Planet. Space Sci. 1965, Vol. 13, pp. 377 to 390. Pergamon Press Ltd.

Printed in Northern Ireland

THE NEAR, MEDIUM I.R. EARTH ALBEDO;

ITS USE FOR CLOUD HEIGHT DETERMINATION*
RALPH ZIRKINDT
Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, New York

(Receiued 8 January 1965)

Abstract-A method to determine cloud-top altitudes from satellite infra-red observations is

presented here. A theoretical treatment of the spectral radiance of a cloudless and cloudy
atmosphere is considered. These results are compared with experimental data obtained from
sounding rockets etc., and extrapolated to satellite altitudes. On the basis of the latter corre-
lation, it is shown that the parameters which affect the observed spectral radiance have the
necessary content to yield cloud tops. Information obtained with a TIROS-like TV display can
enhance the confidence level of the determination.

1. INTRODUCTION

The optical properties of the telluric molecular species are sufficiently varied to ask the
question, “can these primary properties when ordered in a proper fashion yield any second-
ary information?‘. This question has already been examined by several investigator@-@
with respect to the determination of the stratospheric temperature profile from satellite
observations. This paper considers another possibility, namely the determination of cloud-
top heights utilizing some spectra1 characteristics of the Earth’s albedo. First the theoretical
arguments are presented; this is followed by a comparison with experimental data; and
finally, the implications to satellite observations are considered.
2. THEOREHCAL TREATMENT
The dominant absorbing and emitting molecular species within the Earth’s atmosphere
are II,0 and CO,. These molecules absorb solar radiation on its passage through the
atmosphere, the amount absorbed is a function of wavelength, complex index of refraction
and optical depths. In the event the downward solar flux is intercepted by a cloud, a portion
of the flux will be reflected where the vector magnitude will depend upon the scattering
characteristics of the cloud. The optical properties of the cloud, which consists primarily
of liquid water or ice are different from those of atmospheric water vapor or CO,, and
therefore when two different properties are convolved the resultant may provide a means
for the determination of cloud-top heights. One must readily recognize that if the suggested
method is strongly dependent upon the precision of the basic parameters, i.e. index of
refraction, cloud droplet size etc., then it becomes less interesting. These and other con-
siderations will be explored.
The methods utilized here can be typified by three categories: (1) reflectance of a
scattering atmosphere (window region); (2) reflectance of an absorbing atmosphere in an
absorption band, and (3) emittance of an absorbing atmosphere. For each of the three
categories we consider the following: (1) a planar cloud3: imbedded in this atmosphere,
The cloud consists of spherical water droplets where the index of refraction of cloud matrix
is sufficiently close to I.0 so that no refractive phenomena occur at its cloud boundary. The
* Presented at the Radiation Commission Symposium, Leningrad (1964).
t Visiting Professor, Department of Aerospace Engineering.
d In a future paper a spherical atmosphere will be considered.
2 377
378 RALPH ZIRKIND

water droplets may have either real (non-absorbing) or complex (absorbing)(s) indices of
refraction. Their size is given by the following distributioncs)

n(r) = N@e-1’5 (1)

where r is in microns, and the spectral regions of interest are 1.9,2*2,2*7,4*3 and 6.3 ,u where
l-9,2*7 and 6.3 p are H,O absorption regions, 2.2 ,u is a window and 4.3 ,u is a CO, absorp-
tion region. We will now consider each category independently.

2.1 ReJectance in window

At 2-2 p the atmosphere is relatively transparent; the primary mechanism of attenuation
is scattering, as continuum absorption is negligible. Now the exponential attenuation
coefficient is N O-2 x lO-a/km (s.t.p.), thus the reflected diffuse radiation for one air mass
is N 2 ‘%(‘) of the solar intensity where the predominant contribution is from the lower
atmosphere. In radiance units, the backscattered radiation for a non-cloudy atmosphere
at 2.2 p is 100 ~W/cm2/!J~.
For the droplet distribution given above and a cloud water density of O-1g/m”, assumed
throughout the discussion, the number of water droplets are about 160/cm3. The absorp-
tion and scattering cross sections are caba = 2.763 x 10-s and cr, = l-72 x 1O-s cm2
respectively, and therefore the reflection coefficient, as calculated from,(‘) will be 20.2 for a
cloud thickness equal to or greater than 100 m. However, for an incident angle that is
greater than 60 but less than 85 degrees the albedo will increase to 4.4. For a near normal
incidence and exit condition the radiance will be ~1500 pW/cm2/Q/p or a factor 15 greater
than the cloudless sky.
It should be noted that this method of cloudless or cloud radiance calculations are
applicable to spectral regions 0.6~ < 1 < 3-O,u and where absorption is very weak, i.e.
o,/o, > 0.95 (c, = c, + Gabs).

2.2 Emittance region

For wavelengths greater than 4-O ,u the emittance of the atmosphere becomes increasingly
important, and therefore we must compute the emittance for the 4.3 and 6.3 ,u regions.
The spectral emittance radiated from a layer of thickness dh at temperature, T, is given
by the expression
d&(h) = E&)k,(Q@) dh (2)

where E,(h,) = Planckian energy emission at temperature, T and wavelength, il.

kn(h) = spectral mass absorption coefficient.
p(h) = atmospheric density at altitude h.
The outward spectral radiance at the top of the atmosphere is given by

(3)

where S, denotes surface temperature and rl, the atmospheric spectral transmittance, is
defined by

Uh)p(h) dh (4)
>
 THE NEAR, MEDIUM IR EARTH ALBEDO 379

On substitution of equation (4) into equation (3) we obtain the result

The integral in equation (5) has been evaluated at 4.225 and 4.30 ,u by a 20 interval parabolic
approximation where the ARDC temperature profile is used to determine the values of E(h,)
and empirical values for the spectral transmittance as given in @).
The computed emissivity of the atmosphere at 4.225 and 4.30 ,u were found to be 7.1
and 5.26 ,uW/cm2/sZ/~ respectively. For the 6.0 p region the results of Greenfield and
Kellogg(3) are cited ; namely - 45 pW/cm2/Q/,u for 6.0 ,u and at 6.2 ,u, - 120 ,uW/cm2/8/p
and 70 pW/cm2/Q/p for wet and dry conditions respectively.
In the case of the 4.3 p region where the mixture ratio of CO, is assumed to be uniform
the emittance is perceptible above 10 kms, however does not become significant below 30
kms. This is confirmed by results recently reported in tg).
The situation at 6.3 ,u is different since this is a H,O band and depends on the prevailing
mixture ratio. Hence, for a dry atmosphere the layer which makes the largest contribution
to the emittance is located at about 6 km whereas for the wet atmosphere about 18 km.
The cloud radiance at 4.3 ,u was calculated by the above method whereas for 6.3 p by
the method described below.

2.3 ReJectawe in absorption band

The spectral steradiancy from clouds in an atmospheric absorption band is given by
the expression
N,(e) = Ho71iQ,e) (6)
where
H, = solar steradiancy
TA’= atmospheric spectral transmittance to cloud at altitude, h.
qA(i,e) = reflection coefficient for incident, exit angles, (i,e).
N,(e) = spectral steradiancy at angle e.
The angles are defined relative to the outward normal.
The quantity reaching a detector at altitude, H, is given simply by the product N,(e) x
T~~(Iz,H): where T~~(/z,~ is the spectral transmittance at exit angle, e, between altitudes
(h,H). For a satellite, His taken to be infinite. A graphic representation for the coplanar situ-
ation is shown in Fig. 1 where angles i, e and 6 are the incident exit and scattering
angles respectively.
For a thick cloud, i.e. cloud thickness sextinction distance, one can showoo) that the
reflection coefficient is given by
djl) RW) cos i
rhe) =
a,(1) + a,(1) 47f cos i + cos e
where R (19) is the differential scattering cross section per cloud area per steradian. This
tattily assumes that single scattering is adequate. A representative sample of R(8) for il =
2.7~ is shown in Fig. 2. It was assumed that the cloud had a droplet distribution with a
mode value of 4 ~1 and water density of O-1 g/m”. Mason (il) theoretically examined the
spectral distribution of droplet size within stratus clouds and found the median value to
be -4.5 ,u. His distribution was quite similar to the results of Neiburger for stratus clouds
over California namely 1 ~1< r < 10 ,D, and not unlike the distribution assumed here.
380 RALPH ZIRKIND

TABLE l(a). SPECTRAL RADIANCE OF CLOUD; 1 = 2.7~

i (de& e (de@ Scattered ratio (ster-I)

I. Cloud height40,OOO ft
10 10 7.65(-4) 3.02( -8)
30 9.31(-4) 1.84(-8)
60 1.514(-3) 1.19(-8)
85 3.056(-3) 6.04(-9)
30 0 7.08(-4) l-68(--8)
10 8*19(-4) 1.62(-8)
30 l.ll(--3) 1.09(-8)
60 1.826(-3) 7.23(-9)
85 7.788(-3) 7.78(-9)
60 10 7.684(-3) 6.07<-8j
30 1.054(--3) 4.16(-9)
60 5.410(-3) 8.53( -9)
85 5.938(-2) 2.35(-8)
85 10 3.244(-4j 6.40(-10)
30 9.384( -41 9.28(-10)
60 i.242(-2j 4.91(--9)
85 7*69(-l) 7.58(-9)
II. Cloud height-35,000 ft
10 10 7.65(-4) 7.58(-9)
30 9.31(-4) 3.68(-9)
60 1.514(-3) 2.39( -9)
85 3.056(-3) 2.82(-g)
30 0 7.08(-4) 2.80( -9)
10 8.19(-4) 3*24( -9)
30 l.ll(-3) 1.75(-9)
60 1.826(-3) 1.16(-9)
85 7.788(-3) 3.08(-9)
60 10 7-684(-3) 1.22(-8)
30 i.o54(-3j 664(-10)
5.410(-3) 1*49( -9)
z 5.938(-2) 9.40(-9)
85 3.244( -4) 3.23(-10)
:8 9.384(-4) 3.71(-10)
1.242(-2) 1.96(--9)
E 7.69(-l) 7.5(-8)

TABLE l(b).SPECTRALRADIANCEOF CLOUD; I = 2.8~

I. Cloud height40,OOO ft
10 10 5,55(-4) 8.35(-7)
30 5*8(-4) 8.28(-7)
60 9.46(-4) 8.14(-7)
85 2*58( -3) 6.05(-7)
30 0 5*14(-4) 7.56( -7)
10 5.10( -4) 7.27( -7)
30 6.24( -4) 8.28( -7)
60 l-4(--3) 1*23(-6)
85 6.38(-3) 1.40(-6)
60 10 4.8(14)- 4.50(-6)
30 8.05(-4‘) 7.06( -7)
60 4.39(-3j 2.53(-6)
85 3.93(-2) 5.65(-6)
85 10 2.74( -4) 6.41(-8)
30 7.69( -4) l-69(-7)
60 8.23(-3) 1.18(--6)
85 6,12(-l) 2.20( -5)
 THE NEAR, MEDIUM IR EARTH ALBEDO 381

TABLE l(b) contd.

i (de@ e (de@ Scattered ratio (ster-I)

II. Cloud height-35,000 ft

10 10 555( -4) 6.08( -7)
30 5.8(-4) 6.08(-7)
60 9.46( -4) 5.44(-7)
85 2.58( -3) 4.0(-7)
30 0 5.14(-4) 5.47(-7)
10 5.10(-4) 5.33( -7)
30 6.24( -4) 6.30(-7)
60 1.4(-3) 7.70(-7)
85 6.38( -3) 9.76(-7)
60 10 4.8( -4) 2.76(-7)
30 8.05( -4) 4.46( -7)
60 4.39(-3) 1.33(-6)
85 3.93(-2) 3.28( -6)
85 10 2.74( -4) 4.32( -8)
30 7.69( -4) 1.16(-7j
60 8.23(-3) 6.80(-7)
85 6.12(-l) 1.41(-5)

TABLET. SPECTRALRADIANCEOFCLOUD; jl= 2.9~

I. Cloud height--40,000 ft
10 10 8.56(-4) 2.54(-6)
30 8.3(-4) 2.36( -6)
60 7*266( -3) 1.897(-5)
85 3.312(-3) 8.13(-6)
30 0 8*22( -4) 2.36(-6)
10 7.3( -4) 2.076(-6)
30 7.86(-4) 2.138(-6)
60 1.832(-3) 4.57( -6)
85 7.36(-3) 1.727(-5)
60 10 6.427( -4) 1.67(-6)
30 1.057(-3) 2.65(-5)
60 4.762(--3) 1.087(--j)
85 2.83(-33) 6.12(-6)
85 10 3.517(G) 8.59(-7j
30 8.867(-4) 2.08(-6)
60 5.913(-3) 1.27(-5)
85 5.92(-l) 1.20(-3)
II. Cloud height- -35,000 ft
10 10 8.56(-4) 2.38( -6)
30 8.3(-4) 2.21(-6)
60 7.266( -3) 1.79(-5)
85 3.312(-3) 7.57(-6)
30 0 8.22(--4) 2.26(-6)
10 7.3(L4)’ 1.95(-6)
30 7.86( -4) 2.01(-6)
60 1.832(-3) 4.39(-6)
85 7.36(-3) 1.62(-5)
60 10 6.427( -4) 1.59(-6)
30 1.057(-3) 2.52( -5)
60 4.762(-3j 1.06(-5)
85 2.83(-3) 5.75( -6)
85 10 3.513(-i) 8.03(-7)
30 8.867(-4) 1.95(-6)
60 5.913(-3) 1.21(-5)
85 5.92(--l) 1.12(-3)
382 RALPH ZIRKIND

FIG. 1. f!kHEMATIC DIAGRAM FOR CLGVD SCATTERING.

50 75 too 125 150

Scattering angle 8, drg

FIG. 2. ~FFERENTIAI. SCATTERING CROSS SECTION VS. SCATTERING ANGLE (A a 2.7 micro@.
 THE NEAR, MEDIUM IR EARTH ALBEDO 383

Let us now examine the criterion for a thin cloud, i.e. cloud thickness G several extinc-
tion paths. For a cloud whose water density = 0.1 g/m3 and with particle radii 1 p < r <
10 ,u, the extinction distance N 40 m, hence except for thin cirrus clouds the thick cloud
approximation ought to be good. This will be discussed later.

TABLE 2. SPECTRALRADIANCE OF CLOUD; A = 4.3~

i 6-Q) = (de@ Scattered ratio (ster-I) N(A), w/cmW/~

I. Cloud height-40,OOO ft
10 10 1.026(-2) 1.78(-8)
30 3.985(-3) 6.10(-9)
60 3.75(-3) 3.22(-9)
85 7.5(-3) l-32(-9)
30 0
10 3.506( -3) 5.35(-9)
30 2.948(-3) 3.95( -9)
60 5.155(-3) 3.80(-9)
85 1.859(-2) 2.87(-9)
60 10 1.903(-3) 3.95(-9)
30 2.976(-3) 2.25(-9)
60 1.275(-2) 5.42( -9)
85 9.626( -2) 8.35(-9)
85 10 7.968( -4) 1~400-10)
30 2.24(-3) 3.46(--O)
60 2.013( -2) 1.76(-9)
85 9.1(-l) 1.62(-8)
II. Cloud height-35,000 ft
10 10 1.026( -2) 8*20(-9)
30 3.985( -3) 2.75( -9)
60 3.75(-3) 1.52(-9)
85 7.503(--3) 6.02(-10)
30 0
10 3.506(-3) 2.70(-9)
30 2.948( -3) 1.75( -9)
60 5.155(-3) 1.80(-9)
85 1.859(-2) 1*30(-9)
60 10 1903(-3) 7.70(-10)
30 2.976(-3) lW(-9)
60 1*275(-2) 2.63( -9)
85 9.626(-2) 3.06( -9)
85 10 7.968( -4) 6.8(-11)
30 2*24(-3) l-57(-10)
60 2.01(-2) 8.30(-10)
85 9.1(--l) 7*52(-9)

The angular dependent spectral reflection coefficient was determined by applying equation
(7) to a cloud particle distribution whose mode radius value is 4 p. * With the use of empirical
data for atmospheric spectral transmittance, (12) the expected exoatmospheric spectral
radiance was computed for several wavelengths and combinations of angles. Some results
are given in Tables 1, 2 and 3, where only cloud tops at heights or 35,000 and 40,000 feet
altitude were considered. The solar steradiancy as given by Allen in Astrophysical Quanti-
ties, was used.
* It is significant to note that the calculated albedos are a fraction of one per cent which at least one
order of magnitude too small for most wavelengths. It should be noted that the effect of other particle
distributions is minor, e.g. a cloud like the Madison cloud with a droplet size of about 8 p has a diffuse
reflection coefficient not unlike the 4 /Acloud.
384 RALPH ZIRKIND

TABLE 3(a).SPECTFULRADIANCEOFCLOUD; A= 6.1~

i (de@ e (deg) Scattered ratio (ster-I) N(A), w/cwwp

I. Cloud height-40,000 ft
10 10 6.855(-4) 1.479(-7)
30 6.432(-4) 1.374(-7)
60 1.131(-3) 2.267( -8)
85 3.098(-3) 3.367(-7)
30 0
10 5.658( -4) 1.207(-7)
30 7.185(-4) 1.516(-7)
60 l-828(-3) 3.64(-7)
85 7.363(-3) 8.03(-7)
60 10 5.739(-4) 1.150(-7)
30 1.056(-3) 2.097(-6)
60 5.335(-3) 9.951(-7)
85 5.056(-2) 5.112(-6)
85 10 3.290( -4) 3.591(-8)
30 8.873( -4) 9.677(-8)
60 1.057(-2) 1.070(-6)
8.5 6.835(-l) 3.765( -5)
II. Cloud height-35,000 ft
10 10 6.855(-4) 1.057(-7)
30 6.432( -4) 9.577(-8)
60 1.131(-3) 1.381(-7)
85 3.098(-3) 5.786(-8)
30 0
10 5.658(-4) 8.430(-8)
30 7.185(-4) 1.035(-7)
60 1.828(-3) 2.160(-8)
85 7.363( -3) 1.322(-7)
60 10 5.739( -4) 7@08(-8)
30 1.056(-3) 1.249(-7)
60 5.335(-3) 5163(-8)
85 5.056(-2) 7.432(-7)
85 10 3.29(-5) 6.160(-9)
30 8.873( -4) 1.594(-8)
60 1.057(-2) 1.556(-6)
85 6.835(-l) 1.534(-6)

TABLE 3(b). SPECTRALRADIANCEOPCLOUD; 3,= 6.3,~

I. Cloud height40,OOO ft
10 10 9.77( -4) 1.995(-7)
30 9.863(-4) 2.029( -7)
60 1.615(-3) 3.264(-7)
85 4.438(-3j 7.547(-7)
30 0
10 8.677( -4) 1.785(-7)
30 1.031(-3) 2.116(-6)
60 2.618(-3) 5.289( -7)
85 1.045(-2) 1.776(-5)
60 10 8.196(-4) 1.636(-7)
30 1.511(-3) 3.053(-7)
60 7.615(-3) 1.509(-6)
85 6.758(-2) 1.129(-5)
85 10 4.713(-4) 8.041(-8)
30 1.259(-3) 2.111(-6)
60 l-413(-2) 2.344(-6)
85 7.15(--l) 1.006(-4)
 THE NEAR, MEDIUM IR EARTH ALBEDO 385

TABLE 3(b) contd.

i (de& e (de& Scattered ratio (ster-l) N(A), W/cmW~

II. Cloud height-35,000 ft

10 10 9.77( -4) 1.889(-7)
30 9.863(--4) 1*896(--7)
60 1.615(-3) 2.967(-7)
85 4.438(-3) 5.246(-7)
30 0
10 8.677( -4) 1.668(-7)
30 1.031(-3) 1.963(-6)
60 2*618(-3) 4.773(-7)
85 1*045( -2) 1.227(-5j
60 10 8.196(-4) 1.505(-7)
30 1.511(--3) 2.752(-7)
60 7.615(--3) 1.327(-6)
85 6*758(-2j 7.590(-6)
85 10 4*713(--4) 5.568(-g)
30 l-259(-3) 1.477(-7)
60 1.413(-2) 1.587(-6j
85 7.15(-l) 5.160(-5)

TABLE 3(c). SPECTRALRADIANCEOFCMUD; A= 6.5~

I. Cloud height-40,000 ft
10 10 1.175(--3) 9.496(-g)
30 1.257(-4) 9.785(-9)
60 1.831(-3) 9.72(-g)
85 4.933( -3) 3.77( -8)
30 0
10 1.106(-3) 8*610(-8)
30 1.198(-3) 8.878(-g)
60 2.911(-3) 1.475(-7)
85 1.181(-2) 8.755(-g)
60 10 9.291( -4) 4.944(-g)
30 1.681(-3) 2.575( -7)
60 8.66(--3) 2.987(-7)
85 8.068( -2) 4.079( -7)
85 10 5.239( -4) 4*08( -9)
30 1.422(-3) 1.757( -9)
60 1.687(-2) 1.4261-8)
85 7*625(-l) 5.665(--j)
II. Cloud height-35,000 ft
10 1.175(-3) 5.171(-g)
:: 1.257(-4) 5.026(-9)
60 1.831(-3) 3.852(-g)
85 4.933(-3) 1.881(-8)
30 0 l-106(-3) 2.06( -4)
10 l-198(-3) 4.429(-g)
30 2.911(-3) 4.347(-g)
60 l-181(-2) 550-S)
85 4.079(-g)
60 10 9.291(-4) 1.953(-g)
30 1*681(-3) 3.214(-8)
60 8.66(-3)’ 8.631(-8)
85 8*068(-2) 1.463(-71
85 10 5.239(-4) 1.996(-9)
30 1.422(-3) 4.944( -9)
60 l-687(-3) 3.09( -9)
85 7.625(-l) 2.513(-7)
386 RALPH ZIRKIND

TABLE 4. SIJMMARYOF SPECTRAL RADIANCES

Observed radiances Calcutated radiance

Platform Wavele~~h (p) 01 W~em~l~l~) 01 W~em~~~[~
Aircraft 2.7 f 0,025 10-100 28
2.8
2.9 if 0.025 2-5
0.8-3.0 1::
Rocketsonde 2.21 & 0.025 1500-1900 2000
269 f 0.060 O-2-70 28
4.25 f 0*045 15-2-o 5-o(emitted)
0.5 (reflected)
night sky 11-27
Satellite 1.8 1500 1900-2500
2.2 2000 100(no clouds)
(2000mean) 2000(clouds)
2.7 lo-80 28
(28 mean)
6.3 16-50 20 (reflected)
70-120(emitted)

Wavelength, p

FIG. 3. RADIANCE FROM CLDUD CUMULU~--~~,OOOft (i = 30,”e = 0’).

3. E~~NTAL RESULTS
During the past several years, a number of investigations on spectral reflectance proper-
ties of clouds have been performed with the use of aircraft( balloons(14), rocketsondes(15)
and satellite@. In Table 4 are summarized the results from the different platforms along
with the expected radiance calculated here.
Some aircraft data which typify several atmospheric conditions are shown in Figs. 3,4
and 5. The rocketsonde data were obtained from an altitude of -100 km where the radiom-
eters scanned f45” about the vertical across a broken sky with clouds at G 9 km.
 THE NEAR, MEDIUM IR EARTH ALBEDO 387

- Termin
--- Haze

2.4 2.6 3.6 2.4 2.6 28 3.0 32

Wavelength, p Wavelength X1 p
FIG. 4. CLOUD RADIANCE vs. 1. FIG. 5. ATMOSPHERIC RADIANCE vs. 2.
- - DENSE STRATUS, 40,000 ft
i = 60”
e = 60”
- DENSE CIRRUS, 35,000 ft
-.-. THIN CIRRUS, 40,000 ft

d-
l

0
?l
E Id-
e
s

FIG. 6. CLOUD RADIANCE AS SEEN FROM SPACE 2

cl
AS A FUNCTION OF WAVELENGTH FOR DIFFERENT 0
VALUES OF
di zie CLOUD ALT. (ft) I$-
0 10 10 40,ooo
w 10* 10 40,ooo
0 10 10 35,ooo
+ 10 10 35,ooo
060 85 40,ooo
l 60 85 35,000
I@-
* Correct for multiple scattering. 2.7 2.8 2.9

A* P
388 RALPH ZIRKIND

Let us now examine the validity of the calculated results for reflected sunlight and
determine the effect on the above conclusions. The results for the 2.7 ,u region presented in
Fig. 6 when i = 30” and e = 0” can be directly compared to the airborne measured in Fig. 3.
At 2.70 ,u the measured results for the cumulus type cloud are in the range of ~10 to 100
~W/cm2/Q/,u whereas the calculated value, allowing for the atmospheric transmission is
only about 3 pW/cm2/Q/p.This difference is a result of the low value calculated for the reflec-
tion coefficient, 0.07 per cent, which is the direct consequence of the assumption of single
scattering. That is, unless the medium is highly absorptive, us/a, < O-5 the contributions
of multiple scattering must be added.
Havardo’) has calculated the maximum reflection coefficient for clouds containing 6 ,u
droplets and found the value to be 27 and 18 per cent at wavelengths 4.3 and 6.5 ,Urespec-
tively. It should be noted that for a cloud with approximately 200 droplets/cm3 the reflection
coefficient calculated by Havard are in reasonable agreement with the results derived from
the transport equation by Zirkind. (‘1 Further, the maximum value for the reflection
coefficient at 2.70 p is about 10 per cent. (‘) These values are substantially in agreement
with the values reported by Romanova.
Hence for a cloud several hundred meters thick the reflection coefficient at the several
wavelengths other than 2.8 and 2.9 ,u are large, greater than several per cent. These latter
values have been used in Table 4.
4. DISCUSSION
Each of the spectral bands are considered below.

The expected angular distribution of the reflected radiation from a cloud at this wave-
length is similar to that at 2.7 ,u; that is, R(G) as calculated from Mie theory is approximately
equal. Now the ratio u,/ct ‘u 0.97 and therefore, the reflectance will be a strong function
of cloud thickness. For a cloud whose thickness is about 40 m, the reflection coefficient is
0.50 whereas a thick cloud of 250 m vertical extent the coefficient as 0.65. In radiance units
the unattenuated reflected radiation will therefore be ~1900-2500 pW/cm2/Q/p. For
clouds whose tops occur at low altitudes, the reflected radiation will be attenuated; how-
ever, when the cloud tops are in excess of 3 km the expected values will rise rapidly.

4.1 2*2/J
The calculated radiance of the Earth’s atmosphere in this window region will vary from
100 to 2000 ,uW/cm”/Q/,u for a cloudless and cloudy sky respectively. This result is in
excellent agreement with the observed results in Table 4. The greater value of the cloud
radiance will be almost independent of altitude, for altitudes in excess of 3 km, i.e. above the
denser aerosol concentration and therefore gives an unequivocal indication of a cloud.
4.3 The 2.7 ,u region
The calculated radiances at 2.7 ,u for thick clouds whose tops are at altitudes of 35,000
and 40,000 feet clearly indicate that the radiance variation with altitude exceeds by almost
an order of magnitude the variation due to the angular distribution of the back-scattered
solar radiation.
From these results, it would appear that the region of 2.70 ,Ucould yield a distinction
between cloud tops at 35,000 and 40,000 feet, and in all probability at 30,000 and 45,000
feet. This information, when correlated with 1.9 and 2.2 p radiometer data should provide
 THE NEAR, MEDIUM IR EARTH ALBEDO 389

a method to determine cloud top heights to within about 5000 feet resolution for tops in
excess of 15,000 feet altitude. A preliminary correlation analysis has been made of the data
obtained by the rocket-sondes with positive results. Experiments are in progress to further
the substantiation of this correlation.

4.4 The 4.3 ,u region

The radiances expected at 4.3 ,u from a cloud whose top is at 40,000 feet altitude have
been examined. These values are two orders of magnitude less than the calculated thermal
radiation emitted by the atmosphere. Since the contribution from the lower atmosphere,
less than 40,000 feet, is about 20 per cent of the total emitted, the effect of a cloud deck
should be difficult to observe radiometrically; however, radiance difference technique may
provide correlation data particularly at night.
The data collected by the rocket-sonde at 4.3 ,u agree with the calculated value for
thermal emission, and in fact the only conclusion that one can draw from these data is that
the observed radiation was thermal, in spite of the fact that 2.2 and 2.7 ,Ddata were affected
by the clouds at 30,000 feet.

4.5 The 6 ,u region

The calculated cloud radiances for the 6 ,u region only indicate a difference at 6.5 ,u for
clouds between 35,000 and 40,000 feet. This difference, namely a factor of two, is wholly
inadequate to be used exclusively, and furthermore, the absolute value for reflected sunlight
is at least two orders of magnitude less than the thermal radiation emitted by the atmos-
phere. However, an examination of the calculated results of the emitted radiation reveals
that for a dry atmosphere the radiation originates from atmospheric layers below 35,000 feet
and above 45,000 feet for a wet atmosphere, if the latter is near the strong absorption region
(band head). Hence, the resultant radiation may reveal cloud heights, for a thick cloud, at
altitudes between 35,000 and 45,000 feet, provided the stratospheric water vapor profile was
approximately known.
It is this effect which tends to show a lack of correlation, on occasion, between radiance
in the 6.3 ,Mband and the 8-12 ,u region. A thin cloud above a dry atmosphere will suppress
the 6.3 ,u atmospheric thermal radiation, however 8-12 ,u radiation will penetrate and be
added to the cloud emission. For the wet atmosphere, the 6.3 ,u region will follow more
closely the 8-12 ,u region. These remarks are substantiated from results of TIROS III.(rg)
At this point in the discussion it would appear that daylight observations made in the,
near infrared, i.e. 1.9-2.7 ,u can provide a means to define cloud top heights above an
altitude of 10,000 feet to an accuracy of 5000 feet. The 4.3 ,Uregion does not look promising
since the cloud radiance in reflected sunlight is too low in comparison to the contribution
from atmospheric emission, and the latter does not possess a strong altitude dependence.
This is unaffected by the increased reflection coefficient. The latter, however, is not the case
for the 6.0 ,Dregion where the cloud radiance may be comparable to the atmospheric emitted
radiation, and therefore a cloud which obscures the emitted radiation from the underlying
atmospheric layers, whether it be day or night, may contribute to the definition of cloud
heights. By day, a high cloud over a wet atmosphere will enhance the signal; however, over
a dry atmosphere the radiance will primarily be reflected radiation. At night, the latter case
will show a lower reflectance than the clear sky whereas the wet atmosphere will not be seri-
ously affected.
390 RALPH ZIRKIND

5. CONCLUSIONS
1. The theoretical methods described here have proven adequate to calculate the ex-
pected radiances from cloudless and cloudy skies. Further, with the exclusion of the
highly absorptive region of 2.8 and 2.9 ,u the contribution of multiple scattering to the
cloud radiance is necessary.
2. Daylight observations made in the near infra-red absorption bands of H,O, i.e.
i-8-2.9 ,Ucan provide a definitive means to determine heights of cloud tops which are in
excess of 10,000 feet to an accuracy of 5000 feet. The 4.3 ,u region does not look promising
since the cloud radiance in reflected sunlight is too small in comparison to the contribution
from atmospheric emission, and the latter does not possess a strong altitude dependence.
3. The 6.3 p region can yield cloud heights, both by day and night, provided the crude
atmosphere water profile is known. Although no remarks have been made here on cloud
types it is noteworthy to state that ice clouds in 6.3 ,u region should be examined. Since
the ratio of a,/~, for ice is much less than for water the albedo will be low except for very
thick clouds.
4. Although the basic ideas are established, additional research and data are needed in
the various spectral regions: additional calculations should be performed with newer data
on indices of refraction for water and ice.(20$21)

REFERENCES
1. L. D. KAPLAN,~. Opt. Sot. Amer. 49, 1004 (1959).
2. G. YAMAMOTO, J. Meteorol. 18, 581 (1961).
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5. M. CENTENO, J. Opt. Sot. Amer. 31,244 (1941).
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8. D. MURCRAY,Infra-red Atmospheric Transmittance and Flux Measurements, Denver Research Institute
Report DR12136 (1964).
9. G. A. WILKINSand J. A. HOYEM,The terrestrial night horizon and sky at 4.3 microns, NOTS Report
TP3578 (1964).
10. E. BAUER,J. Appl. Opt. 3, 197 (1964).
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12. C. CUMMINGS,OSA Bulletin (1963).
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14. D. MURCRAY,Balloon Flight of Oct. 23,1962, Denver Research Institute Flight Data Report 10 (1963).
15. Private communication, Infrared Lab., University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.
16. Private communication, Aerospace Corporation, El Segundo, California.
17. J. B. HAVARD, On the radiational characteristics of water clouds at infrared wavelengths, Thesis,
University of Washington (1960).
18. L. M. ROMANOVA,Opt. Spektr. 14,262 (1962).
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