course tracking, causes offset of the landing sight picture. The normal unmoving sight
picture will now be low and toward one side of the windshield.
On short final approach, align the airplane with the center of the runway by
crabbing or slipping. Determine the use of slipping control application by individual
technique.
The result of the approach at touchdown requires having applied a slip before
touchdown, to assure longitudinal axis (main wheel) alignment paralleling the centerline of
the runway, in the direction of airplane motion.
Slipping the aircraft is aligning the longitudinal axis to the direction of movement by
steering with rudder. The sight picture will then have the landing spot again centered on
the windshield.
The attitude will be a banked attitude into the wind with opposite aileron to create a
horizontal turning force to offset the crosswind component force.
For some pilots, the initiation of the slip maneuver begins early on the approach
assuring there is sufficient rudder control and time enough to establish a stabilized
slipping attitude to continue the approach.
Often, with experience, a pilot will continue the crabbing approach, then prior to
touchdown, during roundout, flare, or even just at touchdown, enter the slipping
maneuver, steering with rudder for alignment, and applying opposite aileron in one
coordinated maneuver.
Either way of making the approach, cross-control at touchdown must be with
steering the rudder to align the aircraft to the direction of the tracking motion, and a
101
banked attitude turning force to offset the crosswind force, allowing main wheel
touchdown without skidding sideways.
In high-crosswind conditions where rudder authority may be marginal, maintain the
approach crab until just prior to touchdown. With landing assured at the desired
touchdown spot, make a partial power-on landing. This will allow propeller blast to help
maintain rudder authority during the touchdown and landing roll.

Approach Over an Obstacle

Extend the downwind sufficiently to establish a final approach, tracking directly toward the
runway. The procedures are the same as any approach. Fly a stabilized approach with
the final landing configuration selected, and the final checklist completed.
Begin the approach descent with the runway visually sighted near the bottom of
the windshield. If an obstacle appears within that sighting, reduce the descent rate (add
power), controlling to attain a sight picture of the obstacle (directed course) positioned
near the bottom of the windshield.
Continue flying at normal approach configuration and indicated-airspeed, as if
using the top of the obstacle for the landing spot. This will assure passing clear over the
obstacle at a minimum distance.
After passing the obstacle, reduce power to increase the descent rate back toward
the normal approach angle, sighted as a directed course, to the landing point.
Reducing power or slipping, for an increased descent rate, allows re-intercept of a
normal approach angle and the landing point sighted low on the windshield, then
resuming a directed course to the landing spot. Maintain the trimmed approach indicated-
airspeed, and continue the landing, as normal.

Ground-effect
Every landing experiences ground-effect. Ground-effect begins when approaching within
a few feet of the ground. The cushion of airmass displaced below the aircraft causes the
effect. When in very low-level flight the surface restricts the usual downward airmass
displacement. This increases airmass resistance to movement below the wings
decreasing drag and results in enabling reducing the descent rate with floating to extend
a glide.
Ground-effect starts at about the altitude of the wingspan and becomes greatest
when descent is below the altitude of one wing length. The wing length of most small
aircraft is less than 20 feet.
Being at a low altitude, when approaching the runway end, allows the use of
ground-effect for additional glide distance.
It is difficult for a pilot, to want to pitch down when very low to the ground. There
should be previous demonstration, teaching, and experience of descending to such low
altitudes.

102
 As a technique, if the power-off approach appears to be short, then deliberate
descent, even with some increased indicated-airspeed, to within a few feet of the ground,
allows the use of ground-effect to extend the glide distance.
There is considerable difference between the ground-effect with high-wing versus
low-wing aircraft. Practice of using ground-effect should be part of an aircraft checkout.
Training to fly the aircraft low to the ground when over an unprepared landing area,
being close to the rocks and trees, can be an unnerving experience if one is not familiar.
Awareness and use of techniques for idle-power glide control proficiency using
ground-effect will only come with practice and drill. The new pilot should become well
versed in these techniques from the first flight.

The Go-Around

Aborting
Going Around, Aborted Landing, Missed Approach, Landing Overshoot. These terms
indicate abandoning the landing and a go-around procedure initiated.
Aborting the landing should occur whenever the pilot is not satisfied with the
approach or the runway condition. This is seldom an emergency procedure. Any one of
many situations or events may require initiation of the abort procedure.
In training, introduction to and having considered different possible scenarios that
may occur prepares for possible future events.
The actual go-around requires stopping descent and transitioning to acceleration,
climb power and configuration change toward a normal takeoff procedure.

Preparing for Abort

A problem, normally not considered with go-around procedures, is the human element
involved. It is seldom, if ever, a pilot has in mind the possibility of a go-around when
initiating a visual approach. Even with marginal conditions, there is often no
consideration of aborting the approach.
The events involved in unexpected go-arounds require rapid change of mind-set
and are not often experienced. For that reason, it is useful to consider the possibility and
even add it as a consideration to approach descent checklists and briefings.

Initiating an Abort
What happens when interrupting a slow indicated-airspeed, descending approach with
rapid application of go-around power?
This is a common experience in the landing configured go-around scenario.
Maybe it is not necessary to cram all that power in so fast.
What is the status of the aircraft in go-around mode? Some nose down elevator-
trim input is normal for allowing acceleration while at the same time pitch up initiated to
stop the descent. These two actions can easily conflict in one's mind if not previously
considered.
103
 If in instrument conditions, stopping descent becomes more of a priority. The main
objective, whether in instrument or visual conditions, is to stop descent and maintain at
least level or some climb.
What does it take? Is there a big hurry to get things done? It simply requires
normal after takeoff considerations. After all, you are already flying. The procedure is
putting the aircraft into a powered takeoff configuration.
As with all flight, the pilot needs to be acquainted with the possible situations, and
the different considerations.

Go-Around Situation
So, what happened when initiating a go-around?
You are in a lower powered, low indicated-airspeed, descending mode with extra
drag from the extended flaps. Initiating the “go” is with increased power and stopping
descent.
Adding power is telling the aircraft to increase lift. The aircraft will immediately
increase climb-pitch with the power increase. This is going to cause the nose to pitch-up.
At the same time, the tendency to pull the elevator will add elevator-pitch up. That
is telling the aircraft to slow down! You may not want to do that right now. In fact, you
want to increase indicated-airspeed to allow raising the flaps.
The rapid climb-pitch with power probably will cause you to push the elevator
shortly after the power application, as you will recognize a rapidly increasing pitched
attitude.
The fact remains the go-around is a simple procedure when considered ahead of
time. With increased power it is only necessary to stop descent by leveling, controlling
with elevator-pitch and elevator trim, allowing acceleration. The objective is to attain a
normal takeoff climb configuration and continue the flight.

Abort Procedure
After leveling, or starting positive climb, with acceleration, consider the required
configuration changes. If going back to a normal VFR downwind, if it helps lift, consider
retaining the approach flap configuration. A visual go-around always requires a climb to
downwind altitude.
Why retract the gear? If it is down and safe, leave it alone. It is not that much
drag. Just fly a normal airplane and another traffic pattern for the next approach.
A visual go-around is not the same as when initiating a missed approach
instrument procedure, or an emergency, such as in multi-engine, engine out, go-around
procedures. Again, use the same considerations as for any normal takeoff.
The problem is to have an understanding of what the situation requires. If the pilot
has practiced, and drilled, the various scenarios that could occur, these kinds of decisions
become apparent.

104
 Why did you initiate the go-around? What caused the problem and where am I
going next? Is it a missed approach with a following instrument procedure or a return to a
standard downwind? Is there a problem with the aircraft or are things normal and just a
continuation of the flight because of something that occurred at the runway?
Aborting a landing is a go-around or missed approach. It is a procedure. It not only
requires planning where to go, but also controlling. There is transitioning from a
descending low power, high-drag configuration, to high-power, level or climbing
acceleration, clean configuration. The go-around or missed approach continues with
normal takeoff flight indicated-airspeed and normal climb back into the traffic pattern.
Add power to start acceleration. Stop the descent. The power application will
probably do that but in any case find the takeoff visual picture of the horizon low across
the window and a point toward which to fly.
When attaining positive climb, begin slow retraction of the flaps, while monitoring
the indicated-airspeed for each setting. Assure the aircraft is level, or climbing, while
trimming to Vx indicated-airspeed and completing retraction of the flaps.
If going back to the visual traffic pattern, from the upwind leg, continue straight
ahead, as a normal takeoff, to the field boundary, before turning onto the crosswind.
If the cause of the go-around were another airplane taking off, turn away from the
pattern, enough to offset and track parallel to the runway, so the conflicting traffic is
visible to you, and cannot climb into you.
At a towered airport, the controller would probably provide further instructions if
there continued to be a conflict. No matter what is going on, clear visually for conflict with
any other airplane before turning across its path. Again, whatever it may take, even to
the extent of turning away out of traffic and climbing up and around for another 45 degree
entry.
When clear of any conflict, turn to a crosswind and downwind while climbing to
traffic pattern altitude and continue normal traffic pattern procedures. This type conflict is
common, and like all things, could happen today.

When to Abort
The most usual situation, requiring a go-around, is the base turn to final where the pilot
misjudges the turn and overshoots the final approach. Final turns, being too far past the
extended centerline for maneuvering back, or too close to the approach end touchdown
area, with little remaining runway for roll out, require aborting the approach and going
around.
You must understand when it is appropriate to make a go-around. In most ways, it
is quite clear. If not lined up with the runway when turning onto the final approach, it is
probably prudent to consider a go-around. If not stabilized at the approach indicated-
airspeed, or properly configured, initiate the go-around.
If the landing is not going to be within the selected touchdown area, it probably
requires a go-around. This situation causes most landing incidents and accidents when,
105
for some reason, pilots think they just have to land. Having to make a schedule is no
reason to run off the far end.
There are too many incidents of the decision to land when touchdown is long or
fast. If not on a stabilized approach to allow touchdown in the desired area, it may be
necessary to make a go-around. Without prior consideration, the length of remaining
runway for roll out can become much too short.

Abort after Touchdown

Anytime, during the roundout, flare, or touchdown, if control becomes marginal, just go-
around. A go-around may be possible, even early in the landing roll after touchdown,
when still at higher indicated-airspeed.
Consider the remaining length of the runway and any possible obstacles before
making the decision for after touchdown go-arounds.
It is often possible to resolve control problems during roll out by momentary added
power. Resulting propeller blast airflow on the tail with accompanying accelerated
relative indicated-airspeed can regain control, go-around! It is much easier to do it right
the second time. Trying to land when control is uncertain is not worth it. It is too easy to
lose control and end up damaging the airplane.

The Mindset
There is a pilot ego thing when making a landing. Most pilots have a mindset
wanting to continue even when things are obviously going bad. Someone landed before,
so the pilot following assumes it is possible.
The conditions may change, or the pilot ahead may be more proficient. No one
ever knows. Pilots must fly their own aircraft based on its performance and not that of
someone ahead or behind.
It is a mistaken belief that it looks unprofessional to make a go-around. Real pilots
understand the necessity of go-arounds, and understand what is taking place.
The pilot that makes the “go” whether or not it seems or looks needed is the real
pilot. Real pilots know everyone makes mistakes.
Flight is a continuous series of mistakes. You are never on indicated-airspeed,
altitude, or heading, but passing through…go-around!

Summary
• Configuration and checklists should be as done early as practicable.
• Adjusting the downwind positioning, away from the runway, depends on wind
drift effect.
• Visual orientation of the landing spot allows quick confirmation of attitude and
control required.
• Fixation on the landing when too close or overshooting the final approach can
lead to over banking and stall.

106
• Stall indicated-airspeed rapidly increases toward the approach speed in a steep
banked attitude.
• Normal approaches are partial powered approaches.
• All approaches should be stabilized and checklist completed by final approach.
• All final approaches should be much the same with only changed approach
indicated-airspeeds for flight and landing conditions.
• Idle-power approaches are excellent for learning planning and judgment for
precise aircraft maneuvering.
• Idle power maneuvering utilizes changes of flap settings, slips, and ground-
effect while flying final approach indicated-airspeeds away from best glide
indicated-airspeed.
• Ground-effect requires flight extremely close to the ground and is effective for
extending glide distance.
• Floating, in ground-effect, will occur if the indicated-airspeed is too fast. If
sufficient runway is available, deliberate controlling for a higher-indicated-
airspeed touchdown may be feasible.
• Always consider a go-around during initial approach planning.
• Maneuvering requiring steeper banked angles than the standard-rate turn angle
to attain the final approach alignment should alert you to the idea of a possible
go-around.
• Go-around procedures; stop descent with added power, configure and follow
takeoff procedures.
• Offsetting away from the takeoff leg, when aborting, allows seeing below for
conflicting takeoff traffic, that would be paralleling and climbing up into the
pattern.
• Aborting a landing to go-around, after touchdown, requires careful assessment
of indicated-airspeed and remaining runway.

107
108
 Chapter 8---------------LANDINGS

This chapter presents Normal, Short Field, Soft-Field, and Crosswind landing
procedure. There is discussion of different situations, conditions, and techniques
available for making these landings.
• Considerations
• Roundout and Flare
• Landing
• Normal Landings
• Touchdown
• Accuracy of the Landing Point
• Soft-Field Landing
• Short-Field Landing
• Landing over an obstacle
• Crosswind Landings
• High Wind Taxi Operations
• Summary

109
Considerations
The landing and rollout procedures depend on the runway length, condition and any
crosswind effect. There are many different scenarios to consider for different conditions,
and configurations.
The basic considerations to be made for landing are; the airplane configuration and
indicated-airspeed for its gross weight, weather and winds, runway length, condition, and
obstacles. From this, you can obtain the indicated-airspeed and procedures for the
approach and landing.

Roundout and Flare

When arriving close to the ground, forward sighting moves toward the runway end, or
along the centerline, as the sight picture attains that previously seen of the aircraft at
takeoff. The ground, sighted peripherally, will begin rising alongside the aircraft.
Roundout in a small aircraft begins 10-15 feet above the ground. The roundout is
leveling of the descent with aft elevator-pitch control to reduce the descent rate and slow
the indicated-airspeed.
As the aircraft slows, it will sink slowly. Coordinated aft elevator pitching allows
slowing the descent rate and indicated-airspeed. As the aircraft approaches the surface
for touchdown, the leveling control for roundout continues to flare the nose up slightly,
allowing main-wheel touchdown.
Holding the nose up continues until satisfactory touchdown then gradual release of
aft elevator-pitch control allows the nosewheel to touchdown for ground to wheel rudder
steering control.

Landing
At the landing roundout, steering is with the rudder for heading control. The rudder aligns
the wheels to the direction of motion, for tracking the ground at touchdown. Cross-control
banking with the ailerons causes a horizontal turning force to cancel any crosswind that
exists.
Directional reference at this time requires the alignment of the longitudinal axis (the
aircraft body) to be in the direction of the aircraft motion parallel to the runway for
touchdown.
Rudder control steers to align the aircraft directionally and opposite aileron control
turns, to slip the aircraft side to side as required to keep motion and alignment down the
center of the runway. Rudder controlled steering will continue controlling after touchdown
as the aircraft will then be in a high-speed taxi condition.
Flight training teaches when to use different types of landings. The runway,
surface, condition, length, and the prevailing winds, determine the decision of how, or
what approach and landing type should be made.

111
Normal Landings
A normal landing can be to any runway or field, of sufficient condition, and length, to allow
touchdown, and roll out, without any significant control requirements. An improved, firm
surface, of sufficient length, to allow gradual braking to stop, allows a normal landing.
Approaching the touchdown spot, coordination of reducing power, with roundout
(leveling), followed with pitching the attitude (flare), position the aircraft for touchdown.
This maneuvering pitches the nose to allow reduction of indicated-airspeed and
slow the descent rate. Continuously apply aft elevator-pitch input, through roundout
leveling, and nose up flaring, to maintain an attitude approximating the initial takeoff
attitude, until touchdown.
Coordination, with power reduction or adjustment, pitching up for slowing, and
allowing gradual sinking, allows the touchdown on the main wheels, while keeping the
nose slightly off the ground.
It should be the verbally stated goal, for every landing, to touchdown at a specified
point, and if not landing at that spot, to consider the necessity of a go-around.
A situation that overshoots the landing spot with too much indicated-airspeed will
cause floating from ground-effect. If sufficient runway is available, the landing may be
terminated by deliberate, gradual reduction of elevator-pitch input, causing the aircraft to
touchdown at a higher than planned indicated-airspeed, or, alternatively, it is necessary to
initiate a go-around.

Touchdown
Once on the surface the ground, friction and the availability of braking will stop the
aircraft. Check braking response in adequate time, to allow the plane to stop on the
runway, or alternately consider adding power to go-around.
If it is a normal landing, light braking is sufficient. A soft-field landing may require
no initial braking. If it is a short-field landing, full braking up to the maximum possible
could be required.
It is seldom necessary to retract flaps during rollout. Distraction and the possibility
of actuating a wrong control are ways to make mistakes. The reduced lift raising flaps is
not worth worrying about unless the field is extremely short.
Maintain aircraft control and be sure the brakes work. Gently test the brakes
directly after touchdown on every landing.
Throughout all the final approach, landing, and rollout, the rudder controls heading.
Most normal landings will be carried out with the engine power retarded, near or at
idle, from roundout through the roll out.
Airplanes with “T” tails often need some minimum power maintained for propeller
blast in order to keep sufficient elevator-pitch control for the flare when slowing the plane
close to stalling touchdown indicated-airspeed.
The objective of a normal landing is to minimize the sink rate for the touchdown at
the designated landing area and a minimum indicated-airspeed that approaches the stall
112
indicated-airspeed. The touchdown should be on or slightly beyond the projected
touchdown point, and on the center of the landing area.
After touchdown, the continued deceleration will allow the nose to lower, and thus
make possible ground friction steering. The roll out is a decelerating high-speed taxiing
condition, and should be controlled with the rudder, for steering, and light braking, as
necessary, slowing for turnoff and stopping.

Slip
Slipping procedures during roundout, flare, and touchdown require the use of the rudder
to steer the aircraft in the direction of motion for main wheel alignment and applying
coordinated opposite-directed aileron banking for a turning horizontal component of force
to counter any horizontal crosswind force. This maintains runway centerline alignment
throughout the slipping maneuver. The upwind main-wheel will touchdown first in the
banked attitude. All other control is as required for directional steering and braking.

Accuracy of the Landing Point

All landing approaches should be a directed course to a point/spot/specific area. The
point may vary, depending on conditions during the landing, but reasonably close to the
runway approach end (numbers).
All landings require consideration of available roll out distance from the actual
touchdown spot. Failure to touchdown near the approach end may require a go-around, if
sufficient runway rollout available is questionable.
Any headwind component reduces the forward ground speed, which aids in
reducing the landing roll distance. Landings are minimum indicated-airspeed, on spot
touchdowns, then, deceleration braking as required.

Soft-Field Landing
A soft-field landing requires a minimum indicated-airspeed touchdown. Little or no
braking may be required.
Power application, throughout the complete roll out, could be necessary to prevent
becoming mired in extremely soft fields.
After touchdown, hold the nosewheel off, with full aft elevator-pitch control and
power for propeller blast, as long as needed. Power helps keep rudder and elevator-pitch
effective longer while countering any crosswind effect.
It may be necessary to maintain some power with exceptionally soft runway
conditions, to offset some of the deceleration effects, and back elevator-pitch control with
propeller blast for reducing forward weight, to counter possible nose wheel sinking.

Short-Field Landing
A short-field landing is to a runway, limited in length, to the actual distance required to
land and stop within its confines. Such a landing requires minimum indicated-airspeed at

113
touchdown, with assured touchdown at the desired touchdown spot, to ensure the
remaining available distance for rollout, with moderate to heavy braking, bringing it to a
stop.
The approach does not have to be steeper unless there is an obstacle, which, after
passing, the normal glideslope can be resumed.
Slower indicated-airspeed is adequate, unless turbulence or wind gusts exist. In
that case, it may not be the place to land. A positive landing (no float) on or near the
chosen spot then placing the nose down promptly and maximum braking if required. In
the event of floating or landing long, immediately initiate a go-around.

Landing over an obstacle

Configure for the approach early, to allow stabilized control, while passing closely over an
obstacle. Flying at normal approach configuration and indicated-airspeed, direct the
aircraft sight picture toward the top of the obstacle (directed course), as if using it for the
landing spot. This will assure passing clear over the obstacle at a minimum distance.
After passing the obstacle, descend back toward a normal approach angle.
Reducing power or slipping, for an increased descent rate, allows re-intercept of the
normal approach angle, and resuming a directed course to the landing spot. Maintain the
trimmed approach indicated-airspeed, and the landing continued, as normal.

Crosswind Landings

Crosswind Landing Approach

Planning for an approach starts when first receiving any wind information, A.T.I.S. or
other source. Consider expected wind and wind components affecting the flight before
reaching the airport or entering the traffic pattern.
The crosswind component of landing approach winds can be quickly estimated
using the basic trigonometric relations of 30/60 and 45/45 degree triangles.
A wind 30 degrees away from the runway heading will have a crosswind
component of .5 (one-half) and a headwind component of .9 (nine tenth) the total wind
speed. A wind 45 degrees from the runway heading will have both crosswind and
headwind components of .7 (seven-tenth) the total wind.
You can quickly estimate wind components relative to the runway heading when
the wind is close to these angles. An estimate is enough to be aware of the expected
control requirements for the approach. The wind is seldom constant and often varies
from reported winds during the approach. There is no way to know or any reason to be
concerned of the exact wind speeds. Close is good enough. Just remember .5, .7, and
.9, for crosswind components of 30-45-60 degrees off the nose.

114
 VECTORS AND VECTOR Right Triangles have specific constant relationships
of the vector angles and the component legs.
COMPONENTS
Therefore a 30/60/90 degree and 60/30/90 degree
triangle have legs of .5 and .9 of the vector.
A 45/45/90 degree triangle has both legs of .7 of the
North vector. The .5, .7, .9 relationship allows quick
mental estimation of wind components even for
directions that are close. A 35 degree wind would
Wind 030 20 kts. have a little more than 10 knots, maybe 11 or 12.
.9 = 18 kts. Headwind

Wind 045 20 kts.

.7 = 14 kts. headwind

.5 = 10 kts. headwind
Wind 060 20 kts.

.5 = 10 kts. .7 = 14 kts. .9 = 18 kts.

direct crosswind direct crosswind direct crosswind

Fig: 8-1

Small aircraft crosswind approaches are typically at 70-90 knots indicated-

airspeed. With any substantial headwind component, the groundspeed will be close to 60
knots or one mile per minute. The approach heading correction then will be almost one
degree per knot of direct crosswind component. Faster aircraft will use less heading
correction. 120-knot groundspeed will use one-half degree crosswind heading correction
per knot of crosswind. On final approach, you align the airplane tracking with the center
of the runway by crabbing. Just correct toward the wind those few degrees when turning
onto the final approach. You will be close for establishing an initial corrected heading
and then can adjust as necessary. It’s not an exact science. Just fly the airplane. If the
visual landing spot is not moving, you have it right.

115
 ESTIMATING WIND EFFECT (close is good)
Landing Runway 27
Runway Heading 270 -- Wind from 230 10 knots
Headwind Component (almost)7 knots
Direct Crosswind Component (almost)7 knots

Vector components of 45/45 right triangle are .7 and .7

2 7
Quick Mental Calculation:
Wind is 40 degrees from runway heading (almost 45 ).
Sine 45 = .7, Cosine 45 = .7

7 knots
(estimated 5-10 knots) Crosswind is .7 X 10 = 7
(estimated 5-10 knots) Headwind is .7 X 10 = 7 7 knots
Aircraft heading correction for tracking:
Approach airspeed 74, groundspeed estimated 67knots (almost 60 knots).
Correct heading to left 5-10 degrees. (At 60 knots correct one degree per knot
crosswind)
Fig: 8-2

ESTIMATING WIND EFFECT (close is good)

Landing Runway 36
Runway Heading 360 -- Wind from 330 /20 knots
Headwind Component (almost)18 knots
Direct Crosswind Component (almost)10 knots
18 knots

Vector components of a 40-20 right

triangle are close to .5 and .9 the
actual components for 30 .
10 knots

Quick Mental Calculation:

Wind is 30 degrees from runway heading (almost 45 ). 36
(Sine 30 = .5, Cosine 30 = .9)
Crosswind is .5 X 20 = 10 (estimated 5-15 knots)
Headwind is .9 X 20 = 18 (estimated 15-25 knots)

Aircraft heading correction for tracking:

Approach indicated-airspeed 74, groundspeed estimated 55
knots (almost 60 knots).
Correct heading to left 5-10 degrees. (At 60 knots groundspeed
correct one degree per knot direct crosswind).

Fig: 8-3

116
Crosswind Landing Touchdown
On short final approach, you align the airplane tracking with the center of the runway by
slipping. The final approach at touchdown requires this slipping maneuver applied before
touchdown, to assure longitudinal axis (main wheel) alignment paralleling the centerline of
the runway, in the direction of airplane motion and banking into the wind to control
alignment that tracking is down the centerline.
Whatever the approach, or slipping technique used, the touchdown must be with
the aircraft aligned with its direction of motion, and banking turned into the crosswind
allowing main wheel touchdown without skidding sideways.
When making a crosswind touchdown, the aircraft will be in a banked attitude from
the slipping maneuver. In this attitude, the upwind main wheel will touchdown first. Main
wheel contact on the surface begins wheel/ground friction and the momentum of the
airplane will cause it to track in the direction of motion. As the aircraft slows, the second
main wheel will touch down, followed shortly, with letting the nosewheel down.
A significant factor, for crosswind landings, requires available rudder-control
steering to assure maintaining main wheel tracking alignment during the slipping
maneuver, and for continued directional control during deceleration of the landing roll out.
The pilot must coordinate power during the slip, through touchdown, and rollout to
allow deceleration and maintain direction.
At touchdown and roll out, rudder input controls steering and maintains directional
control. Increased aileron after touchdown, to maximum throw toward the wind, aids in
preventing possible wing lift from encountered wind, or gusts of wind.
As the aircraft slows, the crosswind effect increases from the slowed ground
speed, due to reduced countering relative-wind of forward motion.

Crosswind Landing Control

Additional control consideration with crosswind landing approach is the use of ailerons.
The slipping maneuver is rudder and aileron application cross-controlled and held to
maintain the desired tracking down the runway.
The ailerons, turned into the wind, cause a banked turning attitude creating a
horizontal force toward the crosswind offsetting the side drifting force of the crosswind.
Rudder input offsets the turn, generated by the banked attitude, steering the alignment of
the aircraft’s thrust for forward tracking.
The visual sighting down the runway will be a banked attitude with aileron into the
crosswind, simultaneously using opposite rudder, steering the aircraft main wheel
alignment to the direction of movement.
It becomes simply adjusting banking side to side for control of side drift movement
to maintain runway centerline tracking, and rudder input, yaw/steering for main wheel
alignment to the direction of movement.

117
Crosswind Landing Rollout
During touchdown and rollout, a crosswind component of any wind will try to weathervane
the large aft side surface area of the aircraft, as well as attempted drifting with the wind of
the airmass movement.
When touchdown and roll out occur, wheel friction stops side drifting caused by the
crosswind. However, weathervane will continue, and its effect will increase, as the
airplane loses its relative-wind with slowing of forward movement.
The forward movement of the airplane causes airflow (generated wind) along the
vertical control surfaces, allowing rudder steering effectiveness for directional control,
countering the crosswind and weathervane forces.
When slowing, to maintain more relative airflow from the airplane, it is possible to
add some power, obtaining propeller-blasting wind for prolonging effective rudder steering
control. If using power to maintain rudder authority during the landing roll out, careful
braking can still be used for normal deceleration.
In strong crosswind conditions, the technique of adding power to generate
windblast from the propeller, reducing the crosswind effect, may be required to enhance
directional control when on the ground. This manipulation of power often requires careful
braking with some engine power applied.

Crosswind and Tailwind Landing Considerations

Additional consideration for crosswind landings is the groundspeed incurred. If the wind
is other than direct crosswind, it is possible to have a significant headwind component
resulting in relatively slower touchdown ground speed, this results in a shorter landing roll
out. Often there is added indicated-airspeed to counter possible wind gust effects. As a
quick reference, a pilot can fly an approach indicated-airspeed up to the normal
groundspeed of a no-wind approach. This is equivalent to the landing headwind
component.
Note that with a tailwind component of quartering or actual full tailwinds, there is a
point, during deceleration, at which there will only be crosswind on the rudder. As the
airplane transits the groundspeed at which generated wind of forward movement, versus
any tailwind component, become equal, there will only be crosswind on the rudder. This
situation could cause directional control problems if not considered. It can be expected
nosewheel steering should be available, or again, propeller blast may be required.
It may be especially significant for aircraft with castoring nose wheels though
individual wheel braking should be available during this time. There is still always an
option to add power for propeller blast to regain or maintain some rudder control.

Extreme Crosswind Landing Situations

The use of power, during the landing roll out, in strong crosswind situations, is a
significant aid in directional control. The pilot must learn to assume it may be necessary

118
to use some power during any crosswind landing and rollout. A landing will require this
technique, in all situations of unusually strong crosswinds.
Normal landing procedures, with idle power at touchdown and rollout, develop
habit patterns that may not be appropriate in the crosswind-landing situation.
If, at any time, it becomes apparent there is becoming insufficient directional
control to maintain runway tracking, during a landing rollout, and sufficient runway
remains, it may be necessary to initiate a landing roll go-around.
The increased full power propeller blast and acceleration of relative indicated-
airspeed may regain directional control for a successful go-around takeoff. This requires
immediate initiation upon any awareness of marginal directional control. It requires
consideration of sufficient runway remaining.

Emergency Crosswind Landing

Landing at airports when strong crosswinds exist sometimes requires some “out of the
box” thinking. Some pilots may decide to try making a crosswind approach and find they
are not proficient enough to continue. As with all flight, there must be alternative action
available.
Making a go-around from the initial approach is often the best decision. You can
now consider where you went wrong, and fly a second, or third, better controlled,
approach for landing. Often in strong winds, there are gusts followed by lulls of lesser
winds. Making several approaches until arriving at a period of lull may be required.
Landing on a runway more aligned with the wind could be an obvious alternative.
If there is no other landing runway, the flight must consider an alternate airport, if one is
available, and fuel and weather allow.
Without this option, it could be, you now must declare an emergency, and will have
to make a decision to keep the airplane and its occupants safe.
Such options, which could exist in an emergency, would be landing where there is
no crosswind, such as a taxiway, finding a road, or open field aligned with the wind.
Landing into a strong wind reduces the landing roll considerably. A 40-knot
headwind with a 50-60 knot approach speed can make an emergency landing a feasible
option.
Thinking of an emergency scenario for the destination area becomes a significant
part of the planning. Consideration of emergency options ahead of time allows more
confident, and appropriate decisions, should a time come to deal with a strong crosswind.

High Wind Taxi Operations

Consideration of control positioning is required for all taxi operations in windy conditions.
The ailerons, turned into the wind, and the elevator-pitch control using propeller blast for
holding down the tail aid in avoiding any undesired lifting from wind effects. This applies
to all takeoff, landing, roll out, and taxi operations.

119
 Extreme wind conditions can happen. Exercise care in any high wind taxi
operation. Taxiing with engine power for blasting air across the airfoils can reduce
crosswind effects substantially. Careful planning of control positioning is also required
when changing taxiing direction.
Parking without outside help requires consideration. It could be necessary to park
next to a tie down faced directly into any wind, setting the brakes, leaving the power at a
setting to offset the wind effect.
That could allow quickly exiting the aircraft to fasten a tie down, then shutting down
the engine. Such an operation will require extremely careful consideration and
awareness of the turning propeller.
An encounter of extreme wind, such as a passing gust front, could require parking
when taxiing, facing into the wind, and using full power, with the brakes set, while waiting
the gust front passage.
An alternative might be, if time allows, taking off with flight away from the extreme
phenomena until it passes, with a landing at an alternate airport, or circumventing the
weather and returning, to land after passage.

Summary
• All final approaches to landing are procedurally the same.
• Rudder steers directional alignment of the aircraft from short approach through
landing rollout and taxi. Cross-controlled aileron controls direction of tracking.
• Power for propeller blasting air is always a consideration to assure positive
rudder steering control.
• Touchdown at the desired spot is essential. Consideration of landing beyond
the planned touchdown spot should only be on runways with long roll out
available.
• Soft-field and short-field landings utilize minimum indicated-airspeed
touchdowns.
• Soft-field landings may require some power input for taxi and nose lifting by the
elevator after touchdown if the surface is quite soft.
• Short-field landings require a precise touchdown spot with immediate braking
as necessary. Briefing of short-field landings should include possible go-
around, if not landing on the desired spot.
• Flying a directed course toward the top of an obstacle attains minimum
clearance.
• Rudder steering control aligns the aircraft attitude to the direction of motion,
and opposite aileron turning controls drifting side motion from crosswind, for
alignment over the runway centerline.
• During crosswind landing roll, use of power for propeller blast to extend the
authority of rudder steering, better assures directional control. The propeller

120
 blast, countering some of the crosswind effect, reduces the weather-vane
effect.
• Extreme and Emergency crosswind landings require some “out of the box”
thinking.
• High wind taxi operations require careful consideration of control positioning
and maintaining the engine power, for propeller blast over the airfoil and
controls, countering the crosswind effect.

121
122
 Chapter 9-----------------STALLS

This chapter discusses conditions that lead to inadvertent stalling of the aircraft
with emphasis on recovery with minimum altitude loss.
 Aircraft Elevator-pitch
 Critical Elevator-pitch
 Stall
 Stall Situations
 Elevator-pitch Trim Stall
 Accelerated and Secondary Stall
 Disturbed Air Encounter
 Upset from Microburst or Wake Turbulence
 Microburst and Wake Turbulence Avoidance
 Stall Training
 Stalls
 Stall Recovery
 Summary

123
124
Stall
Stall is a condition of slowing with extreme angle-of-attack until the wings can no longer
develop lift. This is a pilot induced condition caused with aft elevator input.
There is a huge history in aviation related to pilot stall and a related emphasis on
training regarding stalls. It is common for accident evaluations to call aircraft accidents
and incidents the result of stalling and crashing. It is true, stalls, which lead to accidents
and incidents, typically occur at low altitudes during approach to landing or emergency
attempts to return for a landing. Recovery from a stall at higher altitudes often will be
with only loss of altitude.
A stall is always the result of pulling on the control wheel. We previously found
that pulling on the control wheel causes increased elevator pitch allowing reduced
indicated-airspeed. Therefore, it seems obvious maybe we shouldn’t pull on the control
wheel so much and when at low altitudes and low indicated-airspeeds, be very aware of
the consequences of any pulling of the control wheel.
When maneuvering at slow indicated-airspeeds, if things aren’t going right, adding
power will usually solve the problem. If insufficient power is not available, then you must
use gravity with loss of altitude. No matter the case, pulling the control wheel is unlikely
to be the proper solution.

Critical Elevator-Pitched Angle

There is a limit for increased elevator-pitch and related reduced indicated-airspeed
maneuvering. At some maximum elevator-pitch angle (attaining wing critical angle-of-
attack), the airflow over the surface of the wings will be unable to maintain its conforming
laminar flow, and will break away, causing a turbulent flow area across the top surfaces of
the wings resulting in loss of lift…a stall.
Critical elevator-pitch is the aircraft elevator-pitched angle, which causes loss of
conforming airflow over the wings. This happens to all aircraft at some greater angle-of-
attack.
For most aircraft, the critical elevator-pitched angle will be between 15-20 degrees
of nose up pitch to the relative-wind. The critical elevator-pitch angle varies with each
wing form. It is all about the physical properties and behavior of airflow and the form of a
wing.
Critical pitch angle is from elevator-pitch and is always the 15-20 degree angle-of-
attack above any relative-wind of motion whether level or flying at some climb angle.
The attitude of the aircraft does not necessarily relate to the critical pitch angle. In
a steep, high-powered climb situation, your aircraft nose pitches quite high with excess
engine power. The relative-wind, opposite the direction of aircraft motion, always follows
the excess powered climb-pitch angle.

125
Aircraft Pitch Control
Elevator control and engine thrust lift-component are aircraft attitude-pitch control. We
know pitching up with the elevator allows deceleration of indicated-airspeed. Flight
conducted with minimum elevator control input will reduce the likelihood of approaching a
stall. This requires understanding that an elevator-pitch trim setting allows the aircraft to
fly at a desired indicated-airspeed. There becomes no need for excessive elevator-pitch
control.
We found that engine thrust increase above sustaining indicated-airspeed cause’s
climb-pitch. Increased engine thrust then will cause reducing descent or increasing
altitude. There is no tendency to approach a stall with increased thrust.
Now we know we should conduct slower indicated-airspeed flight primarily with
engine thrust and minimum elevator control. At the same time, we understand, if flight is
at a reduced indicated-airspeed, to accelerate requires pushing on the elevator control to
allow this acceleration.
Slow indicated-airspeed maneuvering then requires coordination of increased
thrust and pushing of the elevator. Pulling on the control wheel in these conditions must
be with a learned consideration that it must be momentary, then released.
We found earlier that descent operation below level-flight sustaining thrust settings
required some added up elevator trim for maintaining the original constant indicated-
airspeed. Now you can expect low powered operation, as is used for landing
approaches, to respond from power increase with some increased angle-of-attack pitch.
It may require some push on the elevator control and nose-down elevator trim to offset
the pitch-up from power increases during slow indicated-airspeed maneuvering.

Stalling
Increasing elevator-pitch angle causes the airflow to deflect more and more away from
the top wing surface, until upon reaching the wing critical angle-of-attack, it can no longer
follow the wing contour, and breaks completely away, with resulting turbulent flow and a
loss of lift.
Forcing the airplane into an elevator-pitched angle beyond which the airflow can no
longer conform to the upper wing surface results in a stall. This is loss of laminar airflow
for generating lift.
With positive-dynamically stable aircraft, a stall can only happen by continued aft
elevator-pitch control input from you, the pilot. Pitching-up with the elevator control, into a
critical elevator-pitched angle of the wing, can only happen by you pulling on the control
wheel.
If you were not pulling on the control wheel, there is no reduced indicated-
airspeed, but merely descent with gravity-thrust. Gravity-thrust adds to retain the
horizontal sustaining-thrust. If engine thrust is not sufficient, there would be continuing
flight, but with loss of altitude.

126
 It is essential you not allow the aircraft to exceed the critical elevator-pitch angle.
You must maintain normal operating procedures with use of power to assure the aircraft
cannot attain such an attitude.
Normally stalling an aircraft will be only for demonstration to regulators of the ability
to recognize and recover from stalling situations.

Stall Situations
All stalls result from pilot induced elevator-pitch angle creating an excessive wing angle-
of-attack.
Actual stall events typically are unwanted, unexpected and at low altitudes. For
this reason, it is necessary the pilot be familiar with how each aircraft stalls, and how to
recover rapidly from such an event.
The idea that you can stall the aircraft, with simply pulling on the control wheel,
should alert you to how to avert a stall. Just don’t pull!
There are, however, certain circumstances that have historically led to stalls, and,
unfortunately, these situations typically occur during low indicated-airspeed, low-altitude
maneuvering, often making it impossible to recover.
The control input forces become less during slowed flight as airflow pressures
across the control surfaces reduce. The reduced pressure on control throw requires more
input to get the same response, and tends to hide the concept of approaching a stalling
indicated-airspeed.
These situations, then, can lead toward the stall scenario, and if occurring at low
altitude, are often with fatal consequences.
The attitude of your aircraft in a wings level stall is quite nose high, and normally
easily recognized. However, the nose high attitude in a descending steep turn is often
not recognized, which adds to the tendency of continued input of extreme control coupled
with increased stall indicated-airspeed, leading to a steep angled, turning stall.
Any distraction when directing the aircraft to a point, such as the low indicated-
airspeed descending turn to a landing spot, can divert attention from controlling and
inadvertently forcing an attitude, rather than letting the aircraft fly.
Training in how to maneuver with minimum manual elevator control during turns
and learning awareness of the consequences of excessive elevator-pitch is required for
all pilots.

Common Stall Scenarios

The following are the most common situations leading to low-altitude stalls resulting from
this excessive pilot input of aft elevator-pitch control.
 Base to final approach turn; in this lowered indicated-airspeed, high drag
configured turn, if the aircraft seems to be overshooting the final approach, it is
human nature to want to continue into the steep bank, and pull the control
wheel, in an attempt to correct back. A steep banked attitude with aft elevator

127
 control results in increasing the “g” loading with associated increase of stall
indicated-airspeed.
The stall often results from restricting increased bank angle with aileron control
while using rudder to “steer” the turn. This combination can result in a cross-
controlled stall; though pulling the elevator, which causes the increased
aerodynamic loading, is the cause of any stall, even at this higher indicated-
airspeed.
There must be a practiced and drilled discipline for you to be aware, and know
how to make this turn safely. If you have to pull the elevator control, it may be
time to abort the approach.
 Having engine problem at takeoff, and making a reduced power or loss-of-
power steep turn attempt at returning to the airport often results in excessive
elevator control input and again a low-altitude turning stall.
 Aft elevator-pitch input during takeoff, when indicated-airspeed is at a minimum
initial flying indicated-airspeed can easily become a stall situation. This is more
common in operation within low-density air of high altitude, or short field takeoff
attempts to make it fly.
 Low altitude, slow indicated-airspeed, circling turns, when observing an object
on the ground can lead to inadvertent loss of control. This is diverted attention,
trying to sight something on the ground and concentrating on something other
than flying the machine.
 Normal landing flare is a common situation in which the aircraft, deliberately
slowed toward the minimum elevator-pitched indicated-airspeed. The intent is
to touchdown just as approaching stall indicated-airspeed. If the roundout and
flare are too high, it is possible to stall, and have the aircraft drop a few feet,
onto the runway. The landing stall can create a hard landing, with damage to
the structure of the aircraft. The landing touchdown stall requires consideration
of possible strut attachment damage, which may not be visually identifiable.
This may mean canceling the flight for a maintenance inspection.
How do you know if it is a hard landing?
There being no way to measure, the only way to know for sure…“If you thought
it might have been, then it is!”

Elevator-pitch Trim Stall!

The elevator-pitched trim stall results from a go-around maneuver with your aircraft
trimmed at the slower indicated-airspeed in a landing approach high drag configuration.
When initiating the approach abort/go-around procedure, aft control wheel input
just prior to or as the power input happens, could cause a stall.
All approaches are at power settings below sustaining thrust for level flight. This is
to allow the aircraft to descend toward the landing. The small vertical component of lift

128
from the engine power may have been reduced which resulted in added aft elevator-pitch
trim to maintain the approach indicated-airspeed.
When adding go-around power, the aircraft may pitch up more than desired.
Increased up angle-of-attack from increasing to and through sustaining thrust will
increase the angle-of-attack, allowing some reduced indicated-airspeed.
If there is any increased wing downwash and propeller blast affecting the tail
loading there will be additional elevator-pitch effect allowing additional reduction of
indicated-airspeed.
At the same time, the excess power causing climb pitch is causing a large nose
upward attitude change. The excess power causing climb-pitch, depending on thrust
available, will add a climb angle to the elevator-pitch angle and can result in an unusual
nose high attitude though not necessarily approaching elevator-pitched critical angle-of-
attack.
From an approach, being in a descent, it is common for you to think it necessary to
pull on the control wheel to level as you ram the throttle to this maximum go-around
power setting.
Too fast response by pulling the control wheel, can easily happen at or before
attaining the excess power input, and possibly cause stall indications, or an actual stall,
as power increase creates its additional nose up climb-pitch.
Without caution, the nose up trim of a low indicated-airspeed approach, with rapid
power application, coupled with aft control wheel input for stopping descent, could all
come together for the stall.

Accelerated and Secondary Stall

An accelerated stall occurs with excessive aft elevator control input exceeding the critical
elevator-pitch angle with the aircraft at a higher indicated-airspeed.
This can occur in recovery from a high indicated-airspeed diving situation. The
high indicated-airspeed dive attitude requires cautious control to avoid overstress of the
wing loading. At the same time, exercise care to not cause excessive elevator-pitch input
leading to attaining the critical elevator-pitch angle, an accelerated stall.
It is possible to force a stall from any attitude, including descent.
Secondary stall occurs during stall recovery as an accelerated stall. It is the result
of too rapid and excessive up elevator-pitch following the initial down elevator-pitch input
of a stall recovery.
Introduction of secondary stall can be as an additional maneuver to the normal stall
recovery demonstration. This is developing awareness and technique for how your
aircraft responds to these control inputs.

Disturbed Air Encounter

If you could see air, it might be frightening!
There are other ways to cause inadvertent stall.

129
 Though you can stall the aircraft with aft elevator-pitch input by exceeding the
elevator-pitched critical angle of the wings, it is possible to encounter situations, such as
inflight air turbulence, or wake turbulence from the passing of another aircraft. These
situations generate high velocity vortices in the free-stream airmass that if encountered
can cause a wing to stall or in some manner cause drastic lift change, perhaps only on
one wing at a time.

Upset
An upset is a sudden, erratic, changed attitude. You can expect upset, rapid altitude or
indicated-airspeed change with flight into extreme microburst wind downdraft, or updraft,
and lingering wake vortices from prior passing aircraft.
Recovery from upset requires control response similar to acrobatic flight
maneuvering.
Extreme nose up or steep banked attitudes from upset can approach or lead to
actual stall with improper aft elevator-pitch control input.
In an extreme attitude, awareness of the necessity to push the control wheel
forward with coordinated input of the rudder needs to be firmly entrenched in the pilot’s
mind.
It is difficult to have a mindset to push if in close proximity to the ground!

Microburst
Microburst is rapid change in airmass movement associated with thunderstorm approach
and passage across an area. There are low altitude, high velocity, horizontal, and vertical
winds associated with thunderstorm passage. When encountered, these effects can
cause extreme changes of indicated-airspeed and altitude.
Avoidance of thunderstorm encounter is the primary way to handle this
phenomenon. Inadvertent encounter may require maximum power to maintain controlled
flight. Continued penetration through an area may not be possible with an aircraft.
Large indicated-airspeed changes can occur when encountering microburst winds.
Low indicated-airspeed approach configurations can create possible stall situations when
passing through these rapidly changing winds. Consider increasing approach indicated-
airspeed to allow an airspeed margin for passing through these conditions.
A landing approach through possible microburst conditions requires consideration
of the headwind component of approach and landing winds. A reference for increasing
the approach indicated-airspeed is to attain the normal no-wind approach groundspeed,
creating a buffer in the event there is sudden decrease of indicated-airspeed.

Wake Turbulence Avoidance

Wake turbulence encounters can cause extreme attitude changes to a following aircraft.
These situations are not too unlike flying through a dust devil though the direction of the
vortices may be different. In either case, there are unseen vortices of air rotating rapidly

130
in different directions and result in unusual flight response as your airfoil passes through
them.
Generation of large rotating masses of air (vortexes) by the volumetric
displacement of an aircraft, as it passes through the airmass creates wake turbulence.
The radical disturbance of air resulting from a preceding aircraft can drastically
affect your following machine. In a slow moving airmass, these conditions last for several
minutes after a passage. A larger and heavier machine passing through an airmass
causes greater displacement and vortex turbulence.
A usual wake turbulence encounter will cause sudden loss of lift on one wing
before acting on the other. This can result in extreme banking attitudes (upsets) and
corresponding loss of altitude. A natural reaction is input of full opposite aileron.
Depending on the severity of the encounter, this may result in recovery.
An analysis of the force vectors, when close to a 90-degree bank, will show that
proper rudder input at this time can help give a nose up attitude, if required. Proper
control input as in acrobatic maneuvering may reduce the tendency for loss of altitude
during the recovery. It requires input of some down elevator control to reduce the
elevator-pitch angle.
The process of proper control response requires pilot training for a natural reactive
input, when encountering sudden and extreme attitude changes.
Avoidance of possible unusual or extreme maneuvers or attitudes is always the
best plan. Minimize encounters of wake turbulence by understanding the nature of wake
generation and its behavior.
The flow of cyclonic rotating wake from a preceding airplane gradually dissipates
while slowly drifting and descending in the direction of the general airmass movement.
Awareness by staying slightly above prior traffic is an operational practice. This
means flying with the head not the rule.
It is not necessary to be “on” altitude if the airplane ahead is big and relatively
close. Sneak up 50 or 100 feet. The system allows this. Fly a little to the upwind side of
on-course. If runway length will allow, make your landing touchdown just beyond the
touchdown of the airplane ahead.
Do not hesitate to go-around if not satisfied with the spacing or time for wake dissipation.
Understand where or if wake turbulence can linger from the airplane ahead.
Airmass movement can be determined from the reported wind direction and speed.
Calm winds allow wake turbulence to linger for considerable periods over the approach of
the runway. Light winds crossing parallel runways can drift wake turbulence from one
parallel runway to the other!
At the first indication of any erratic flight behavior, immediately increase power and
altitude. Being suspicious of the possibility of wake encounter is a significant deterrent
and allows much more rapid reactions.

131
 Be aware there can be lingering wake even from small aircraft and even during
takeoff where they are using maximum power. Engine thrust blasting-air cause’s
disruption similar to the volumetric displacement of passage through an airmass.
Understand that an encounter can result in at least momentary totally uncontrolled
flight! Don’t hesitate to go-around before the encounter if unsure of what might happen.
Don’t let the controllers influence your caution. Going around is always preferable to
breaking the aircraft.

Practice Stalls
Prior to practice of stalling flight, inspect the aircraft to see that you have stored all loose
items, so nothing becomes a hazard in the cockpit. Assure seatbelts are tight.
When creating an attitude that approaches the maximum an airplane can fly, the
slowing indicated-airspeed will cause reduced lift, increased induced drag, and gravity
starting the nose down. This condition will cause acceleration by gravity, and the
machine to continue flight.
If you input additional up elevator-pitch, an extreme pitched up attitude can result
leading to more indicated-airspeed loss, and if continued, the aircraft stalls. The aircraft
begins to fall. Falling from the gravity force of acceleration is with a thrust equivalent of
the aircraft’s weight. That is rapid acceleration accompanied with rapid loss of altitude.
Emphasize the comparison of control inputs that allow your airplane to operate
safely, versus the inputs that created stalls. The stalls occur with added aft elevator-pitch
control input by you, when attempting to maintain altitude.

Stall Training
Excessive nose-up elevator-pitch control causes stall. Stalling can only happen with
controlling to the critical elevator-pitch angle. This happens with aft/up elevator-pitch
control input.
All practice stall scenarios result in increasing to the critical elevator-pitch angle
and its related critical wing angle-of-attack. Increased elevator-pitch always allows the
aircraft to decrease indicated-airspeed.
Initially fly the setup, configuration, demonstration, and flight of different stall
scenarios, without elevator-pitch input, to indicate how the airplane “wants” to fly, and its
descending response in each situation. These will show that the aircraft will not stall
without pilot input, because there is no change to the trimmed set elevator-pitch, even
with large power change.
In this scenario, power change below sustaining power would cause some reduced
elevator-pitch effect allowing acceleration. There would be no stall.
A second demonstration of each scenario follows, using the elevator “aft/to” control
input for learning indications of approaching a stall, and then, a third demonstration of an
actual stall.

132
 Emphasize minimum altitude loss and recovery techniques throughout all
demonstrations and practice.
Emphasis is to understand, for an airplane to stall, it requires the pilot pulling on
the elevator control, and initial stall recovery is release or push on the elevator control.
In all different configurations, with ongoing discussion during the maneuvers, note
the indicated-airspeed at which a stall occurs and the altitude loss in the recovery, these
become limitations for operation of this aircraft.
You must be convinced that stalling an aircraft is the result of improper pilot input.
There is always some minimum indicated-airspeed, at which stall will occur.
The most common, unwanted stall incidents occur unexpectedly at low altitudes.
Often these incidents are at such low altitudes there is minimum altitude for recovery.
Stalls can only happen, when you pull on the control wheel or stick, in an attempt
to “make” the airplane perform. Physically, it is impossible for the machine to do
something it cannot and will always respond with descent. It is necessary to understand
you are the one that causes the stall, and only by pulling the control wheel.
In beginning flight, accomplish all maneuvers, except landing roundout and flare,
with minimum use of elevator-pitch control. Initial flight demonstration and practice finds
the limits of normal flight. That is, the maximum attitudes the aircraft can fly without any
elevator-pitch input to allow change of indicated-airspeed. You will find that when
exceeding any of these maneuvering limits, it results in the aircraft descending.
Discuss and demonstrate the lowering of the nose and application of power at low
altitudes, with approaches to actual landings. This allows acquaintance with the sight
picture of low-altitude maneuvering. Demonstrate seeing the ground, and obstacles on
the ground, up close while maneuvering!
This exercise should be demonstrated by the Instructor, and be related to
recognizing marginal maneuvering situations and initiating proper recoveries prior to even
approaching close to a stall.
You should become aware of the control inputs and indicated-airspeed at which
stall indication occurs for each maneuver. The different attitudes and configurations have
their own indicated-airspeed limitations for flight.
You should then be shown and practice how control input can cause the actual
stall to occur. Emphasize that most recoveries will result in loss of altitude.
You must also understand that each aircraft has its own minimum indicated-
airspeed at the different attitudes and configurations at which they will begin descending.
These indicated-airspeeds should be part of a normal checkout when operating any given
aircraft.
The emphasis should be in awareness of minimum indicated-airspeed for a current
configuration and attitude. Indicated-airspeed awareness should cause recovery initiation
well before reducing to stall indicated-airspeed. This checkout relates to any aircraft you
fly.

133
 The only reference you have for indicated-airspeed is the indicated-airspeed
indicator. Your airplane performance should relate to what you read on the indicator in
spite of any theoretical errors that may be involved.
Pilot handbooks often have indicated-airspeed limitations related to calibrated
airspeed or equivalent airspeed. You have no way to read these other kinds of airspeed,
but can only read indicated-airspeed. The indicated-airspeed can also be in error when in
different attitudes.
None of these things should be a restriction to flight control. When determining the
indicated-airspeed limits from actual operation, the pilot can use those actual limits for
control.
At any given maneuvered attitude and indicated-airspeed, there is an expected
response. The pilot should know what the indicated-airspeed for the indicator installed on
this aircraft will be for each attitude and always expect to fly well above the actual
minimum.

Stall Recovery
“You Stall the Airplane!” “Turn it loose!”
Teach and drill the stall recovery as an emergency, minimum altitude loss,
procedure. Most actual stall scenarios occur at very low altitudes. Use very rapid and
positive recovery procedures.
Incorporate flight toward zero “g” in practice when learning how to recover from
any simulated low altitude unusual attitude, or stalled condition, to attempt absolute
minimum loss of altitude.
As part of finding limitations and recovery from extreme attitudes, you should
practice the feeling of approaching a zero-g condition. This is rapidly pushing the nose
down for momentary reduced g-force. This maneuver results in less than one-g
conditions, causing you to feel lifted upward against your seat belt.
These sensations are not usual and need to be part of normal recovery training
experience from extreme attitudes. Flight at less than one-g reduces the aircraft loading
and the related stalling indicated-airspeed.
Upon the release of forced elevator aft control input, the dynamically stable
airplane will try to resume the trimmed indicated-airspeed.
The stall recovery is simultaneous, nose down (release of undesired elevator-pitch
input), wings level with horizon (for maximum vertical lift component), and added power
(for added lift).
This quickly regains flying indicated-airspeed and required lift. In low powered
aircraft, there can be a significant loss of altitude, during a full stall recovery. High-
powered airplanes can often fly themselves out of a stall, without much if any loss of
altitude, when releasing the extreme elevator-pitch input.

134
 Historically, most inadvertent stalls occur at low altitudes. Thorough practice and
drill of stall avoidance, and understanding of them being “Pilot induced”, should eliminate
most of the potential for stalls.
These scenarios, occurring at low altitudes, are not the time to lose altitude, or
learning what it takes to make the maneuver. It may be desirable, or required, to
“immediately push the elevator-pitch control toward a momentary near zero-g attitude”.
This will allow the wings to react with momentary reduced “g” loading, while doing the
normal wings level, power and indicated-airspeed increase, stall recovery.
In any extreme situation, the airplane will probably lose altitude. At low altitudes,
the best recovery may be that if there is ground contact, it may at least be with the wheels
first rather than a stalled wingtip!
On a base to final approach turn, if a wing has stalled, it is unlikely, though
possible, that recovery to minimize the altitude loss can be fast enough to avoid ground
contact. All pilots should practice, with their airplane, at a safe altitude, to know how it
may react in this situation.
In all stall situations, it is necessary to reverse any aft elevator-pitch control and
push, at least momentarily, while simultaneously adding power and leveling the wings!

Summary
• Elevator-pitch controls indicated-airspeed.
• Critical elevator-pitch angle is the maximum elevator-pitched angle-of-attack
before the aircraft wings stall.
• Stall occurs when exceeding the critical elevator-pitched wing airflow-
encountering angle.
• You can force critical elevator-pitch angle at any indicated-airspeed, or
attitude, with excessive aft elevator control. This can cause a secondary stall
and high-airspeed stall. Immediate recovery is still releasing any forced aft
elevator-pitch control input.
• The most common inadvertent stall scenarios, when maneuvering, are the
base to final steep turn, engine failure on takeoff return to airport attempt,
distraction when circling low over a point for sighting, and landing with high
roundout and flare.
• Trim Stall comes from aft elevator-pitch input when initiating an aborted
approach or landing. The need to stop descent, and start acceleration, for the
go-around can lead to this stall. Aircraft requiring large trim change from
added power are prone to this inadvertent input. You should know how your
aircraft responds to large power change when operating at slow indicated-
airspeed, full flap configured, nose-up trim settings.
• Excessive aft elevator-pitch control can cause a stall at any indicated-
airspeed, an accelerated stall.

135
• Very high-altitude operation can have small indicated-airspeed differences
between approaching mach-1 buffeting and stall.
• Localized anomalies of the airstream, by weather, or other aircraft, cause
extreme mixing of the airmass.
• Avoidance of airstream anomalies is best practice.
• The pilot manually pulling the elevator-pitch control causes stall! All stalls are
pilot induced, by pulling on the control wheel. The aircraft just cannot do some
things. Forcing it with the elevator-pitch control makes it worse.
• Pull-up; increasing the elevator-pitch to prevent descent without coordinated
power increase can quickly lead to exceeding the critical elevator-pitched wing
angle.
• Operation at high elevator-pitch (low indicated-airspeeds, high drag) requires
added power. If sufficient power in not available, the aircraft can only descend
with gravity power.
• Slow flight requires increasing elevator-pitch for a desired indicated-airspeed
with coordinated power.
• Practice flight scenarios, leading to stall situations, are for finding minimum
indicated-airspeeds. These indicated-airspeeds come from actual inflight
determination and become limitations for that aircraft.
• In the event of inadvertent stall, flight scenarios for finding minimum loss of
altitude require practice in rapid recovery techniques, and allow learning
probable altitude loss.
• Stall recovery must be quick and positive. The pilot must be proficient in the
technique of minimizing altitude loss in a recovery including maneuvering
momentarily toward zero-g loading if necessary.

136
137
138
 Chapter 10-----EMERGENCY LANDINGS

Emergency landings become necessary when losing engine power, imminent failure from
loss of oil pressure and precautionary for reasons such as fire.
When the engine quits, immediate landing is the only choice. Precautionary
landings may not create quite as much concern but require the same cautions.
A very large percentage of emergency off field landings have resulted in touch
down beyond a point down one-half the length of the chosen field, with many fatalities
from overrunning the chosen landing site itself.
This chapter discusses the following considerations and necessary procedures, if
the engine fails, or expected to fail:

• Acceptance
• Select a Site
• The Approach
• Preparation for Landing
• The Mental Anxiety
• What is Experience?
• Landing
• Survival
• Let’s Review Real Life
• Summary

139
140
Acceptance
A mental problem occurs in an engine-out situation. The first thing the pilot must do is
understand; there is no decision to make, there is going to be a landing somewhere
nearby. Acceptance in the mind is vital for continued decision-making. You can think
about it a bit and make up your mind right now.
Excessive controlling, by manual aft elevator-pitch (pulling up), will not cure any
alarm, concern, or fear of a flight situation. If the engine power available will not lift the
aircraft sufficiently, it is going to descend. If the ground is close, with complete or partial
power loss, controlling direction to a best probable landing site is likely your only option.
Accept it! Keep control throughout; land the aircraft.

Select a Site
Accept that the airplane must land immediately and select a site. Upon the realization of
engine failure, with or without acceptance of the necessity of landing immediately, the pilot
must find a suitable place for landing.
This is not something allowing delay or even considered contemplation. There
often will be only seconds, though, in many cases, it can be minutes, before the aircraft
lands.
Prior consideration of the kinds of surfaces that may be available and probable
scenario of landing roll-out conditions with low altitude engine failures aids in making the
analysis and landing decision.

The Approach
It is now necessary to fly the aircraft to the chosen field, while attempting to setup, and
maintain, approach and landing procedures as normally as possible.
The emergency landing approach procedure is similar to an idle-power approach.
You are a glider. There is no engine control of altitude. The pilot must be proficient in
minimum powered visual approach and directed course spot landing procedures.
The engine out approach is initially flown in an attempt to maneuver the aircraft
toward a landing position as close to a normal approach as possible. This is flying toward
a “key” position.
A key position can be toward a normal downwind to base “key” position relative to
the chosen landing site, and if not high enough, then to a normal base to final “key”
position. If still not high enough, then fly directly toward the landing point visually sighted
low on the windshield.
Fly the idle-power approach technique toward a highest “key” position available for
the selected landing site, while attempting restart, and radioing the status of airplane. Do
as many procedures, including re-start, as you can, in the time available, while flying
toward this highest possible approach “key” position. Normal accomplishment of the
approach and landing procedure will follow.

141
 Very low altitude engine failure may force landing within a few seconds. At that
point, you are already on short final, or even at roundout, or flare. Prepare yourself
mentally for this kind event.
This is a time for maintaining short field and soft-field touchdown attitude and
indicated-airspeed procedures. Continue controlling and make a normal landing. Control
the airplane minimum indicated-airspeed approach, even if the touchdown will be into
rocks, trees, cars, or houses. Direct the aircraft with rudder steering and aileron turning
as able.
DO NOT PULL THE ELEVATOR CONTROL until roundout—DO NOT ALLOW THE
AIRCRAFT TO STALL!!!
Be sure you know the stall speeds prior to flight!

High
ENGINE FAILURE LANDING
GLIDING FLIGHT TOWARD A
KEY POSITION

Very High

High Key—X
Approx. 1,000’ AGL
High

X—High Key
Approx. 1,000’ AGL

Establish A Visual Sight Picture

Centered Low On The Windshield
Fig: 10-1

Preparation for Landing

If there is time, the pilot must be preparing for a probable crash scenario. Prepare the
passengers for a crash and instruct them on protective measures.
Instruct the passengers to cover their faces with any shock absorbent materials
available. Use clothing, sleeping bags, anything to absorb the momentum of the head
thrown forward during rapid deceleration, and for protection from impacted debris.

142
 Instruct them to be leaning forward as much as possible at touchdown with arms
wrapped around their head.
As the pilot, you must also try to prepare for the probable rapid deceleration that
will occur on an unprepared surface.
The mental preparation is that, at touchdown, everyone will become passengers. It
is imperative that you be conscious when the aircraft stops!
Maneuver the aircraft as closely as possible to an idle-power approach procedure.

The Mental Anxiety

A pilot making an actual engine-out approach to a selected point may begin realizing the
aircraft could land short. It is almost impossible to convince oneself not to fly a little high
or a little fast on an emergency power-off approach. Real-life experiences show it is usual
for pilots to do one or the other and often both, staying high and fast.
This is a decision a pilot must have made prior to flight. It is essential to review,
study, and consider how one will think when in the engine-out situation. How will the
engine-out approach affect oneself mentally?
It takes an aware pilot to keep flying a normal approach in these conditions. Clear
understanding of power off and idle-power approach and landing procedures is required.
Prior practice, and understanding of ground effect, aids in deciding not to fly too high or
too fast. Visual acquisition and control toward the landing spot is primary for directed
course control.

What is Experience?
Off-field landing experience comes from considering scenarios of possible conditions. It is
possible to project an infinite number of scenarios, from farm fields, with little or no
obstruction, to landing in houses, rocks, trees, and gullies. At least there has now been
consideration of what could happen.
You will try to touchdown, with controlled minimum forward velocity, the landing
gear, which stressed for landing, should be first to absorb energy. The wings can
contribute to stopping, if there are trees or other obstacles to encounter. The cockpit is
least designed for absorbing energy and makes it a hazardous place to be in an obstacle
encountering type landing. Attempt steering to avoid direct impact with an obstacle
A common off-field landing situation is the nose-wheel catching and flipping the
aircraft upside down. Now you are hanging by your seat belt. What does that feel like?
Think about it. Hanging upside down, at night, with a broken arm, what do you have to do
now?
Engine failure on a night when unable to distinguish anything on the ground is an
interesting condition. The landing is inevitable. Set a minimum forward indicated-
airspeed, by configuring with full flaps and full nose up elevator-pitch trim. The
configuration of the aircraft will cause higher vertical descent, with a minimum forward
velocity.

143
 There will be no stall if aft elevator-pitch is not manually applied. Maintain the wings
level, while bracing for impact. Initiate protection of the face early since there is no way to
know when impact will occur.
Upon eventual touchdown, the landing gear absorbs the vertical impact, and much
of the forward ground speed, minimizing the stopping distance. The elevator vertical
deceleration may shoot the control wheel back toward the forward occupants upon impact
with the ground.
See, you just gained a little experience. There are lots more scenarios that could
be thought up. All this thinking is gaining experience, while conducting any normal
ongoing flight operations.
In any case, prior consideration is the key. If you considered it five years ago, it is
still there when the time comes to use it.

Technique
In gaining your experiences by considering all these scenarios, you might also talk to
some of the old pilots of the world. Some out there have done this thing for real and all
have considered it in some manner.
A technique might be having the elevator-trim full nose up at touchdown. That
reduces the elevator-pitch input pressures quite a bit. You might have to hold the nose
down some as it slows.
It is better sinking than stalling. Stall is falling. That is when people tend to get hurt
badly. The aircraft structure can absorb sinking much better than catching a wing from a
stall.
Practice of these techniques at altitude to enable having mental preparation and a
procedure ready. Low altitude power loss at take-off is not the time for innovation.

LANDING VS CRASHING
A common phrase that appears in many accident reports says, “The aircraft stalled and
crashed!”
The emergency off-field landing situation seems to infer a crash if damaging the
airplane and a landing if not damaged. However, there is a difference between landing
and crashing which does not involve the condition of the airplane.
The control of the aircraft during any approach and touchdown determines the
difference of landing or crashing. A controlled aircraft flown to and through touchdown is
a landing. An approach, which stalls the aircraft at any time prior to touchdown, will result
in a crash. A crash is the aircraft falling uncontrolled to the surface.
When making emergency off-field approaches to areas with obstacles there is a
strong tendency to try to make the aircraft avoid these obstacles.
Few pilots have experienced landing into rocks, trees, houses, or parking lots.
Often it is not possible to avoid these kinds of terrain obstacles in partial or unpowered

144
forced landings. You must accept that it is going to be bad and continue flying the aircraft
as a normal landing approach and touchdown, no matter the condition of the landing area.
The landing gear is the obvious first place you want contact with the surface. Its
design is to absorb lots of energy. After the gear, the wings contacting obstacles will
absorb some energy. The fuselage should be the last place you want to encounter an
obstacle. You are there. A direct encounter with an obstacle can push the engine back
into the cockpit. That is not good.
The key is to use all means possible to slow with minimum contact of the fuselage.
This means you must have controlled the aircraft as long as possible. At touchdown, you
will be quickly aware when you no longer have any control and have become a
passenger.

Continuing the Approach

You have now gained enough experience to be aware you definitely want to land on that
chosen spot or at least close.
You will visually establish a directed course on the final approach. Now you are
confident you can make the field. The field sure looks bad. There are trees and rocks
just short of the touchdown point, and the field looks rough down this low to the ground. It
looked a lot better from a higher altitude. The tall grass was covering up a lot of rocks,
ditches, and gullies.
You have to live with the decision. In some cases if recognized early enough it
may be possible to change landing fields. That is another decision that deserves
consideration when discussing scenarios. Be real sure, if you decide to change landing
fields.

Landing
Now you have to land this thing on the selected spot. Get it centered low and unmoving
relative to the windshield. You will be on a directed course and cannot miss.
Consider if it is necessary to land on the spot at slightly faster indicated-airspeed,
or can you afford floating past some. Are you faster or slower than best glide indicated-
airspeed? Keep the visual picture. Make the airplane go to it.
You better watch out when trying to make the airplane do something. Maybe it
can't. Be real careful using the elevator-pitch control now. You have the indicated-
airspeed set with elevator-trim. All you can do with the elevator-pitch, before roundout
and flare, is pull too much and stall. Don’t do that!

Extreme Landing Surface

If landing on an extremely bad surface, it is obvious dismantling of the aircraft will follow.
Consider using maximum nose up trim and full flaps for a minimum forward velocity as
outlined for the dark night landing. Then you don’t need the elevator-pitch control. The
aircraft will be at its minimum indicated-airspeed. The descent rate will be some higher.

145
 That allows the landing gear to absorb its maximum of both vertical (potential) and
horizontal (kinetic) energies.

Landing on Relatively Smooth Surface

On relative good surfaces, you can set the indicated-airspeed for a normal approach to a
short-field or soft-field landing. Set the elevator-pitch trim to this speed in anticipation of
making a normal touchdown.
Now, are you high or low? Most people tend to be high. You can utilize drag
procedures like extension of the flaps or slips to increase descent.
Are you low? You could be some low, though, with care, keeping the landing spot
centered on the windshield it should not be too low. You are below best glide indicated-
airspeed; push it down to get best glide indicated-airspeed again. That will extend the
glide some. If you are making the approach with full flaps for drag, raising some partial
flaps will extend the glide distance.
Do you feel you are too low for that? You have little choice but to push the
elevator-pitch control to gain best glide indicated-airspeed, or even a little faster, and level
just above the surface, with minimum flaps for reduced drag. Now you will be in ground-
effect. That can extend your glide distance even more.
Maneuver to a minimum forward speed. You are just above the ground, hopefully,
approaching the selected touchdown spot. You are landing.

Touchdown
The roundout and flare will likely be the last control inputs you can make, unless you are
on a relatively smooth field. At this point, whatever it takes. Keep flying through
touchdown. You will recognize when you have become a passenger, until then, keep
flying.
The roundout has leveled the aircraft, and it is slowing and sinking. Continue to
flare the nose up as much as possible. Just don’t stall the thing. Any stall should occur
only at touchdown.
You have maneuvered to a minimum forward speed. That is the best you can do.
Do not try to make it fly slower. It can’t. It will stall if you attempt it.
You are on the ground. It is rough. You never experienced anything like this
before. This part needs discussion.
You just landed in rocks and gullies. The airplane just came to a rapid stop.
Upon touchdown, you realized you had no control. You became a passenger. You
even thought that.
“I am now a passenger—I have to be conscious when the aircraft stops.”
It may seem strange, if this ever happens, but you will think that. Why? Because, I
just told you so! It is now in your mind, and if the time ever comes, you will recall
it…believe me, I know.

146
Landing Roll
Did I say roll, well, maybe so, maybe no?
You are not finished yet. Most of the excitement takes place from touchdown to
stop. You thought the approach was tough, but the landing is where it is.
What do you do during the landing roll?
The main thing is, in what condition you need to be when the aircraft stops.
YOU NEED TO BE CONSCIOUS!!
There is nothing you can do, for yourself, or others, if you are not conscious.
How do you do that?
Well, you have to protect your head. Don’t let it bang around. You just instructed
your passengers to protect their heads and faces. You have to do the same, if you can.
Some techniques might help protect you during touchdown to stop. (I don’t
necessarily call it a landing roll.)

Survival

Staying Conscious
You just touched down on an unprepared field. Things are quickly going bad.
How quick is quick? How long from touchdown to stop if, you land in the trees,
rocks, and gullies?
Everything takes time.
If you encounter irregular hard objects, the airplane is going to start coming apart.
It may tip over on its back. No one can guess. No two incidents are ever the same.
The one thing you can depend upon is that the deceleration will be quite fast. In
most cases, you could expect touchdown to stop within three to five seconds.

Time
During those few seconds, you are to recognize you are a passenger and be protecting
your head to assure consciousness when stopped.
That is not a lot of time, but maybe it is enough to do something. How long is three
to five seconds?
Try counting…one thousand one, one thousand two, one thousand three, one
thousand four, one thousand five…! That is a lot of time.
What did you do during this time?
One thousand one…you had previously figured out how this works, so at
touchdown in these extremely rough conditions, you quickly realized you were now a
passenger. You had no control of the aircraft.
Thrown forward from the rapid deceleration, you have leaned against the shoulder
harness. You happened to have a coat you had previously put in your lap, and you put it
up into your face, and wrapped your arms around your head to keep from banging against
the glare shield and window post.

147
 One thousand two…you are keeping your eyes open, so you can react. Things are
bouncing all over. When is this thing going to stop?
One thousand three…It seems like it has been three minutes. It is like slow
motion. I almost feel that I can do anything I want.
One thousand four…wow, it just flipped over on its back.
One thousand five…It finally stopped. I’m conscious, but I’m hanging upside down.
I better get everyone out of here.

After Stopping
Anyway, you have stopped, upside down, hanging by your seatbelt, with a broken arm.
Do you know what that feels like? Take time to consider this kind of situation as
part of your experience training.
Don’t worry. You are conscious, and if you get out quickly before the plane
catches fire, you are home free. You will heal. Those bumps on your head will go away.
Ouch! That hurt, dropping from the seat belt onto your head. Your left arm isn’t
doing anything. You have to get these people out!

What do you think just happened?

You were protecting your head and face while watching what was going on. Your brain
works fast. It seemed like minutes for the thing to stop. You were lucky enough to be
conscious.
You will be able to remember in detail all these events the rest of your life. That is
what happens when you have your eyes open during fast-moving events. It could be the
same in a rolling car accident, a fall from a ladder, or any other fast-moving situation.
Time seems to slow down…if you are watching.
Your passengers are conscious too. They didn’t get bumped so badly, because
they were protecting their faces with padding from clothing, arms wrapped around their
heads and leaning forward at impact. Get them out of the airplane.
That part is all over now. Take care of anyone hurt badly, then go sit together by a
tree somewhere and try listening for the birds singing. It’s nice and quiet now. The birds
should begin singing soon.
This is a way of relaxing for control of shock. There is not anything pressing for
now. Rescue will come sometime in the next few minutes or hours. Don’t worry about
food. It takes a few weeks to starve. Most people need to lose a pound or so anyway.

Flight into IMC and Visual Disorientation

Loss of visual reference can quickly lead to disorientation and uncontrolled flight. A pilot
without instrument flight training is required to know procedures to maintain control if
inadvertently flying into clouds or for any other reason losing visual reference.
Flight into clouds requires an immediate one-hundred and eighty degree turn to exit
the conditions, while flight in certain marginal weather conditions, especially at night, can

148
cause temporary loss of visual references, requiring maintaining control with reference to
instruments, perhaps for some extended time.
A procedure for making a controlled one-hundred and eighty degree turn is
immediate release of the control wheel while initiating very slow rudder input to cause a
standard rate turn. This requires close observation of the turn indicator and with rudder
control, as necessary, keeping the turn needle steady, as the aircraft makes a one-minute
turn.
Approaching one minute, rudder reversal will level the wings as indicated in a zero
bank indication of the turn needle. The aircraft is maintained wings level with reference to
the turn needle until exiting the clouds.
This procedure will cause some descent as the small bank angle causes a slight
reduction of vertical lift. If necessary, a small power increase would prevent descent and
a larger power increase would cause some climb if needed.
Continued flight, when losing visual references, requires close monitoring of the
turn needle and use of very gradual rudder inputs to correct any turning. Incorporating
crosscheck of the compass will allow directional control. Very small control inputs to the
rudder for wing attitude and very small power changes for climb or descent will maintain
the flight.
You must note that at all times there is no input to the control wheel. The
procedure assumes maintaining the indicated-airspeed currently set with elevator trim,
and no input to the ailerons reduces the possibility of inadvertent over controlling caused
by the feelings initiated if experiencing vertigo.
Visual disorientation can quickly result in vertigo, an inner ear sensing of balance,
normally corrected by vision sensing. Countering vertigo from visual disorientation
requires much discipline. Sitting still, minimizing head movement, while monitoring, and
forcing yourself to believe the readings of the turn needle or attitude indicator, if available,
is the main reference to determine which way is up. Believe the instrument, not how you
feel.

Let’s Review Real Life

Every week in the U.S., there are accidents where pilots have made different kinds of
emergency landings. Almost without fail, the accident reports describe, or suggest the
incident having ended with the aircraft stalling and crashing.
An emergency landing resulting in the aircraft stalling is not a landing but a crash.
A stall leads to the aircraft falling. It is not flying during the period of stall. Gravity is a
huge acceleration factor even when falling a few feet. The most common attitude of an
inadvertent stall is landing or crashing on one wing first. Landing on a wing is not part of
aircraft design.
What is going on that these incidents continue to happen week after week, year
after year?

149
 1. Prior training is a significant part. All pilots are not trained how to control aircraft
properly. Few pilots know where to set the elevator-pitch trim for the indicated-
airspeed for landing and then leave it alone to roundout and flare.
2. The private pilots in the U.S. are not required to demonstrate any proficiency in
idle-power spot landings. This is the approach required to make engine-out off-
field landings.
3. The emergency landing training currently demonstrated is an approach to a
chosen field with a go-around five hundred feet AGL. This does not teach final
approach to touchdown procedures.
4. Proficiency in glide control for extending glide distance in ground effect is not
required.
5. There is seldom teaching of “directed course” visual approach technique, to
enable judgment for power-off spot landings.
6. There has never been any suggestion of how to survive touchdown to stop, and
that is the most exciting part.
7. Almost every week, there are fatalities involved in crash from non-instrument
rated pilots flying into weather, or in some manner becoming visually
disorientated.

Summary
 Accept that the airplane must land immediately and select a site.
 Fly to the highest “key” position possible for an idle-power type approach to the
selected landing site. Attempt restart while radio reporting your location and
status.
 Prepare passengers for a crash scenario and instruct them on protective
measures.
 You are landing! Visually center the landing spot, low, and unmoving, relative
to the windshield.
 You are conducting the flight based on learned procedure from training and
exchanging of experiences with others.
 Descending, the terrain is more clearly visible allowing confirmation of
continuing to this site.
 Configure and maneuver to attain minimum forward speed for the visible field
conditions while assuring positive control.
 At touchdown or shortly thereafter, you will become a passenger. Protect your
head. You must be conscious when the aircraft stops.
 Deceleration is rapid. Probable extensive structural damage and upset will
occur.
 You must keep your eyes open, if possible, while protecting your head. You are
conscious.

150
 Time slowed down. It seemed to take forever to stop.
 It has stopped. You are conscious. Evacuate and care for the passengers. Sit
for a while and listen for the birds singing.

151
152
 Chapter 11------------------------Let’s go Fly

This chapter is putting it all together. You are going on a flight and see what a pilot
can do.
It isn’t about theory; it’s just flying the airplane. Let’s see if you really understand
how to control an aircraft! There are short summaries of the control inputs required for
each phase of flight.

• Taxi
• Takeoff
• Climb
• Level
• Turns
• Descent
• Approach
• Landing
• Crosswinds
• Emergency

153
Taxi for Takeoff
You start the engine and prepare to taxi. This is driving the aircraft on the surface.
Acceleration is with the hand throttle, and steering and stopping is with the individual foot
operated rudder pedals.
It is a new experience with a large machine. It is now twenty or so feet to each
wing tip. You have to remember that, because it is you. You are really big now.
The tail swings oppositely when turning and on some aircraft has an arc of travel
larger than the wing tips. Think big!
This all requires visually checking for clearance of the machine and the taxiway
before maneuvering the aircraft.
Traffic on airports is one-way. There is no passing or meeting of opposite direction
aircraft. If someone is in the way, you just have to stay back and wait for them to clear.
They will do the same for you.
 Steering and braking are with the rudder pedals.
 Don’t forget the propeller blasting air behind. It can blow things away and
other aircraft can blow you away.
 Movement/speed/motion is with throttle control.

Takeoff Flight
There is a pre-takeoff procedure to assure proper configuration of the aircraft for
takeoff and the engine and instruments are functioning properly.
For initial flight control, there is a pre-takeoff setting for the elevator trim. This
setting determines the indicated-airspeed at which lift-off will occur; initial flight begins.
For this flight, we will set the elevator trim for an expected Vx initial indicated-
airspeed.
You taxi onto the runway for takeoff. With most small aircraft, it is brake release,
and takeoff power set to maximum forward throttle.
The aircraft begins accelerating down the runway. The rudder controls steering for
alignment along the centerline of the runway.
As the aircraft transits the indicated-airspeed set by elevator-trim, the aircraft will
begin flying. It is now airborne.
For a first flight, steer with rudder input, aided with any necessary control wheel
aileron turning as may be required. Visually sighting a point on the horizon allows
maintaining direction as you continue ahead in a slight nose-up climb attitude. You are
climbing at the lift-off indicated-airspeed. There is no more acceleration. You are in
space with three-dimensional maneuvering capabilities.
Since setting takeoff power, there has been minimum pilot control input except
steering with rudder or turning with aileron.
 Elevator-pitch was trim-set for an initial indicated-airspeed, there has been
no elevator input.
 Steering is with rudder during ground roll and initial flight.
155
  Throttle setting is maximum power for takeoff.
 Control wheel aileron as necessary, for maintaining wings level or turning to
maintain headings.

Climbing Flight
The maximum or takeoff power thrust is sustaining the flight with an additional
climb-pitched angle from excess thrust. The aircraft is now proceeding straight ahead in a
climb attitude. You can monitor the sustained thrust and elevator-pitch trim as indicated-
airspeed and the excess thrust and climb-pitch as rate-of-climb.
Initiate any required change in climb indicated-airspeed with small elevator control
input. Then the elevator-pitch trim can set the indicated-airspeed for hands-off elevator
controlling.
The visual picture is the horizon level across the lower edge of the windshield or
even slightly below the nose cowling. Select a point on the distant horizon for heading
control.
Initiate small-banked clearing turns to the left and right of the selected heading
point throughout the climb. This is slow rudder steering input and visual attitude
monitoring of the horizon with small-banked angles across the windshield while turning
back and forth. This allows scanning the area for conflicting traffic and continues
throughout all flight.
 Elevator control and elevator-pitch trim adjust to attain a desired climb
indicated-airspeed.
 Steering with rudder for small angled clearing turns during flight. Aileron
input if necessary for turning to headings.
 Throttle setting maximum continuous power.
 Climb rate will be from excess power.
 Visual sighting of the horizon is at a continuously changing, small angle, low
across the windshield.

Level Flight
Upon approaching the desired cruising altitude, begin gradual power reduction to
cause leveling to a constant altitude.
If desiring a different indicated-airspeed cruise, the elevator control can be pushed
slightly to allow acceleration, or pulled slightly to allow deceleration. Power adjustment of
thrust then causes the indicated-airspeed change.
Adjustment of elevator-pitch trims to the desired indicated-airspeed.
The visual picture of the horizon will now be level across the windshield and in a
desired direction as referenced to a chosen directional point on the horizon.
 Elevator control and elevator-pitch trim adjusted to a cruise indicated-
airspeed.
 Throttle setting coordinated to maintain and sustain level flight.
156
  Steering is with small angled turns by rudder input for heading corrections
during flight.
 Aileron as necessary for coordinating turning to headings
 Visual sighted horizon fixed level across the windshield, directed to a distant
point.

Turning Flight
Initiate a change of direction by aileron control wheel input turning in the direction desired.
Rudder input steers the thrust as required to coordinate the turn.
Coordination with power/thrust increase is necessary as the aircraft rolls into an
angled attitude. Hold the desired angle of bank sighting of the horizon constant across
the windshield by adjusting aileron input, while the power increase coordinates to maintain
the visually sighted tracking of the nose level across the horizon.
Choose a point on the horizon for a desired direction of flight, and as the nose
tracking along the horizon approaches the point, the aileron and rudder coordinated input,
are turned back to level the wings for flight direct to that point.
Coordinated reduction of power as reducing the turning banked angle will return to
the sustaining thrust setting as set prior to initiating the turn.
 Steering is with rudder, for coordination of aileron turns, during flight.
 Aileron input as necessary to attain a desired angle of bank, then
neutralized.
 Throttle setting coordinated with added thrust for climb-pitched lift to
maintain level turning flight.
 Visual sighting of the nose tracking is level along the horizon until reaching
the desired heading point.

Changing Altitudes

Climb
To initiate climb from a set altitude, increase the thrust to a climb power setting. There will
now be excess thrust causing a climb-pitched angle with increasing altitude.
The visual picture will be the horizon level and low across the windshield as during
the initial takeoff climb to altitude. The procedures are the same. Clearing turns while
climbing and leveling at a new altitude are the same as the original leveling procedure.

Descent
To initiate a descent, from a set altitude, decrease the thrust slowly to allow descent. The
horizon sighted visually will be level but move slightly higher across the windshield. There
will be some acceleration. When reducing thrust from the sustaining thrust, there is
reduction of the small vertical lift of engine thrust contributing to angle-of-attack. This

157
causes a decreased pitch trim so to maintain the same constant indicated-airspeed, a
small nose up elevator-pitch input is required.

Leveling
When approaching an assigned altitude, initiate a gradual, coordinated increase of power
until attaining the sustaining thrust for the set indicated-airspeed. Again, as increasing to
sustaining thrust is attained there will be a small nose down elevator-pitch input required
to offset the renewed vertical component of engine thrust lift.
Response of the aircraft from descending attitudes may require some aft elevator
input temporarily to aid overcoming the momentum from gravitational force effect of
descent.
 Rudder steering continues, as necessary, toward a heading point on the
horizon.
 Aileron as necessary for any required angle of bank to attain a heading.
 Expect some initial acceleration when reducing power. Retarding the
throttle slightly from the sustaining thrust allows gravity force to sustain the
indicated-airspeed, and allow descent.

Descending Flight
To descend for landing, turn toward the sighted destination. As that destination comes
into view in the windshield, maintain level cruise heading, and altitude, until the
destination has gradually moved, sighted, and centered, toward the lower edge of the
windshield. At that time, reduce power slowly to cause the aircraft to descend maintaining
the destination unmoving at the lower edge of the windshield. This is establishing a
“directed course” toward the landing airport. Adjust the power to maintain the destination,
unmoving, in the lower center of the windshield.
The initial power reduction of thrust will allow a slight acceleration. Elevator-pitch is
coordinated with trim and the thrust to adjust to a desired descent indicated-airspeed.
When approaching the traffic pattern altitude, level with increased thrust while
maneuvering with turns into the traffic pattern downwind leg, configure the flaps, and
adjust the elevator and elevator-pitch trim to the desired indicated-airspeed for approach.
Make power adjustments as necessary for maintaining altitude.
On the downwind leg, complete the landing approach checklist, and adjust the
elevator-pitch trim to maintain the initial approach indicated-airspeed.
 Steering is with rudder for coordination of aileron turns, toward the landing
destination.
 Elevator and elevator-pitch trim adjust to attain desired indicated-airspeed.
 Throttle setting adjusted slightly to coordinate the sustaining thrust for any
changed configuration and indicated-airspeed. Constant altitude
coordinated with thrust.

158
Approach
A normal landing approach will continue the downwind leg, past the approach end, 20-30
seconds then, initiate a gradual descending turn to base leg, and a second turn to the final
approach. Coordination of power maintains the gradual descent to rollout of the turn on
the final approach at approximately 500 feet above the ground.
Maneuver, with turns, to align tracking over the extended centerline. Adjust the
power to cause the landing spot, to visually center and be unmoving, low on the
windshield.
Configure the landing flaps and adjust elevator and elevator-pitch trim to the final
approach indicated-airspeed. Complete the final landing checklist while maintaining the
landing spot unmoving in its low, centered position on the windshield.
 Steering is with rudder for coordination of aileron turns to headings.
 Elevator control and elevator-pitch trim setting final approach indicated-
airspeed.
 Throttle setting adjusted to coordinate the approach descent to maintain the
visual sight picture of the runway landing spot unmoving, centered low in the
windshield.

Landing
When approaching the end of the runway, approximately 15-20 feet above the ground,
begin pulling the elevator control manually to roundout, gradually leveling the aircraft.
This begins a slowing of the indicated-airspeed. Simultaneously reduce the power toward
idle, steering with rudder and turning with aileron as necessary to maintain centerline
alignment as sighted ahead.
The aircraft will be slowing and sinking toward the runway. Continue the aft
elevator manual control, to cause and hold a slight nose up flaring attitude, while allowing
slow sinking to the surface…your peripheral vision will see the ground begin rising up
alongside the airplane…Touchdown!
Continue controlling with the flight controls as if flying. As the aircraft decelerates,
reduce the elevator control to allow the nose-wheel to touchdown.
On the ground, nose-wheel steering and individual main wheel braking will be
available for directional control, slowing, and stopping…the flight is complete.
Taxi to parking uses the same procedures and considerations as when departing.
You are big again and must remember where the wingtips are relative to your aircraft and
the environment in which you are maneuvering.
The blasting air of thrust must again be a consideration of where the tail is pointing.
 Steer with rudder to align the fuselage with direction of movement. Turn
with aileron to align tracking toward the landing spot.
 Throttle setting reduced slightly to coordinate descent to attain the visual
sight picture of the landing spot centered low and unmoving in the
windshield, reduce toward idle for landing.
159
  Use manual elevator control for landing roundout, and flare.
 Taxi directional control is with rudder at touchdown.

Crosswind Landings
As you approach for landing, the prevailing crosswind requires a heading correction
turned into this wind. This is for maintaining tracking alignment over the runway extended
centerline. The visual picture shows the landing spot, unmoving, near the bottom of the
windshield, but offset to one side, away from the wind direction.
For this approach, you will use the technique of maneuvering into a slip prior to
roundout. You input and hold rudder steering away from the surface wind direction to
align the aircraft’s longitudinal axis parallel to the runway. Simultaneously input aileron
control to roll toward the wind.
You hold this slipping maneuver until touchdown. This has the wheels aligned with
the direction of motion down the runway for touchdown. The banked attitude toward the
wind is causing a horizontal force vector for offsetting the crosswind vector and with
aileron turning adjustment moves the aircraft sideways, to control tracking over the
runway centerline.
At touchdown, the main wheel toward the wind is lower so touches down first.
Shortly the opposite main wheel touches down. You continue steering the rudder to
maintain the centerline travel, and turn the aileron control fully into the wind, to prevent
possible wing lift from wind gusts, during the rollout.
As the aircraft slows, the relative wind diminishes, so the crosswind will be trying to
weathervane the aircraft, possibly making steering control difficult.
If steering seems marginal, you add some power to cause blasting air across the
rudder, to aid in steering by deflecting part of the crosswind force. Use individual wheel
braking to aid directional control.
As you slow the aircraft to turn off the runway, and stop, you continually monitor the
relative wind direction, and adjust the ailerons and elevator, to avoid any wing or tail
lifting.
Taxiing with strong winds requires much care. Offset of weathervaning effect is
with propeller blast, and coordinated braking for steering and speed control.
 Steering is with rudder input for coordination of turns toward the landing
spot, holding direction of alignment when in a slip, and taxi directional
control at touchdown.
 Aileron input as necessary for angle of bank when turning to headings. With
the cross-controlled slipping maneuver, a roll angle creates horizontal (side-
to-side) control of tracking for opposing the crosswind.
 Slightly reduced throttle setting coordinates descent to maintain the visual
sight picture, of the landing spot, visually centered low in the windshield.
Reduce power toward idle for landing, or maintain some power if required
for propeller blast, to counter crosswind during the landing, rollout, and taxi.
160
  Manual elevator-pitch control is required for the landing roundout leveling
and flare.

Emergency Landings
You just lost your engine power! You are now a glider. The aircraft begins an immediate
descent accelerating toward a new indicated-airspeed caused by loss of the vertical lift
component of engine thrust.
You immediately adjust the elevator-pitch and trim to maintain the best-glide
indicated-airspeed. Simultaneously, you look for a suitable landing area. An open area
looks suitable, so you turn toward it. Meanwhile, you have attempted engine re-start to no
avail. You make an emergency radio transmission for alerting others of your problem and
location.
Your altitude seems low; you head directly toward the selected landing area.
Maneuvering, you place the landing area into an unmoving visual picture centered low on
the windshield. It starts moving down on the windshield.
You know that means you are a little high so turn away toward a base to final
approach key position to lose some of the extra altitude. As the landing spot begins
rising, turn back to center it again. You continue and again the landing spot is moving
down. You enter a slipping maneuver to cause increased descent rate. The landing spot
visually moves back up to the lower center of the windshield, alignment is toward the
selected landing area.
The landing site doesn’t look very good down here at a lower altitude, but you are
committed. You select landing flaps. That causes a lot of drag and the visual landing
spot moves up on the windshield. Now you are going low.
You have trimmed the elevator to your minimum approach indicated-airspeed but
now must retract to approach flaps. That reduces some drag and slows the rapid
descent. The visual picture shows the landing spot unmoving about the middle of the
windshield.
The landing spot is not moving relative to the windshield. You are going to make
the field, even if you are some lower than a normal approach. You are at your normal
initial approach configuration and indicated-airspeed.
It looks like a rough field with some rocks hidden in the tall grass. This is not going
to be pretty. You fly the aircraft toward the chosen spot for a normal landing. Crossing
the boundary, select full flaps and rotate for a normal roundout, flare, and touchdown.
Touchdown! It’s rough, you have no control, you are now a passenger, you must
be conscious when it stops. Protect your head…any way you can. Wrap your arms
around it.
Anticipating deceleration, and to avoid being thrown forward, lean forward against
the shoulder harness while covering your head and face. If possible, keep your eyes
open.

161
 You are stopped. The airplane is upside down, and you are hanging from the
seatbelt. You are conscious. Oh, that big bump on the head hurts, but it will heal. Get
out and help any passengers if necessary. Go sit by a tree, and listen for birds to start
singing. Relax and enjoy the sights…you are alive.

 Rudder steering coordinates the turns toward a key point, the landing spot,
and directional control to touchdown.
 Aileron input as necessary for desired angle of bank when turning to
headings.
 Elevator-pitch trimmed indicated-airspeed lets the aircraft fly its best glide
indicated-airspeed with minor manual elevator input.
 Flap extension and slips for controlling descent to maintain the landing spot
visually sighted as an unmoving target.
 Use manual elevator control for normal landing, roundout, and flare.
 If rollout becomes uncontrollable, you are a passenger, protect your head to
maintain consciousness.

So, How Are Airplanes Controlled?

Altitude Control:
Coordination of engine power to a sustaining thrust and elevator-pitch trim causes
constant indicated-airspeed, constant altitude travel (Hands-off Flight).
Sustaining thrust; maintains the constant, elevator-pitched, indicated-airspeed as
set with elevator-pitch trim.
Excess Thrust; sets a climb-pitch angle for increasing altitude and controlling
altitude in a turn. This changes direction of motion from horizontal to a climb angle with
increasing altitude and constant altitude turns.

Indicated-Airspeed Control:
The Elevator-pitch sets indicated-airspeed. Normally, the elevator or horizontal
stabilizer is trimmed to a desired angle-of-attack indicated-airspeed. Holding the control
wheel manually by hand for indicated-airspeed control is possible.
The vertical component of engine sustaining thrust contributes to aircraft angle-of-
attack pitch. Any additional thrust beyond the sustaining thrust would be excess thrust
and begin climb.
Descent with decreased engine thrust settings between the level flight sustaining
thrust and idle will cause a small decreased angle-of-attack and associated increased
indicated-airspeed.

162
Acceleration and Deceleration:
Acceleration/deceleration is allowed by decreasing or increasing the elevator-
pitched angle-of-attack and set with elevator or stabilizer trim.
For level flight, a newly trimmed indicated-airspeed requires coordinated power to a
new sustaining thrust setting.
The elevator-pitch change allows the indicated-airspeed change. The coordinated
power application causes the indicated-airspeed change.

Climb/Descent Control:
Adjustment of engine thrust above or below sustaining thrust results in climb/descent pitch
with altitude change.
Directional Control:
The rudder steers; an aerodynamic yaw force with rudder input directs the thrust to
a desired direction.
The ailerons turn; banking for a turn causes a horizontal component of the
aerodynamic lift and thrust lift forces. The horizontal forces change the aircraft direction.
Level, constant indicated-airspeed turns require coordinated engine-lift from thrust
increase to maintain constant vertical lift.

Landing Control:
Reduction of thrust, drag from flap extension, and slipping for descent control, as
required, cause maintaining the sighted landing spot, unmoving, as related to the
windshield.
Manual elevator control; for roundout and flare
Rudder; steering to parallel the fuselage to the extended centerline for final
approach, touchdown, and landing roll down the runway
Aileron; turning for side to side tracking alignment over the centerline of the runway
until touchdown then turned fully into the wind. Individual wheel braking; as required for
stopping or steering.
All ground operation; thrust for blasting air to supplement rudder authority for
directional control in crosswind, if required. Aileron and elevator control surfaces turned
to reduce any wind effect.

All Flight:
For control of all flight, there are only those few things necessary for consideration. There
are maximum indicated-airspeed limitations for structural considerations and minimum
indicated-airspeed limitations for sustaining aerodynamic lift to allow safe, continued,
flight. Therefore, there are maximum and minimum indicated-airspeeds.
Just set the elevator-pitch for a safe indicated-airspeed and it will stay at that
airspeed as long as you don’t push or pull on the control wheel.

163
 Power/thrust adjustment sustains the aircraft at its set indicated-airspeed and a
constant altitude.
Increased thrust causes climb-pitch with altitude increase. Decreased thrust
causes negative climb-pitch, descent, with altitude decrease from gravity thrust sustaining
the indicated-airspeed.
The ailerons bank the attitude to cause a horizontal component of the aerodynamic
lift that turns the aircraft. The rudder steers the direction of engine thrust for coordination.
In a banked attitude, there is a horizontal component of aerodynamic thrust that
turns, and an increased vertical component from engine thrust, required to maintain
constant altitude.
About the only time you use any significant elevator control input, is during initiation
of indicated-airspeed trim change, and for landing roundout and flare. Most of the time
you don’t even touch the elevator control.
This is all there is. After all of this writing on why things happen, what can you do?
You have no control of the aircraft design. You can only operate according to the basic
physics involved, and the specific limitations of the structure.

That’s it…we’ve beaten it to death!

Not quite one page double-spaced, but
Even you can fly!

164
165
166
 APPENDIX-1-----RECIPROCATING ENGINES

Most aircraft reciprocating engines operate without modern electronic or computer

controlled inputs. You use manual control for starting and operation.
This discussion is about the basic considerations for engine operations. It requires
understanding manual fuel/air mixture control for ignition.

The Engine

Operating the Machine

Your airplane is merely a machine, powered by an engine. The operation of any machine
requires understanding the ramifications of its use. There are limits of output, due to the
power, structure, and operator abilities and capabilities.
You must continuously consider maintaining conservative care for efficient
utilization, and of the physical use of any machine. As a serious operator, you should
develop a sense of relationship, or emotion, toward the machine, similar to that of dealing
with a person or animal. It is common for a pilot to talk to a machine, in a similar manner
they would, if they were controlling an animal!
There are lots of similarities to other machines, when operating an aircraft. You
must learn about how machines operate, and how to care for them.
Most automobiles today are highly automated, so we do not worry much about how
they run, but with airplanes, we have to understand their operation and limitations to a
higher degree.
It is just not acceptable to have a problem, when you cannot pull over and park to
sort it out, or call a tow truck.
For that reason, we learn to know them in a different way. You want to know
everything possible about the machine. In the beginning, it seems like a lot, but over time,
it will become rather basic and commonplace.

Flight Preparation
For every flight, you will inspect your aircraft, to assure it is safe and serviced. This
requires taking time, doing interior and exterior preflight checks.

167
 Perform your preflight inspections and checks as procedures. Walking around the
airplane in the same manner, aids in learning a specific order of the inspection, so
reduces the possibility of missing an item.
There are many items to look at, and when finished, a checklist to verify nothing
overlooked or missed. In the beginning, it is best to carry the checklist, and read each
item, until familiar with the machine.

Airplane Limitations
All airplanes have limitations. They are machines, and in addition to performance, there
are costs to consider. Even the big airliners have the same limitations. Their designs all
have similar considerations. Cost.
It is possible for airplanes to be powerful enough to go straight up, or fly in any
attitude. Such airplanes are expensive and may only fulfill specific requirements of a
given of mission.
Your little airplane does not cost so much to operate so it makes it reasonable for
the individual when learning. The airliner needs only to go safely and efficiently across
the country while carrying a reasonable load. Both of these kinds of flight do not need the
extra cost of super powerful engines or exceptionally strong structures. They may be
limited in operation, but, with reasonable design considerations, they perform very well for
their purpose.
There is a limit to what airplanes can do. Some fly very slowly, and some real fast.
The power available, when trying to fly attitudes pitched much above level flight, limits
most aircraft.
All aircraft have structural limits. Design criteria optimize structural strengths with
expected loads allowed.
What happens if you try to exceed an attitude limit? You go down! Most airplanes
have power enough only for attaining attitudes, 12-15 degrees nose up, and 40-50
degrees bank in level flight.
Descending flight uses gravity force to sustain indicated-airspeed. If you attempt
an attitude that is power limited, the airplane will lose altitude due to gravity. The airplane
will always continue moving according to the forces it encounters. If the engine cannot
supply them, gravity will, but by descending at a new attitude.
The pressure of high indicated-airspeed flight or acceleration “g” loads, can stress
the structure, so all airplanes have operational indicated-airspeed and load limits.
Exceptionally slow indicated-airspeed results in flight with increased induced drag,
greater than the thrust available can overcome, so will require loss of altitude to recover.
Stalls also result from slow indicated-airspeeds by pilot over-control and require maximum
power and usually loss of altitude for recovery.
All flight has a limitation of power and structure. Your aircraft must always operate
within the published limits as determined by the manufacturer. There are many other

168
limitations due to regulation of flight, traffic, weather conditions, and navigation over
terrain and physiological limits of pilots and passengers.

Power System
Your engine is the source of operating power and is the only way to sustain flight, so
deserves special attention and conservative operation to assure its reliability.
All airplanes have an engine as a power source to enable generation of lift. Safe
operation requires dependable engines. For this reason, you must understand how an
engine operates and how to care for it to maintain its reliability.
The most common engines used in small aircraft are four or six cylinder air-cooled
piston engines. These aircraft engines normally run at high power settings for long
periods for takeoff and climb to altitude. Most flight is at a cruise setting in a range of 60%
to 75% of maximum power.
There is no discussion of procedures, for specific engine operation, since there are
many different engines, fuel systems, and starting conditions. There are, however, certain
fundamental conditions that apply to all reciprocating engines.

Ignition System
Aircraft engines have two independent engine driven magneto powered ignition systems.
The ignition system does not rely on the aircraft electrical system.
The magnetos each provide high voltage current separately to one of the two spark
plugs in each cylinder. This dual ignition system controlled from the cockpit by a multi-
function switch, allows turning the magnetos on and off, or selecting either, or both.

Engine Fuel Supply

There is an engine-driven fuel pump to assure a continuous positive fuel flow supply.
Some airplanes also have an electric fuel pump for fuel transfer and backup for additional
reliability.
There are two different ways of introducing fuel into engines. An engine with a
carburetor creates low pressure through a venturi, sucking fuel into the induction
airstream. An engine with fuel injection forcibly sprays fuel, under high pressure, through
a small nozzle, to the intake valve area.

Fuel/Air Mixture
An optimum fuel-vapor/air ratio to ensure proper fuel burning is always required for
satisfactory engine operation.
High altitude, higher temperature, and/or higher humidity are reduced air density
conditions, and limit the available oxygen for burning, resulting in reduced power possible.
The fixed size fuel/air induction systems restricts available oxygen mass of less dense air
so can burn less fuel in low-density airmass conditions.

169
 Engine operation, for optimum power, is dependent on the complete burning of the
fuel. As altitude increases, the lowered density of the air lowers the oxygen available so
requires gradual reduction of fuel to maintain proper fuel/air ratio.
Manual adjustment of the mixture control actuator controls the fuel supplied to the
air. You must maintain an optimum ratio of fuel and air throughout the flight.
You gradually pull the mixture control actuator, to coordinate with the reduced
oxygen available for burning. This action results as if slowly closing the throttle, reducing
the power output of the engine.
Adjusting the hand controlled manual mixture control changes the quantity of
metered fuel at the carburetor, to maintain proper burning for engine operation. The
actual atmospheric condition within which the aircraft is operating determines the amount
of control required.
Indication of the optimum ratio occurs when you attain the maximum rpm on fixed
pitch propeller engine systems, or the maximum manifold pressure with variable pitched
propeller engine systems.

Carburetor
The carburetor is the device for allowing metering and mixing of fuel and air for operation
of your engine. It consists of a fuel metering venturi with a throttle valve (butterfly valve)
for controlling the volume of airflow.
Fuel metered into the carburetor induction venturi, vaporizes by mixing with the air.
The fuel then flows past the throttle valve, through the intake manifold induction tubes, to
the each cylinder intake valve, and into the combustion chambers.
Fig. 34:

Butterfly Valve
The butterfly valve controls the volume of airflow through the carburetor. The airflow
volume in turn controls the quantity of fuel metered into the venturi area of the carburetor
thereby controlling the power output of the engine.
At some altitude or power setting, the throttle, increased to full forward, will have
the butterfly valve full open. After reaching that condition, retarding the mixture control
sets and maintains the proper fuel/air vaporized mixture for optimum burning. At this time,
power will be reducing as the air density becomes lower.

Mixture Control
At this point, any further reduction of air density will require reducing the fuel with the
manually operated mixture control to maintain the proper fuel/air ratio. The continued
reduction of fuel to the engine, in this manner, results in a gradual reduction of power with
increased altitude.

170
Throttle
The hand throttle control connects directly to the carburetor butterfly valve. Forward/in
manual operation opens the butterfly valve to allow increased air volume and fuel
metering to increase engine power. Pulling the throttle full out closes the butterfly valve,
reducing the fuel-vapor/airflow attaining an engine-idle operating position.
The throttle, pushed full in, causes the butterfly valve to be full open, and positions
the induction system for maximum volume of vaporized fuel/airflow into the engine.

Accelerator Pump
The accelerator pump is an integral part of the carburetor. Moving the throttle to its full-
open position activates the accelerator pump, which inputs a small amount of fuel at the
carburetor. This gives a momentary extra fuel input to allow rapid acceleration of engine
power when running.
When you are cranking the engine, any time pushing the throttle full open, it inputs
the same small amount of fuel. If the engine is not cranking, activating the throttle full
open, multiple times (pumping), deposits a relatively large quantity of fuel, which will
accumulate in the bottom of the carburetor.
A backfire during cranking can ignite that fuel resulting in a carburetor fire. It is
imperative you use caution, when using the accelerator pump as a source of starting fuel
by activating it only when cranking, while being aware of the possible accumulation of
fuel.
The cranking procedure for clearing flooded cylinders when starting does not
necessarily eliminate any accumulated fuel in the bottom of the carburetor.

Carburetor Ice
Ice in the throat of a carburetor is the result of cooling by the expansion of the vaporizing
fuel. The accumulated ice is from vaporized fuel mixing with humid air passing through
the carburetor. Icing occurs in engines equipped with carburetors similar to that of many
light airplanes.
Carburetor icing occurs, from the expansion of the fuel and humid air exiting the
carburetor venturi, which causes a significant temperature drop, so the water vapor will
freeze. The ice forms on the outlet of the carburetor throat causing restriction to the
fuel/air mixture flow.
If allowed to continue, the ice restricts the flow, causing engine performance as if
retarding the throttle. You will see a very slow reduction of engine rpm. Continued
operation in this condition could lead to a complete blockage of the carburetor.
Icing causes a gradual rpm drop, as though retarding the throttle, which, if not
corrected, eventually causes the engine to run rough or quit. With a fixed-pitch propeller,
when maneuvering, normal varying of the rpm often disguises icing effects.
Operation at idle settings for longer periods is the most common condition for
creating ice. This often occurs during low power descents and approaches to landings.

171
 Conditions, conducive for carburetor ice, are temperatures ranging -10º to + 32º C.
Most aircraft procedures call for use of carburetor heat if conducting prolonged operation,
at low to idle power settings.
The two situations for detection of the development of carburetor ice, a gradual
drop in RPM with fixed-pitch prop aircraft, and as a gradual drop in manifold pressure with
a constant-speed propeller.
A pressure carburetor inputs fuel past the throttle plate from the air inlet. Fuel-
injected engine fuel/air mixture metering is into the intake valve area of the hot cylinder.
This reduces the potential for forming carburetor ice.
When icing conditions exist, apply carburetor heat often at cruise throttle setting. At
any indication of carburetor ice, always apply full carburetor heat. The engine may run
roughly, as the ice melts and goes through the hot cylinders.
Carburetor heat should be full heat or nothing. Use partial carburetor heat only on
aircraft equipped with a carburetor temperature gauge or ice light. It is good practice to
use carburetor heat anytime operating at reduced power, especially for low altitude
operation and landing.
If conditions are conducive to icing, or if noting icing during engine run-up, perform
a carburetor heat check immediately before takeoff.

Carburetor Heat
Selecting carburetor heat directs an alternate source of air. The alternate air source
bypasses the air filter and directs the airflow to pass either near the hot engine, or near
the hot exhaust system, to allow warming.
This warmer air is what melts any ice present. Warmer air also is less dense, so
there is an associated small drop in rpm, as related to the normal power and air source.
When selecting carburetor heat, the warmed carburetor air, bypassing the air filter,
introduces hot, less dense air, to the carburetor, and enriches the fuel/air mixture. The
warm air melts the ice from the carburetor venturi throat and throttle butterfly plate.
There may be some increased roughness for a few seconds as the engine ingests
any melting ice, then after any ingestion, smooth operation within a few more seconds.
Sucking some ice into the engine may occur, so there may be momentary rough, and
perhaps backfiring, of the engine. After turning the heat off, rpm goes back to normal.
If there is immediate improvement, this usually indicates that either the richer
mixture, or the bypassed intake, indicate the problem. If the engine smoothes out
immediately with application of carburetor heat, then back to roughness when turning the
heat off, this indicates a blocked air intake filter.

Oil Temperature and Pressure

All engines require sufficient lubrication to minimize wear and prolong reliability. In
addition to numerous rotating bearing surfaces. Reciprocating engines have many
surfaces that slide across each other, so it is extremely critical, that sufficient oil is

172
available for this purpose. The pistons, camshafts, and push rods are examples of
components that have continuous moving contact.
The oil pump design provides pressure to assure all engine bearings and surfaces
be adequately lubricated. Constant pressurized oil flow routed through orifices to bearings
and bearing surfaces, splashed by oil bath, and sprayed onto the moving crankshaft,
piston, and cylinder surface areas, provides engine lubrication.
Gauges located in the cockpit allow monitoring of oil pressure and temperature.
The lubrication process also requires maintaining oil within specified temperature
ranges, high enough to assure evaporation of any possible water accumulation, and yet
low enough to not breakdown its chemical characteristics. The oil temperature gauge
allows monitoring this operational range.
One of the most serious problems you can encounter with an engine is loss of oil or
failure of the oil pump. Lack of lubrication can be disastrous to an engine. Though quite
rare, it does happen. Loss of oil will rapidly lead to a high oil temperature and low oil
pressure.
Failure of the oil pump or oil quantity, indicated by loss of oil pressure, will quickly
cause a rapid rise of oil temperature. Though the engine may still be running, you can
expect imminent engine failure.
If a landing area is immediately available, it may be appropriate to consider
shutting down the engine to reduce its damage, but only if absolutely sure of the landing
area. It then becomes an engine out emergency landing without having to consider
imminent failure and changing procedures in the midst of an approach.
Whatever the case, it requires you make an immediate emergency landing.
Whether or not the engine is still running, you should fly an engine out procedure. You
are expecting actual failure at any time. You must be familiar with the operating manual
and immediate action emergency procedures for your airplane.

Engine Cranking and Starting

Engine Cranking
When starting, you should understand the conditions that can occur in the combustion
chambers, how to introduce fuel, and how to control the fuel/air elements.
Most operating manuals for small aircraft indicate a 30-second limit for continuous
cranking of the engine. In reality, many modern starters have 10-second limitations.
You must be aware of your aircraft starter limitations, if the engine does not start
immediately, limit cranking to 5-10 seconds. It is seldom necessary to crank more than a
few seconds. In that amount of time, it is obvious conditions are not right to obtain a start.
For your engine to start, it is necessary two criteria are met. There must be
properly vaporized fuel introduced into the combustion chamber, and there must be an
ignition spark to ignite the fuel.

173
Ignition
Aircraft engines have dual ignition magnetos and corresponding dual spark plugs. It
requires a double failure in the generation of the spark from the magnetos or fouling of
both spark plugs in all cylinders causing complete loss of ignition.
In the case of a flooded engine with the introduction of too much fuel, it is possible
for all spark plugs to be wetted, to the extent they do not fire.
Cranking causes intake vacuum in the cylinders. In cold weather, it is possible the
reduced air pressure can allow moisture condensation, which can frost over the cold
spark plugs, preventing them from causing ignition spark.

Starting Fuel
In the heat of summer, when you are starting a hot engine, it is common to have engine
flooding. Fuel easily vaporizes from residual heat, and even a slight excess could create
a too rich mixture.
The input of throttle control is also a consideration during cranking. The throttle
control, connected directly to the butterfly valve, adjusts airflow into the induction system.
Opening the throttle increases the available air for changing the fuel/air ratio.
Fuel priming is the initial source of fuel for starting a carburetor-equipped engine.
You manually operate the primer pump, spraying a small amount of fuel near one or more
of the intake valves. Each cycle of pushing the primer pump adds a small quantity of fuel.
At the beginning of cranking, the partially vaporized fuel sucks into the combustion
chamber. The quantity of fuel priming, the amount of air allowed through the induction
system, and the prevailing temperature in the engine will determine the amount of total
vaporization and the resulting fuel-vapor/air ratio.
In average conditions, the engine will start almost immediately upon activation of
the starter. If the ignition does not begin immediately, it may be required to open the
throttle slightly, to allow more air for vaporization. This would probably be normal in most
conditions.
Shortly after the beginning of cranking, intake air, through the carburetor, will also
begin drawing fuel from that source. Little fuel is initially available from the carburetor at
the slow rpm of cranking.
Opening the throttle butterfly valve allows greater airflow into the engine. A
common technique of pumping the throttle, opening and closing the butterfly valve, is
merely varying the airflow through the intake manifold system while causing little or no
change to the amount of fuel introduced at the carburetor.
While cranking, pushing the throttle wide-open deposits a small amount of fuel into
the carburetor throat from the accelerator pump. This is an alternative way of introducing
fuel into the induction system when cranking.
Use care, not to have excessive fuel that could drain and accumulate in the bottom
of the carburetor, and in case of backfire possibly result in a carburetor fire.

174
 Continue cranking enough to allow the engine to draw any possible burning fuel
back into the engine, if the engine has not yet started.

Accelerator Pump
The last approximately one-half inch of throttle input activates the acceleration pump to
deposit a small amount of fuel directly into the induction system at the carburetor. This
pump, built into the carburetor, assures sufficient fuel is available, for rapid acceleration,
during normal running engine operation.
The carburetor accelerator pump is available for input of additional fuel during start,
if necessary, but requires careful use.

Engine Fire While Starting

Any time you move the throttle full forward, there will be some fuel deposited into the
induction system at the carburetor by the accelerator pump. It is possible by pumping the
throttle full forward several times to have an excess of fuel accumulate in the bottom of
the carburetor system.
A backfire of the engine during cranking could ignite this fuel resulting in a
carburetor fire. Continued cranking will usually draw any fire into the engine with no
adverse results.
Stopping cranking at that time could allow the fire to continue to the extent of
destroying the aircraft. It is imperative you understand the use of the throttle and starter
during start.

Fuel Conditions for Starting

You also must understand the requirements that allow the fuel to ignite during engine
start. Fuel-vapor/air mixture ratios, that will not ignite when starting, refer to mixtures that
are too lean and too rich.
With fuel-vapor/air mixtures that enter the combustion chamber, there is a small
range (approximately 12-15 parts air to one part fuel-vapor) which will ignite resulting in
engine start.
During start, a “lean” mixture refers to too little fuel and a “rich” mixture refers to too
much fuel for the available air (oxygen).
Elimination of a too rich mixture, “flooded”, condition can be by shutting off the
mixture control, and cranking thereby pumping large quantities of air to rid (“dry out”) the
combustion chamber of excess fuel.
Note that during the cranking, to dry out the combustion chamber, the fuel-vapor/air
mixture will pass a condition of proper mix, and ignition could occur.
With prompt action, pushing the mixture control in, to turn on the fuel, the engine
will start!
This procedure is a "flood start" when done deliberately.

175
Conditions for Starting
Consideration of the probable conditions, prior to cranking, will allow you to make a
reasonable decision of the amount of priming necessary and any additional inputs that
may be required. There are often individual techniques developed for different engine
types.
Engines, with fuel injection systems, have all metered fuel directed to the intake
valve area, and the carburetor is merely a throttle control for air input, with the butterfly
valve.
These engines will not have to be primed, though consideration of the conditions in
the combustion chamber to predict the condition of the fuel, and the vaporizing airflow is
required.
The fuel injection systems, when hot, after shutdown, can have residual fuel-
vaporize in the fuel supply lines, to the extent it blocks flow at the next start attempt, vapor
lock. It requires a fuel pump to force fuel flow during start to rid the lines of these
conditions.
Many of these systems have a purge valve for circulating fuel into the system.
Technique varies depending of temperatures.
Restarting a hot engine within a few minutes after shut down may require only
cranking. The longer the engine shut down and the higher the temperatures, the more
vaporization has possibly taken place within the fuel lines. It can take several seconds
purging before trying the start.
A basic premise in starting of all engines, the colder the temperature, the more
priming that may be required. To attain sufficient vaporization, it may require more fuel in
the system. At higher temperatures, sufficient, or excess vaporization, often occurs.

Summary
• Aircraft and engine operations require understanding the mechanical limitations
and operational techniques as with any machine.
• Systematic use of procedures and checklists are necessary to assure a safe
operation.
• Optimized starting fuel vaporization and air mixing take place with flow through
the carburetor or at the intake valve area for fuel-injected engines.
• Fuel vapor/air mixture is lean when the ratio is too much air and rich when too
much fuel.
• The manual throttle operates the carburetor butterfly valve for control of air
intake.
• The accelerator pump introduces a small quantity of fuel at the carburetor when
opening the throttle manually to full forward open position.
• Cooling from rapid expansion of the fuel/air mixture can cause ice accumulation
in the carburetor throat when humid air conditions exist.
• Indication of carburetor ice is reduction of rpm or manifold pressure.
176
• Engine oil temperature and pressure require monitoring at all times. Loss of
engine oil is an emergency requiring immediate landing.
• Engine starters have operational time limits.
• Ignition only occurs with proper fuel/air ratios.
• Relieve the engine starting, too rich mixture (flooded), by shutting off the fuel
and cranking to purge the cylinders of fuel.
• Accelerator pump use during start can introduce excessive fuel into the
carburetor.
• The prevailing environmental temperature and humidity affect starting
conditions.

177
178
 GLOSSARY
Abort: To stop or end.
Abort Takeoff: Stop takeoff run/roll prior to becoming airborne.
Abort Approach or Landing: Stop descent and add power for continued flight.
Abort Flight: When airborne, return for landing.
Abort Prior to Takeoff: Cancel flight and/or return to parking.
Acceleration: When operating on the surface excess thrust will cause acceleration of ground
speed. The instant the aircraft attains sufficient indicated-airspeed for
generation of lift in excess of its weight it becomes airborne. At that moment,
acceleration stops and climb begins.
When airborne, excess power/thrust causes extra lift resulting in climb.
Airborne acceleration comes from reducing angle-of-attack. Reduced or
down/away elevator or nose down elevator trim input reduces the frontal plate
area and allows the airplane to accelerate. The coordination of power will
determine the lift for maintaining level, climbing, or descending flight while
accelerating.
Aerodynamic Lift: The outward reactive force of airfoils during airmass encounter of the aircraft
motion.
Aerodynamic Form: Physical shaping of the aircraft that minimizes resistance to travel through an
airmass while causing desired reactions for generating lift.
AGL (Acronym): "Above Ground Level". The height above the earth's surface at a particular
point.
Ailerons: Controls for turning. Attached to the outer trailing edge of the wings and
operate in opposite directions to each other from input by the pilot
rotating/turning the control wheel or moving the control stick left or right.
Movement of the ailerons causes change in lift at the outboard portion of the
wings. With one going up and the other going down the resulting unbalanced
lift will create bank/roll force vectors around the longitudinal axis relative to the
pilot and causes turning.
Aim point: Reference toward which the aircraft is directed for heading and attitude
control.
Air Density: The mass of a unit volume of air as determined by pressure, temperature, and
humidity. Low-density air by volume contains less mass of oxygen for burning
in the engine, which results in reduced engine performance in reduced density
conditions.
Air Impact Pressure: Measurement of air resistance with the pitot system (calibrated as indicated-
airspeed) when moving within an airmass. When related to lift pressure from
encountering and displacement over the airfoil it is measured in lbs. per sq. in.
Mass-of-the-air (The): The quantity of air as determined from its elemental weight (thickness or
density) per unit volume.
Airmass,(An) : Large area of the total atmosphere that is distinct by reference to its relative
temperature, pressure, and related movement over the surface of the earth.

179
Airmass Dynamic The aircraft moving through the airmass creates flow of the air relative to the
Displacement: machine. It is continually displacing this air by the volume of its structure.
This displacement of air creates changes in direction of flow around the form
with resulting retarding frictional drag forces and reactive lifting forces. The
actual flow results from the specific designed aerodynamic shape of the
aircraft. The pilot can only operate the aircraft as built.
Airspeed (Indicated): Relative velocity within/through an airmass of impacting air pressure and
measured on the Indicated-airspeed Pressure instrument. Elevator trim allows
adjusting the air impact/dynamic displacement angle/frontal plate surface area
(angle-of-attack) of the aircraft into the airstream (relative wind). (All reference
to aircraft operational airspeeds is indicated-airspeed as read on the aircraft
instrument.) Power causes thrust force, which sustains airspeed! There are
many different aspects of airspeeds related to the installation of the indicated-
airspeed indicator. The pilot has no control over these things. When inflight
the pilot flies relative to the actual indicated airspeed readings he makes.)
Airspeed (True): This is correctly “True Speed”, a speed relative to the surface. The distance of
movement over time, within a non-moving airmass.
Airstream: Movement of air around the aircraft from the motion effects of aircraft
encounter and displacement.
ALT: Abbreviation used for naming two instruments in the cockpit the Alternator and
Altimeter.
Altimeter Setting: The actual barometric pressure entered into the altimeter for correcting it to
read actual altitude above sea level. A measure of atmospheric pressure.
Barometric pressure in inches of mercury.
Altitude: The distance vertically upward from a reference point on the earth’s surface.
Altitude (referencing MSL, mean [standard] sea level)
above Sea
Level:
Altitude, Absolute: Height above a specific referenced point on the surface. (AGL, above ground
level)
An Airmass: Large area of the total atmosphere that is distinct by reference to its relative
temperature, pressure and related movement over the surface.
Angle-of-attack: The angle the aircraft encounters and displaces the air when moving through
the atmosphere. This determines the indicated-airspeed the airplane will fly.
To maintain a specific indicated-airspeed, the angle-of-attack requires a frontal
plate area to the relative wind, to balance the impact/dynamic
displacement/diverting pressures (lbs. /sq. in.) of the encountering free-
airstream.
If indicated-airspeed is increased, the airflow volume increases, with related
increased vertical displacement pressures, so it requires a reduced angle-of-
attack frontal plate area to maintain the same vertical lift. From this, one can
infer that control of any specific indicated-airspeed the airplane will fly is by a
related angle-of-attack.
Angle of Incidence: The angle between the wing center chord and the static longitudinal axis. This
is a fixed angle as it is the attachment of the wing to the fuselage. A small
fixed upward angle, often two or three degrees, from the static longitudinal
axis to the chord line at which the wings are attached to the fuselage.
Angular Attitude: Aircraft nose attitude relative to the horizon. Angular Attitude can be up,
down, or angled and described in degrees above, below, and angled to the
180
 horizon.

Approach: The maneuvering of an aircraft to track over the extended centerline while
descending toward its landing area. This is flying an approach as a directed
course to the selected landing area (targeted landing spot). The airplane is
configured and elevator trimmed to an approach indicated-airspeed. Descent
rate for the approach is controlled with small power changes.
ATIS (acronym): Automated Terminal Information System. Transmits continuous airport
weather and runway departure and approach pilot information for takeoffs and
landings. Named by aviation phonetic letters (i.e. Information "Yankee" for "Y"
could be the name).
Atmosphere: The air surrounding the earth composes the atmosphere. The gravitational
effect on the mass of air results in it being denser near the surface. Movement
through the atmosphere of air causes lift with appropriately design-shaped and
powered machines. Proper displacement of a sufficient mass of air with
motion can cause an airplane to float suspended within the atmosphere.
Attitude: Orientation of the airplane in space relative to the earth’s surface or to the
pilot. Typical inference is an aircraft being in a “straight and level” attitude.
This means constant heading, altitude, and indicated-airspeed, with wings
level to the horizon. Any variation from straight and level requires a change in
bank attitude (roll), heading attitude (direction), pitch attitude (climb or
descent), or any combination of the these.
Away/From: Pushing the Elevator control causes pitch (reduced angle-of-attack) change in
a direction away from the pilot. A direction from the bottom of the aircraft
Axis: A straight line about which rotation can occur. Any one of three lines defining
the in flight attitude of an airplane inflight, one being generally determined by
the direction of forward motion and the other two at right angles to it and to
each other, passing through a center of gravity.
Back/To: Pulling the Elevator control causes pitch in the direction toward the pilot
(Usually up) thereby increasing the angle-of-attack.
Bank/Roll: Inflight maneuver for turning or slipping by rotation about the longitudinal axis
causing an angular attitude to the direction of motion.
Bank Angle: Roll or bank angle is the angle of rotation about the longitudinal axis. Normally
"rolls or banks" are to specific angles to change the direction of flight by
creating a horizontal component of lift to turn the aircraft.
Base leg: The crosswind portion of a landing pattern prior to the final approach. A
descending path from the downwind leg toward the final approach leg.
Best Glide Indicated- Indicated-airspeed that gives most ground distance when gliding thereby an
airspeed: optimum rate of descent for the aircraft.
Body Angle: The angle between the inflight direction of motion (relative wind) and the static
longitudinal axis. The angle-of-attack of the aircraft.
Brakes: Control of individual main wheel brakes is input to the brake pedals mounted
on top of the individual rudder controls. The left pedal brakes the left main and
the right pedal brakes the right main wheels. Steering control and braking is
with movement of the individual rudder pedals in the direction of desired
movement.
Camber: The asymmetry between the top and the bottom curves of an airfoil in cross-
section.

181
Carburetor Heat: A function of the air induction system that diverts heated air into the carburetor
intake. It prevents ice accumulation that could block the airflow through the
carburetor.
Center of Gravity (static The static center of gravity is the average of the component mass locations. It
c.g.): changes with changes in aircraft loading and placement of those loads when
sitting on the ground. An airplane is a combination of many components; the
wings, engines, fuselage, and tail, plus any payload and the fuel. Each part
has a weight force and lever arm from some specific reference associated with
its location on the machine.
Center of Gravity: The elevator control adjusts to create aerodynamic lift for balancing the center
Inflight (effective of mass along the longitudinal axis and around the transverse axis. For typical
c.g.) dynamically stable aircraft, generating negative or positive lift on the elevator
and horizontal stabilizer balances the aircraft. Negative lift causes an increase
in the apparent weight (loading) of the aircraft for performance purposes. This
added load relative the position of the center of mass creates a new effective
center of gravity. The loading force created by the elevator causes changed
angle-of-attack pitch rotation and corresponding change of lift pressures.
Center of Mass: Corresponds to the Static Center of Gravity. The center of mass and static
center of gravity are the same and change with change in aircraft loading.
Center of Pressure: The balance point of the moments of mass and lift at which the aerodynamic
(Effective Center of component of vertical lift acts on the longitudinal axis.
Gravity)
Check ride: A flight, with an Instructor or Examiner, for purpose of testing Pilot proficiency.
Chord Line: A straight line from the trailing edge through the leading edge of the wing used
as reference for the wing angle-of-attack from the relative wind and the angle
of incidence to the aircraft.
Clean Configuration All flight devices such as gear, flaps, spoilers etc. retracted from encountering
the airstream.
Clear: Visually check area for safe operation, no obstacles, or obstruction. Condition
of no obstruction to visibility or motion. Cranking the engine with fuel turned
off to remove any residual fuel by introducing excess air. A weather condition
of no clouds.
Clearing Turns: Small bank angled turns usually less than 10 degrees of bank and heading
used to allow sighting for traffic above and below when climbing or descending
and when maneuvering in an area.
Climb: Increasing altitude. Climb is accomplished with excess power, an input
greater than that required to sustain level flight at any specific indicated-
airspeed.
Climb/Descent Angle: The angle measured from the horizon to the relative wind, direction of upward
motion, of the aircraft and controlled with excess power for climb or decreased
power for descent.
Climb-Pitch The increased angular attitude of engine powered lift that causes climb angle.
Collision Course: A course or path that, if unchanged, will lead to a collision with another aircraft
or object. The collision course is an inadvertent course normally discovered
when scanning for other traffic in flight. A collision course is recognized by the
sighting of another object that does not move relative to a point on the window.
Any relative movement across the window would indicate the sighted object is
going ahead, behind, above or below depending on its direction of movement.

182
Course: A direction or route taken or to be taken, the route along which the aircraft
moves; Progression in a particular direction
Crack the Throttle: Open the throttle a small amount. Push the throttle forward/in slightly.
Crosswind: The travel of an airmass (real wind) when not directed toward the nose or tail
but crossing the course.
Crosswind Component: That vector component of airmass movement perpendicular to the direction of
reference or flight.
Deceleration: Decreasing speed/indicated-airspeed. Reduced speed/indicated-airspeed
over time. Increasing angle-of-attack allows deceleration when airborne.
Increased Back/To elevator input or nose up elevator trim input increases the
frontal plate area and causes the airplane to decelerate. When airborne
increased angle-of-attack causes increased frontal plate area allowing
reduced vertical pressure per square inch to maintain the aircraft weight. The
coordination of power will determine the lift for maintaining level, climbing or
descending flight while decelerating.
Density Altitude: Pressure Altitude corrected for temperature and humidity. Air density
(atmospheric pressure) decreases with increased altitude, temperature, and
humidity. Warm air is less dense than cold air because there are fewer air
molecules (less mass) in a given volume of warm air than in the same volume
of cooler air. Humid air has less mass than dry air. Less dense air therefore
contains less oxygen per unit volume, which reduces the performance of
engines.
Descent: Negative, decreasing, and downward change of altitude. Descent is by
reduction of lift, decreasing powered thrust from that needed for sustaining
level flight. Reduction of power results in the airplane starting to descend
allowing the thrust force of gravity to maintain the indicated-airspeed to that
called for by the trimmed angle-of-attack. The descent angle (negative climb
angle), controlled by the pilot, will be dependent on the amount of power
reduction. Maneuvering into a descending direction by decrease of thrust or
changed attitude. Reduction of angle-of-attack and subsequent acceleration
without increased power coordination can also cause descent until power and
altitude are again balanced.
Descent Angle: See Climb/Descent Angle. An angle of aircraft attitude below the horizon.
Direct Course: A course that proceeds by the shortest distance toward a specific point or
destination; Straight-line shortest distance path to pass over a point. A direct
course for navigation will pass over the destination. A directed course will fly a
descending path to the destination (a collision course).
Directed Course A planned or deliberate collision course used for normal flight maneuvering
attitude control. It is a collision course in that it too could lead to collision if
maintaining the course. A purposeful, visual course, for attitude control of the
aircraft. The directed course is a planned or deliberate collision course used
for normal visual flight maneuvering attitude control. It is a collision course in
that it too could lead to collision, if maintaining the course. The horizon,
maneuvered as a fixed line, sighted across the windshield, becomes a
directed course for pitch control. The horizon placed, as an angle sighted or
pictured across the windshield becomes a visual reference for a specific bank
angle. A point or specific object sighted/pictured on the horizon becomes a
directed course for heading control. A specific point, object, or destination on

183
 the surface fixed in a position on the windshield becomes a directed course for
visual control of heading and angular attitude for descending to that specific
point, object, or destination.

Direction of Flight: The aircraft is moving in a direction opposite the relative wind. This is while
(Attitude Motion) orientated in any given attitude including climbing, descending or turning.
Direction of Flight: A horizontally orientated, compass direction as related to the earth.
(Compass direction)
Downward: Direction away from the bottom of the aircraft. Elevator generated negative
aerodynamic lift is downward.
Drag: The reaction force on the aircraft opposite the direction of movement through
air. A resistive force induced by airflow caused by impaction, displacement,
and friction of flow due to movement of a body through an airmass, the air
resistance to forward motion. The resultant combined frictional forces exerted
on a body moving through the air and in a direction opposite to the body’s
direction of motion. A by-product of lift, a horizontal force component directed
rearward.
Drift: Deviation from a selected course across the surface due to airmass movement
within which conducting an operation.
Drift Correction: A heading (correction) turned toward/into any airmass movement to enable
maintaining a specific (desired) ground track. (wind effect correction)
Dynamic Displacement: Free-airstream mass displacement due to motion of the aircraft.
Effective Center of See--Center of Gravity, (inflight effective)
Gravity: Inflight
Elevator: Control surface attached to the trailing edge of the horizontal stabilizer. Pilot
input to the control wheel or control stick by pulling aft and pushing forward
causes deflection of the elevator resulting in the airplane nose moving to or
away relative to the pilot when in flight. This results in changing the angle-of-
attack to the relative wind for indicated-airspeed control.
Elevator positioning can aid in ground taxi control by adding pressure on the
main gear during initial landing roll with the pilot holding the nose up and if
taxiing up or down to avoid tail lifting in high wind conditions.
Elevator-pitch: The elevator control wheel, forward and aft movement adjusts elevator-pitch.
Elevator-pitch adjustment is rotation of the fuselage around the lateral axis to
control the aircraft angle-of-attack. Elevator-pitched settings allow specific
indicated-airspeeds at which the aircraft will fly.

184
Elevator Trim: Allows changing the elevator neutral setting by creating a desired angle
(angle-of-attack) of impact/dynamic displacement to the relative wind when
airborne. This results in a specific indicated-airspeed the airplane will try to fly.
The control is typically a small non-calibrated wheel, adjusted by rolling up to
increase encountering angle for slower indicated-airspeed or down to
decrease this angle for faster indicated-airspeed. When trimmed to attain a
desired indicated-airspeed, it enables elevator control hands off flight.
Empennage: The aft section of the aircraft that incorporates the vertical and horizontal
stabilizers, rudder, and elevator.
Engine-lift: The outward lift force component from engine thrust caused by the aircraft and
engine pitched attitude at an angle above the direction of motion.
Engine-pitch: An outward angle of the engine at some angle from the longitudinal axis.
Engine Power: Engine performance. It is dependent on physical mass of air intake. With low
density air (low mass to volume) at high altitudes and/or with high
temperatures the engines cannot intake sufficient oxygen for burning to
develop full rated power.
Excess Thrust: Engine thrust in excess of that required for sustaining the aircraft indicated-
airspeed condition constant in level flight.
Extended Centerline: A reference line continued from the runway centerline to beyond the runway.
FAA (acronym): Federal Aviation Authority regulates the operation of aircraft in the U.S.A.
Final Approach: The descending portion of an approach to a runway when aligned over the
extended centerline.
Flaps: Panel devices attached to or within wing trailing edges that allow extension to
increase wing surfaces to allow slower flight indicated-airspeeds.
Flare: Continuing the roundout causing the attitude to become slightly nose up as the
aircraft slows and sinks to the surface during the landing, allowing the main
wheels to touch down first.
Float: Flight, during a landing, when leveling for touchdown, the aircraft has not
slowed enough to sink to touchdown due to slight excessive indicated-
airspeed and held off with manual aft elevator input.
Force Vector A related directional force when a force vector is divided into components 90°
Component: to each other. The related directional components Fy and Fx are 90° to each
other. Component vectors represent separate forces which when exerted in
their specific directions result in the reactive force F. Example, if angle θ is
60º, Fy = .866 lb. and Fx =.5 lb. Adding the two vector forces results in a
vector force F= 1.0 lb. in a specific direction
Force Vector: Represents a force’s magnitude and direction
Forward: Direction of aircraft motion, no matter its attitude.
Free Stream Air: The uninterrupted undisturbed free air of an airmass prior to encounter.
Friction: Any retarding force created when a combination of two objects or fluids in
contact move opposite to each other.
Frontal Plate Area: The area of the aircraft structure that encounters and displaces mass-of-the-
air.
Fuel Pump Switch: Controls operation of electrical fuel pump for pressurizing the fuel system.
Glareshield: Covering of the area above and between the instrument panel and windshield,
generally colored to prevent sun glare (reflection) on the instruments or into
the Pilot’s eyes.

185
Glidespeed: Indicated-airspeed when power is lost or reduced to idle as driven by the
horizontal component of gravity force and set with elevator-pitch.
Go-Around: The procedure of aborting a landing or landing approach and consists of
adding power, accelerating, leveling, or climbing while adjusting the
configuration toward a takeoff procedure.
Go-Around Power: Engine power setting used when aborting an approach or landing for
continued flight.
G-Force: The force exerted on an object by gravity directed vertically toward the center
of the earth. This force is equal to the weight of the object. In a turn, the
centripetal force generated, if related to one g-force, adds to the total aircraft
loading. A level 45-degree turn will generate the equivalent of 1.4 times the
object's weight (1.4 g).
Gravity: An acceleration force of attraction of the earth’s mass to the mass of an object.
Gravity is a source of generating movement in an aircraft in flight! “The gravity
force vector causes thrust in the same manner as power but is always directed
downward and always requires descent”! (For purposes of training, consider
gravity a negative directed thrust force.)
Ground: The surface of the earth. The neutral of an electrical circuit. Shorting an
electrical circuit by connecting to neutral or the surface. Abbreviated term for
airport Ground Control.
Ground Roll/Takeoff The takeoff distance required before the wheels leave the runway.
Roll:
Ground Speed: Actual Speed across the earth’s surface. Movement over time within any
airmass and relative to the surface. True airspeed corrected for any airmass
movement.
Gust Front: The leading edge of a fast moving air mass. Often associated with
thunderstorms, and possibly visible by dust carried along.
Head wind: That vector component of airmass movement (real wind) opposite the direction
of flight motion.
High Density Altitude: A relative altitude related to a standard when considering the density of air.
Low density air occurs at higher altitudes.
Hold Short: Instruction to stop, and hold position, prior to a designated spot. Usually
regarding stopping before entering or crossing a runway or taxiway.
Horizontal/Vertical Small wing type airfoils mounted on the tail of an aircraft for flight control
Stabilizer: stabilization.
"Ident": The command for pushing the transponder identification button allowing
controller radar identification of your aircraft.
Indicated-airspeed: Reading of the indicated-airspeed instrument within the aircraft. A reference
airspeed for manipulation of the airplane and calibrated in units of speed. This
reference is a measurement of the impacting/ram air pressure into the pitot
system as an indication to the pilot of relative air mass pressures against the
aircraft structure.
Induced Drag: Rearward component of lift force. Increases with increased angle-of-attack.
Increased drag from increasing the frontal plate area as the machine moves
within the air mass. It tends to be greater at lower speeds because higher
angles of attack result in increased frontal plate area and greater volumetric
displacement of airflow.
Inertia: The property of matter by which it retains its state of rest or its velocity along a

186
 straight line so long as not acted upon by an external force.
Inverted: Aircraft attitude with lift forces orientated below the horizon.
Landing Roll/Ground The landing distance required from touchdown to stop.
Roll:
Level Flight: Upon reaching a specific desired altitude, gradual reduction of power will
cause decreased climb until attaining wings level, zero climb angle, and
constant altitude flight. Coordination of elevator trim and reduction of power
will allow the airplane to level while accelerating to a specific cruise indicated-
airspeed. When attaining both cruise altitude and indicated-airspeed, by
coordination of elevator trim for indicated-airspeed, and power for altitude, the
airplane will try to maintain itself with hands off control, and minor input of
rudder to maintain direction.
Lift: Aerodynamic The outward vector components from the top of the structure. The
aerodynamic force from airflow over the airfoils and considered acting from a
point called the center of aerodynamic lift. Lift is caused by differential
pressures from air flow on and around the airplane surfaces and airfoils due to
the generated wind of motion (relative wind) through an airmass.
Lift: Thrust Engine-lift, the outward lift component of force, from the aircraft powered thrust
source, and caused by the outward angled flight attitude of aircraft to the
direction of travel.
Load: The forces opposing Lift. This involves both the resultant force component
due to gravitational force directed toward the center of the earth plus any
aerodynamically generated force from an airfoil directed opposite the Lift
vectors. Aerodynamic loading will be negative lift from the elevator and/or
centripetal loading from turning maneuvers away from wings level constant
altitude flight.
Longitudinal Axis: Static—A line directed through the static center of gravity of the aircraft front to
back, and parallel to the structure of the body.
Inflight—A line directed through the effective center of gravity of the aircraft
front to back, in the direction of motion, parallel to the line of flight.
Magnetic (Mag.) A compass that generates direction using a magnet for alignment with the
Compass: earth's magnetic field. This compass calibration is with north direction toward
the magnetic north pole.
Magneto Switch: Mag. Multi-function switch allows on/off selection of either or both magnetos and
Switch: starter engagement.
Magneto An independent engine, direct driven generator, for supplying high voltage
ignition current to spark plugs of internal combustion engines.
Mass: The magnitude of elemental matter due to gravitational force as determined by
the weight per unit volume.
Master Switch: Main electrical power switch. Allows battery power connection to airplane
electrical system.
Mixture Control: Allows pilot controlled manual metering of fuel for the fuel-vapor to air ratio to
the engine. Full out position shuts off all fuel to the engine at the carburetor.
Full in position allows a pre-set maximum fuel quantity metering into the
carburetor.
Momentum: Intensity of the motion; product of a mass and its velocity.
No factor: Statement indicating a given subject will not interfere with the flight. I.e.,
sighted traffic will not conflict.
187
Normal Attitude Flight: The close association of normal or usual flight attitudes leads the pilot often to
consider both pitch and angular attitudes as the same. The vast majority of
flight is within a range of less than 15 degrees nose up or down to the relative
wind and less than 45 degrees bank from horizontal. Operation within these
parameters makes it seem that there is little if any difference. Most pilots have
learned flying using the terms interchangeably. This situation has also
evolved in most writing as if they are the same. Reference to a kind of pitch
must be clearly stated.
Open the throttle: Increasing engine power by pushing the throttle forward/in. Increase the
carburetor induction fuel/air flow by opening the carburetor butterfly valve.
Outward: Direction away from the aircraft.
Pattern (landing): Rectangular Traffic pattern. Course flown around an airport for traffic
separation and control of takeoff, approach and landing of aircraft.
Performance Altitude: Maximum altitude at which an engine will maintain the aircraft within specific
criteria.
Phonetic Alphabet: International standardized words used to indicate specific letters of the
alphabet, used to clarify radio transmissions.
Pitch: (n.)The attitude of the aircraft vertically from the horizon. (v.)The act of
inputting to and away elevator control for changing the attitude of the aircraft.
Pitch Axis: The lateral or transverse rotational axis through an aircraft about which the
body pitches. Also called the pitching axis.
Pitch Angle: The angle measured from the horizon to the static longitudinal axis. The
angular profile attitude of the static longitudinal axis relative to the horizon.
Pitch Attitude: Relative to the pilot. The attitude of an aircraft as viewed in profile between the
static longitudinal axis and a horizontal reference. Usual terminology calls for
pitch up or down as related to the surface which is really vertical angle. In
space, pitch occurs to or away from the pilot. This allows understanding the
results of pitch change no matter the attitude. Attitude relative to the pilot is
“Aircraft Pitch Attitude”. Within the cockpit up is toward the top of the machine.
Input of pitch with changed indicated-airspeed from input of the elevator-pitch
control will be to or away relative to the pilot. If flying inverted increasing pitch
to/up would cause the aircraft to go down toward the earth!
Pitch Control Control wheel input to the elevator, the horizontal stabilizer, elevator trim
wheel, and engine power changes, affect pitch. Changed downwash and
propeller blast over the tail from power changes can affect elevator-pitched
trim.
Pitching Moment: Moment produced by a force around the effective center of gravity. The
horizontal stabilizer aerodynamic moment, the engine pitching moment from
due to engine mounting, and aerodynamic lift moment from wing/body
aerodynamic lifting. Pitching moment is positive when the pitch on the airfoil
moves the aircraft nose up/to in direction relative to the pilot.
Pitch Up/Down: Relates to controlling the airplane with power, configuration change, or manual
elevator input, and is relative to the pilot in the aircraft. This is a relationship of
the airplane’s attitude, input of pitch (elevator or power change) control, and
the indicated-airspeed (angle-of-attack) the airplane wants to fly. Manual
elevator input changes aircraft pitch with a related change to the angle-of-
attack and indicated-airspeed. Power changes cause increase or decrease of
pitch from engine thrust lift, engine placement torque (moment from

188
 centerline), propeller blasting air, and/or wing downwash flow across the
elevator, all contribute to elevator trim change.
Inputs causing changed lift of the elevator will result in change of pitch angle-
of-attack. In all cases, these inputs may cause a change of effective elevator
trim. A pilot must always consider these criteria when checking out in any
specific aircraft to enable positive control when changing power input and
configuration.
Pitch: Climb The climb angle caused by engine-lift from excess thrust.
Pitch: Engine-lift At sustaining thrust, the outward engine-lift, together with elevator pitch
causing an angle-of-attack. Excess thrust engine-lift causes climb pitch.
Pitch: Thrust The total outward engine-lift component of power thrust acting at the location
of the engine.
Positive Climb: Positive climb rate and increasing altimeter indications.
Positive Rate Climb: Positive climb rate indication on climb indicator.
Power: Time rate of work, transfer of energy in a direction of motion over time.
Power Curve: Graphical representation of aircraft performance vs. power available.
Power Output: See Engine Power
Pressure Altitude: The altitude in a standard atmosphere. The standard barometric pressure is
29.92 inches of mercury.
Primer: A pilot operated manual pump for depositing partially vaporized fuel at an
intake valve area of the engine for starting.
Profile Drag: Wind Resistance. Caused by impaction and displacement of the airstream
and increases with increased speed.
Propeller: Fan type device attached to an engine for generating thrust. Prop:
abbreviated term for propeller
PTS (acronym): Professional Training Standards a listing of required exercises to be
demonstrated for licensing. Published by the FAA
Ram Air: The dynamic air pressure created by motion.
Ramp: Surface area for parking aircraft.
Real Wind: Surface Wind, The horizontal movement of an airmass across earth’s surface.
Relative Wind: The encountering of the free-airstream. Movement generated wind opposite
the direction of the aircraft motion. A wind of motion.
Roll: Takeoff Roll: Distance of travel on the runway required to become airborne.
Landing Roll: Travel from touchdown to stop or turnoff.
Attitude Roll: Airborne turning, rotation of the aircraft at the longitudinal axis.
Roll/Rollout: The landing roll after touchdown until stopping or slowed for turnoff of the
runway.
Roll/Bank out/in: Inflight maneuvering for turns. Roll out of a turn is inputting control to return to
wings horizontal. Roll in to a turn is inputting control to enter a turn by banking
the wings away from horizontal.
Rotating Beacon: Red warning Light on the exterior of an aircraft that rotates resulting in
flashing. Used to advise others an aircraft is operating. Airport Rotating
Beacon often on top of the tower designates an airport.
Roundout: Leveling, with gradual manual input of back elevator, when approaching a few
feet above the ground for a landing. This causes reduced descent rate and
slowing as the angle-of-attack increases.

189
Rudder: Causes yaw/rotation around the aircraft vertical axis steering the direction of
engine thrust. Attached to the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer the rudder
swings left or right into the airstream with input by the pilot’s feet to the rudder
pedals creating aerodynamic force sideways on the tail.
Runway Number: The first two numbers of the general magnetic heading of a runway. Used to
name/designate runways. I.e. when approaching for landing at a runway
named 09 the actual magnetic heading of the runway is within 5 degrees of
090 degrees.
Runup: Engine runup is a procedure for checking the aircraft and engine to assure
satisfactory operation prior to takeoff.
Setting a Directed Causing flight on a course toward a sighted point, object, or destination for
Course: attitude or navigational purpose, to allow flight on a direct course to that point,
object, or destination. A technique for determination of a directed course can
be by visually sighting or physically pointing a finger at the object or
destination and maneuvering the aircraft attitude such that the object or
destination is fixed, unmoving, relative to a point on the window.
Slip: Uncoordinated turn (too much rudder steering input) causing the aircraft to
slide into the turn. Slip causes the aircraft to move slightly sideways.
Cross controlling to cause slip is a technique for adding drag to increase rate
of descent. In addition, the slip is the crosswind landing technique for having
the wheels aligned with rudder steering direction of motion and opposite
banking turn with aileron to counter the crosswind drifting.
Skid: Skid is the opposite of slip, (not enough rudder steering input) causing the
aircraft to slide away from the turn.
Speed: Rapidity of motion relative to something. Distance moved relative to time, as
miles per hour over the surface. In an aircraft, True Airspeed is motion within
an airmass and relative to motion within that airmass. Groundspeed is motion
relative to the earth's surface. Indicated-airspeed is measurement of
encountering air pressure, not a speed at all!!!
Stall: Stall occurs at the critical wing angle-of-attack, the angle at which lift is
destroyed and the aircraft begins falling. An aircraft forced to an angle-of-
attack such that laminar airflow over the wing separates, and impact
pressures/dynamic displacement is significantly increased inducing extreme
drag and further loss of indicated-airspeed.
Stick the Fuel Tanks: Measure of fuel quantity by placing a calibrated stick into the tank. This is the
most reliable method of assuring fuel quantity.
Suction gauge: Instrument showing the generation of vacuum pressure. Vacuum pressure
operates different flight instruments.
Surface Wind: Real Wind, The horizontal movement of an airmass across earth’s surface.
Strut: Device to brace or support different parts of a machine to each other; wing
strut, landing gear strut.
Tail wind: That vector component of airmass movement (real wind) in the direction of
flight
Takeoff Distance: The distance required for the aircraft to depart and clear a known obstacle
beyond the end of the runway. Takeoff distance is normally considered over a
50 foot obstacle.
Takeoff Power: Command for reducing engine power.
Takeoff Power: Command setting engine power for takeoff.

190
Takeoff Power: Engine power setting used for takeoff from the runway.
Takeoff Roll: The takeoff distance required before the wheels leave the runway.
Taxi: Maneuvering the airplane on the ground. When the aircraft is on the ground
its control is not unlike that of an automobile. The main difference is steering
is done with the feet and power controlled with the hands. Response to
control primarily relates to frictional forces between the tires and the ground.
All maneuvering on the ground, Taxi, Takeoff Roll, and Landing Roll are
controlled in this manner. The engine power control causes the thrust for
motivation and resulting speeds on the ground.
Throttle: Allows adjustment of power by control of airflow through the carburetor.
Controls the power output and resultant thrust to allow movement and
acceleration to attain and sustain ground maneuvering and flight. Pushing the
throttle full forward/in results in maximum power output. Pulling the throttle
away/out reduces the engine power output. Pushing in causes increased
power. Full out is idle position.
Thrust: A reactive force to air movement exerted by a propeller (blasting air) or
directed burning fuel (expanding gases) for creating motion. When airborne
the acceleration force of gravity creates thrust directed toward the surface.
Thrust Pitch: The outward component of engine-lift acting from the engine.
Tie down: Anchor in the ground for a rope or chain to secure a parked aircraft.
To (toward) or Away: Direction of elevator control input by the pilot causing aircraft pitch change.
Touchdown: Instant of wheel contact with the surface upon landing.
Touchdown point: Chosen sighted landing point for directed course approach. Point of
touchdown.
Traffic Pattern: The Standard VFR/VMC traffic pattern is a rectangular flight path around a
landing area using left turns. The entry to downwind is a 45-degree heading
intercept to the downwind direction. Non-standard traffic pattern is with right
turns.
Track: Planned or actual course/route/path of movement across or relative to the
surface of the earth. The actual path over the surface (ground track) followed,
or intended to be followed, by a moving body.
Transverse Axis: A line of pitch rotation extending laterally across an aircraft at right angles to
the longitudinal axis and passing through the effective center of gravity. (Also
"lateral axis")
Trim Controls: Allow adjustment of the attitude control surfaces (yaw, roll, and pitch) to
coordinate and balance control input to neutral for steady state flight with
minimum pilot input (hands off).
True Airspeed: Distance of travel across the surface over time within a non-moving airmass.
Turns: The airplane rolled into a banked attitude, the total wing lift becomes at an
angle relative to gravity. Roll results in a horizontal component of lift that
causes change of heading (directional control) causing turn.
Turn Control: When rolled into an attitude other than wings level the Aerodynamic Lift vector
changes direction so causes a reduced vertical lift component and begins
generating a horizontal lift component that causes heading change. For
maintaining level flight, added power for additional lift is required. Aileron,
Rudder and Thrust input is required for coordination of increased forces
required.
Up A direction increasing the distance from the earth's surface. Travel away from
191
 the surface.
Upright Aircraft attitude with outward lift forces orientated above the horizon.
Upward Movement in a direction increasing the distance from the earth's surface.
Vector: (Flight) Control of flight; a direction or heading assignment.
Vector: (Force) A quantity of force possessing both magnitude and direction used to describe
the effect of engine power and gravity. Represents a force’s magnitude and
sense of direction.
Vector Component: A related directional force when a force vector is divided into components 90°
(Force) to each other. The force F has related directional components, Fy and Fx, 90°
to each other. Component vectors represent separate forces which when
exerted in their specific directions result in a reactive force F. Example, if Fy =
.866 lb. and Fx =.5 lb. Trigonometrically adding the two vector forces results
in a resultant vector force F= 1 lb. in a specific direction angled between the
two.
Vertical: Direction to or away from the center of the earth. Away is positive and to is
negative.
Vertical Axis: The line of rotation directed outward and downward, perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis and transverse axis passing through the effective center of
gravity.
Vertical Component of A component of force directed vertically to or from the center of the earth.
a Force:
Velocity/Speed: Rapidity of motion. Distance moved over time. As, miles per hour.
Volumetric See airmass flow; the aircraft moving through the airmass creates flow of the
Displacement: air relative to the machine. It is continually displacing this air by the volume of
its structure. This displacement of air creates changes in direction of flow with
resulting retarding frictional drag forces and reactive lifting forces. The actual
flow results from the specific aerodynamic shape of the aircraft and fixed by
that design. The pilot can only operate the aircraft as it is built.
Vx climb speed: Indicated-airspeed at which the aircraft gains the most altitude in a given
distance. Used for maximum climb rate such as clearing obstacles etc.
Vy climb speed: Indicated-airspeed at which the aircraft gains the most altitude in a given time
(best rate of climb). This results in the most fuel efficient indicated-airspeed
for all operation in-flight. Note: An increase or decrease in indicated-airspeed
from Vy will require increased thrust input for continued level flight since that
varies from an optimum speed.
Wake; Mixed airflow caused by disturbance or displacement. An aircraft displacing
Wake Turbulence: air leaves a turbulent airflow behind. When encountering this disturbed air,
following aircraft surfaces will have random changed airflow causing rapidly
changing lift pressures, resulting in erratic or possibly uncontrolled flight.
Weathervaning: Turning into the wind caused by crosswind component wind force pushing the
side of the aircraft.
Weight: The force exerted on mass by gravity and always directed toward the center of
the earth. A measure of gravitational effect on a mass. The acceleration of
gravity as it affects an aircraft is equivalent to a thrust force of the aircraft’s
weight. This means, a typical aircraft that can sustain level flight at a 10 to 1
engine thrust ratio, will descend and quickly accelerate with even a minimum
reduction of engine thrust.

192
Wind: (Surface, Real) The horizontal movement of an airmass across earth’s surface.
Wind Forecast: Future expected real wind from study of current and past airmass movement.
Wind component: A vector component of airmass movement as related to a specific direction
(i.e., runway heading or flight heading) being considered.
Wind Effect Correction: A heading (correction) turned toward/into any airmass movement to enable
maintaining a specific (desired) ground track. (drift correction)
Wind of Motion: A relative wind. The movement generated wind from motion through an
airmass and always in the opposite direction of motion.
Wind Resistance: Frontal Profile displacement and friction drag
Windshield, Front window, forward facing window for shielding from wind or debris.
Windscreen:
Wing Angle-of-attack: The angle between the wing center chord and direction of the relative wind.
The angle measured from the direction of movement (relative wind) to the
static longitudinal axis plus the angle of incidence. This is the angle the wings
meet the relative wind.
Wing-tips Clear: Call made after checking to assure clearance of the wingtips when taxi
maneuvering in close proximity of any obstacle.
Yaw: Motion about the vertical axis (fishtailing side to side), controlled with rudder
pedal steering of engine thrust for coordinating the various forces involved in
turns.

193
194
INDEX

195