1.

2 URBAN ECOLOGY
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1.2.1 Introduction
The ecological impacts of human activity extend far beyond the areas in which they
occur. Alteration of the environment due to urban development can have far ranging
consequences on air quality, water quality, biodiversity and natural resources. The
Land management basic aim of sustainable urban management is to reduce the ecological costs of
Urban ecology today’s activities so that natural resources are able to renew themselves and remain
available for the use and enjoyment of future generations. Achieving this goal will
Water management require a fundamental transition from a “business as usual,” reactive way of
management to a bio-centric, proactive approach. Researchers and policy makers in
Waste management
the European Union are developing creative and innovative ways to address
Alternative energy environmental degradation and ecological fragmentation due to urbanisation. These
include strategies to reduce habitat destruction, conserve natural resources, and
Mobility and transport provide communities with cleaner and more enjoyable urban environments.

Today’s model of urban expansion can be characterized as inadequately managed

urban sprawl. It has not occurred in the absence of public oversight, but the
instruments available to manage it have not effectively controlled its growth and
Capacity building for prevented major adverse impacts from occurring to the natural environment. This
sustainable may be due to conflicting goals and objectives between levels or departments of
development government. Fundamentally, the conflict can often be reduced to one of economic
Economy and finance growth versus environmental protection. This model of development should be
replaced by a more coordinated and effective model based on growth management
and sustainable development that minimises negative environmental effects (1).
Employment
creation
1.2.2 Inadequately managed urban sprawl
Education Urban sprawl, the rapid expansion of housing,
commercial and industrial development across the
countryside at lower densities than that which prevails in
traditional cities and towns, has taken hold in Europe.
Demography
The freedom of movement provided by today’s transport
network has been a key factor in promoting urban sprawl.
Security More farms, forest, natural areas and open space have
yielded to urban development in the last fifty years than
Urban health
at any other time in history, and this loss of natural land
Accessibility area is often irreversible.
for special needs
Income
Urban sprawl exacerbates environmental problems such
as air and water pollution, waste generation, energy
Gender justice consumption, water scarcity, loss of habitats and global
warming. The economic costs of building new areas are also a major burden on
Social integration
society. For example, the establishment of a new industrial park in a rural area
requires infrastructure improvements such as roads, power supply, and waste
disposal. The residential development which follows will in turn prompt the
construction of services including commercial facilities, schools, parks, etc. Many of
these costs are borne by the public sector. Urban sprawl should be considered not
only in terms of its impact on the immediate environment, but in terms of its regional
impacts as well (2).
1.2.3 Causes of urban sprawl
The driving forces of urban sprawl are diverse and complex. They include: lower land
prices in areas outside urbanized areas than in central cities; growth in personal
income; large scale investments in transportation infrastructure enabling workers to
live at greater distances from their place of employment; a desire to live in green
areas; land owners in rural areas “cashing in” on the trend of increasing rural
development; the dispersal of employment centres to outlying areas; the in-migration
of low income workers willing to accept lower wages for menial labour and to live in
the marginal housing of the older cities; and in general, the trend toward the
globalisation of markets. While many of the factors that promote urban sprawl derive
from economic forces, all of them can be addressed to some extent by policy makers
and planners (2).

1.2.4 Effects of urban sprawl

New urban development entails more than simply constructing buildings and paving
roads. Electrical power, police services, waste collection and disposal, road
maintenance, health facilities and emergency response are among the requirements
of new development. These services do not appear overnight but are incremental in
their development as is the overall growth of development and population.
Residential development requires commercial services, access to employment sites,
schools and recreational activities. Industrial sites require access to transport, power
and the availability of a labour force. This highlights the need for planning and
programming of public improvements so that the services become available as
needed by the growing population.

Public transportation systems are essential for any city to function efficiently and
effectively, allowing for the movement of its residents to diverse destinations while
minimizing the environmental impacts associated with automobile utilization.
However, urban sprawl does not support alternative modes of transportation such as
mass transit and bicycles, promoting instead reliance on personal modes of
transportation. The outcome is increasing traffic congestion and air pollution, more
road accidents, loss of worker productivity and the decline in revenues for public
transit. As urban areas disperse over the landscape, pressure increases on the
public sector to fund expensive transportation capacity improvements.

Increased air pollution due to transportation sources typically follows the

development of low-density, peripheral settlements as the proportion of commuting
workers increases. This not only increases local air pollution, but also increases the
emission of greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming. Construction of
impermeable surfaces such as roads, sidewalks, parking areas, and buildings
reduces the recharge of ground water and aggravates the run-off of rainwater
carrying pollutants such as tire residue, engine oil and other automotive liquids, litter,
heavy metals, etc. into rivers and streams.

Mediterranean coastal areas are of special concern. These areas saw a 10%
increase in impervious structures during the 1990’s alone (1). Water stress in this
region is especially high and the projected growth in urban populations only
intensifies concerns over pressure on water supplies. The bulk of humanity is
concentrated within less than 400km of coastal areas, and almost 4 in 5 Europeans
live in urban areas where 60% overexploit their available water resources.

Urban expansion negatively affects wildlife. As natural areas are encroached upon
by higher density development, wildlife habitats are fragmented and wildlife find their
territory severed by roads and highways. Traversing these obstacles may prove to
be fatal to species as conflicts with humans and vehicles take their toll. Reducing
these habitats and migration corridors may have severe effects on wildlife. As wildlife
adapts, natural systems change in unpredictable ways, leading to potentionally
disastrous changes in the local ecology, flows of energy and nutrient cycles (2).

Urban sprawl also has a social dimension. Populations redistribute themselves in

disproportionate ways. Those moving away from high density urban areas into lower
density, greener areas tend to be the more affluent who can afford to live in these
areas. At the same time, lower income groups converge towards the centre of cities
where housing prices are lower. Inner city areas often became characterized by
poverty, crime, abandoned businesses, and litter. Such areas are also magnets for
migrants seeking employment and a better life. This chain of events can lead to a
breakdown in community integration, security and stability, with long-term negative
affects on government trust. As Europe moves into further integration with new
member states, its cities must take into account how their land-use policies and
priorities can affect the ecology of human relations as well as the natural
environment. This presents planners with a considerable problem – how to balance
social equality with urban development.

1.2.5 Growth management and sustainable development

Consistent and coordinated goals and policies are necessary at the EU level as well
as at the country, regional and city levels in order to overcome the inadequately
managed urban sprawl patterns of the recent past. Economic objectives should be
carefully balanced with the need to protect the environment. A comprehensive
programme should include realistic goals, an agreed upon plan of action, and
reasonable benchmarks to evaluate progress. The plan should be modified
periodically in order to account for changing conditions or new information. Areas
designated for future growth should be clearly delineated and other areas should be
set aside for the protection of natural resources, habitats and agriculture.

The main tools that planners have available are the regulation of the type and
density of land usage, and the planning and construction of infrastructure
improvements. These are the basic instruments to implement growth management
plans, but coordination with other policies and programmes is also needed. Cities
and regions should prepare economic development programmes that are consistent
with urban development and transportation improvement programmes. Likewise, the
provision of urban services such as water supply, sewage disposal, schools and
recreation areas should occur in areas planned for development, and be timed to
coincide with that development and withheld from those areas that are slated to
remain undeveloped.

Many cities in Europe have actively begun to pursue measures to increase urban
appeal (urbanism) and decrease inefficient, non-sustainable urban expansion/sprawl
(urbanization). Strategies of ‘creative control’ have become a mainstay of policy for
controlling the drivers of urban sprawl. These strategies encourage sustainable use
of areas surrounding cities and within cities to not only conserve resources, but to
increase the attractiveness of urban living. This implies rejuvenating cities and
enriching urban environments (1). This approach has found favour in many
countries, most notably the Netherlands, which has extremely dense populations.
This has been accomplished, in conjunction with transportation innovations and
other strategies, by incorporating city and ecological systems into a holistic structure.
Urban environments are increasingly being seen not as separate from the natural
environment, but as positive and sustainable pieces of it.

1.2.6 Principles of urban ecology

Cities have been built on areas that were once natural, with trees, waterways and
meadows that supported diverse ecological communities. Some of those natural
features have survived the spread of concrete. Waterways such as streams,
wetlands, lakes and canals cannot be built upon (although some cities have drained
wetlands and lakes, and have enclosed rivers and streams in concrete conduits) so
they remain a bastion of greenery and tranquillity where vegetation, wildlife and
human development can co-exist in harmony. Occasionally, active farms have been
by-passed in the growth process and continue their operations, surrounded by
housing developments and commercial areas. Other green spaces have been
purposely set aside, providing valuable aesthetic, recreational and educational
opportunities for people and habitat for wildlife.

Today, urban environments are the home of plants, insects and wildlife as well as
humans. By assessing the distinct characteristics of the urban environment, an
understanding of urban ecology emerges. Urban ecological communities often have
distinct characteristics from their rural counterparts. They have, over time, adapted to
the presence of concentrated human activities and structures and have modified
their behaviour. For example, some species that traditionally hunted or foraged
during daylight hours have taken on more nocturnal habits to fit their urban
environments and avoid human contact (3).

However, not all wildlife may adapt to urban life with the same ease. Small birds, for
instance, are able to adapt to urban environments more easily than larger species.
This is related to the availability of food. Fragmentation of green areas due to
urbanization has varying effects on larger mammals. As urban environments extend
into less developed areas, further contact with wildlife is more likely – bringing with it
higher probabilities of conflict. The immediate losers in such cases are the wildlife
and the long-term losers are communities that are devoid of natural resources.

Today, many people have come to realize that living in a city need not exclude
experiencing the joys of nature. Cities in many countries have taken positive steps to
restore the ambiance of natural systems within their urban boundaries. They strive to
become ecological cities, in which their human and natural populations live in
harmonious balance. One method is through the provision of more trees and green
spaces. Trees and greenery provide more than just aesthetic appeal and space for
recreation. They also serve vital ecological functions. Trees provide shade and cool
the air. They provide habitat for numerous species of birds, insects and other wildlife.
They clean the air, absorbing into tiny pores in their leaves air pollutants that are
broken down into less harmful substances during photosynthesis.

By absorbing atmospheric carbon dioxide, storing the carbon and releasing the
oxygen back into the atmosphere, trees help to replenish the air and also counteract
the release into the atmosphere of greenhouse gases, which have been associated
with global warming. Carbon dioxide is the leading type of greenhouse gas, most of
which is produced by industries, heating systems and transport networks of modern
cities. By accumulating in the upper atmosphere, this and other harmful gases
prevent hot air from rising, thus trapping it near the earth’s surface. This, in turn, has
led to a gradual warming of average temperatures which can eventually cause
drastic changes in global climatic patterns (3).

New concepts in urban design are incorporating

natural elements and the better integration of
humans with their environments. Wildlife and
greenery have immeasurable value for society.
Not only do they help mitigate many of the
environmental problems associated with urban
living, but they also have a very substantial
economic impact. Green spaces and contact
with wildlife also have health benefits, such as
reducing stress and promoting exercise. Finally,
the presence of parks and other natural
landscapes increases real-estate value and
neighbourhood bonds.

An example is green roof technology that extends the existing roof with trees and
shrubs cultivated in a light-weight growing medium. This technology offers many
quality of life benefits: conserving water and energy, reducing temperatures in
environments of asphalt and concrete, and creating green oases in urban centres
using very little space.
This is confirmed by the “Green Roofs Project,” a study of green roof activities in
Toronto, Canada that has found positive environmental and social benefits from the
use of green roofs. The study, undertaken by Ryerson University, praised green
roofs as a particularly effective strategy to address several environmental conditions
facing urban centres, including management of storm water runoff and pollution
mitigation. Precipitation is stored in vegetated roof material, greatly reducing water
flow to impermeable surfaces below. The study estimated that the installation of
approximately 5,000 hectares (on roofs larger than 350 square meters) could save
the city an estimated $39 million (Can) in pollutant and erosion control, and an
additional $46 million (Can) from reduced water storage costs. While the costs of
installing green roof systems are above the costs of traditional methods and
materials, the positive environmental, infrastructure and social benefits exceed that
of conventional practices (4).
In addition to improving the environment, green roofs can be used as microfarms for
food production to generate income and supplement local food budgets. Rooftop
gardens take advantage of the abundant supplies of sunlight and carbon dioxide that
not only help garden crops grow, but enhance their flavour. And while these plants
thrive on the carbon dioxide, they help improve the quality of life for city dwellers by
removing this deadly pollutant from the surrounding air. There are numerous
examples of green roofs being adapted for this purpose, providing income from such
crops as tomatoes, alfalfa, and lentils and supporting local urban economies.

The design of verandas and terraces is another way to enhance the quality of life in
urban areas, where greenery is limited and the built environment encroaches on
natural areas to a great degree. Research has shown that a significant reduction in
water quality and aquatic life occurs when more than 10% of watershed areas are
covered with impervious surfaces. As a transition between indoor and outdoor
space, these small green oases provide mini habitats for local flora and fauna, and
add an aesthetic dimension to public space that harmoniously integrates the built
environment with the surrounding landscape. In this regard, they can be a bridge to
the sustainability and liveability of intensely shared urban environments, whether in
older buildings or new developments.

Clean Water Services, Slow the Flow! Designing the Built Environment to Protect
Urban Watersheds, Oregan, July 2004.

1.2.7 References

1. European Environmental Agency, Urban Sprawl in Europe: the Ignored

Challenge, Report No. 10/2006, http://reports.eea.europa.eu
2. Alberti, Booth and Hill, Marzluff, The Impact of Urban Planning on Ecosystem
Dynbamics, Urban Research Initiative: NSF Proposal 1999-2002
3. Schaefer, V., Rudd, H. and J. Vala. 2002. Urban Biodiversity: Exploring Natural
Habitat and its Value in Cities. Douglas College Centre for Environmental
Studies & Urban Ecology, New Westminster, BC www.psat.
wa.gov/Publications/03_proceedings/PAPERS/ORAL/2c_schae.pdf
4. Doshi, D. Report on the Environmental Benefits and Costs of Green Roof
Technology for the City of Toronto. Report for City of Toronto and Ontario
Centres for Excellence, 2005. http://www.toronto.ca/greenroofs /findings.htm
5. http://www.ci.sherwood.or.us/temp_news/resource_docs/slow_flow.pdf

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