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Disorders of Potassium
Timothy J. Schaefer, MDa,b,*,
Robert W. Wolford, MD, MMMc,d
a
Section of Emergency Medicine, Department of Surgery, University of Illinois College
of Medicine at Peoria, Peoria, IL 61605, USA
b
Department of Emergency Medicine, OSF Saint Francis Medical Center,
530 Northeast Glen Oak Avenue, Peoria, IL 61637, USA
c
Program in Emergency Medicine, Michigan State University College of Human Medicine,
Saginaw Campus, Saginaw MI 48601, USA
d
Emergency Care Center, Covenant Healthcare, 900 Cooper, Saginaw, MI 48602, USA
Of all the electrolytes, the serum potassium is probably the most tested
for, titrated, and treated. A potassium disorder is the most common
electrolyte abnormality in hospitalized patients, and this is likely true of
emergency department (ED) patients as well [1–3]. Of the two conditions,
hypokalemia is more common; affecting a broader range of patients, while
hyperkalemia is potentially more serious and occurs almost exclusively in
patients with some underlying renal abnormalities [4,5].
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: tjschaefer@pol.net (T.J. Schaefer).
0733-8627/05/$ - see front matter Ó 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.emc.2005.03.016 emed.theclinics.com
724 SCHAEFER & WOLFORD
Intake disorders
Normally functioning kidneys protect against hyperkalemia by excreting
excess ingested potassium and handle large dietary intakes with little
problem [3,8]. Although the kidney protects against hyperkalemia, it is
unable to stop all urinary potassium losses. An inadequate intake, over
a period of time, may lead to hypokalemia [8,9].
Excretion disorders
Last, potassium excretion may be relatively too much or too little, which
is primarily related to kidney function. The kidney accounts for 90% of
potassium excretion with the remainder primarily from the gastrointestinal
tract and generally negligible amounts in sweat [3,5]. About 85% to 90% of
filtered potassium is reabsorbed before the distal cortical collecting tubules.
It is the remaining 10% to15% that is either excreted or reabsorped [3,10].
Normally functioning kidneys, with adequate perfusion, can compensate for
a wide range of potassium intake by increasing or decreasing potassium
urinary output. The kidneys are able to lower urinary potassium
concentration to as little as 5 mEq/L but cannot stop excretion completely [4].
The amount of potassium renally excreted is primarily influenced by three
factors: the plasma potassium concentration, plasma aldosterone, and the
delivery of sodium and water to the distal collecting tubules [3,11,12].
Increased potassium concentration stimulates nephron Na-K-ATPase
activity resulting in potassium movement into the tubular lumen and
exertion. The renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system is also activated to in-
crease potassium exertion (Fig. 1 gives a brief, simplied, schematic review of
the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system). Finally, increased sodium and
water delivery to the distal tubules stimulates the Na-K-ATPase (contrib-
uting to potassium excretion) and increased tubular flow (eg, osmotic
diuresis) leading to potassium ‘‘washout’’ and elimination [3,4,11–13].
Hypokalemia
Hypokalemia (generally defined as a serum potassium less than 3.6 mEq
per liter) is an exceptionally common electrolyte abnormality encountered in
clinical practice. Over 20% of hospitalized patients have been reported to
- perfusion
- blood volume
- NaCl
←
- potassium
Renin
Aldosterone leads to;
- sodium reabsorption
- potassium exertion
Angiotensin I
Aldosterone
Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)
Angiotensin II
Adrenal Gland
Table 1
Organ system effects of hypokalemia
Cardiac Dysrhythmias
Conduction defects
Increased likelihood of dysrhythmias due to digitalis
Skeletal muscle Weakness
Paralysis
Rhabdomyolysis
Fasiculations and tetany
Gastrointestinal Ileus
Renal Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus
Metabolic alkalosis
DISORDERS OF POTASSIUM 727
Table 2
Electrocardiographic changes associated with hypokalemia
Increased P-wave amplitude
Prolonged PR interval
Apparent QT interval prolongation
Reduction in T-wave amplitude
T-wave inversion
ST segment depression
U-waves
From Webster A, Brady W, Morris F. Recognising signs of danger: ECG changes resulting
from an abnormal serum potassium concentration. Emerg Med J 2002;19:74–7.
728 SCHAEFER & WOLFORD
Etiologies of hypokalemia
The etiology of hypokalemia, for a given patient, falls into three broad
categories: insufficient potassium intake, transcellular shift of potassium
from the extracellular to intracellular compartments, or excessive potassium
loss. The renal and gastrointestinal systems are the primary sites of excess
potassium loss from the body (Fig. 2).
Hypokalemia
Other
Gastrointestinal losses
Potassium losses via the gastrointestinal tract are likely the second most
common cause of hypokalemia in developed countries, and results primarily
from losses in the stool [2,4]. Normally, only about 10% of total potassium
730 SCHAEFER & WOLFORD
excretion (w10 mEq) each day is via stool. Any cause of increased stool
volumes will increase the amount of potassium lost and can result in
hypokalemia if the intake of potassium is not increased.
Vomiting and nasogastric suctioning, by themselves, do not cause
significant potassium loss as the normal gastric fluid only contains 5 to 10
mEq per liter. However, if aldosterone levels increase because of associated
volume loss, an increase in potassium excretion in the urine will occur. In
addition, an associated metabolic alkalosis will contribute to increased
urinary potassium loss and transcellular shifting of extracellular potassium,
again contributing to the development of hypokalemia [4].
Renal losses
Hypokalemia due to increased potassium loss in the urine is probably the
most common cause of hypokalemia in developed countries.
Treatment of hypokalemia
Hypokalemia rarely occurs as an isolated condition. In many cases,
corrections of other abnormalities (eg, hypovolemia) must take precedence
over repletion of serum potassium. Underlying causes of the hypokalemia,
such as hypomagnesemia, must also be addressed.
After the initial priorities of airway, breathing, and circulation are
addressed a search for the etiology of the hypokalemia should be made. In
most cases, a thorough history and physical examination reveal the cause
732 SCHAEFER & WOLFORD
Table 3
Diagnostic approach to etiology of hypokalemia
Laboratory abnormalities Etiology
Hypokalemia and normal acid-base Transcellular shift (eg, thyrotoxic periodic
state and UK\Ucreat ! 2 paralysis, familial periodic paralysis)
Hypokalemia and normal gap Gastrointestinal losses of potassium (eg,
metabolic acidosis and diarrhea or other gut fluid high in bicarbonate
(UNa þ UK)-UCl R 10
Hypokalemia and normal gap metabolic Renal-mediated potassium loss due to renal
acidosis and (UNa þ UK)-UCl % 10 tubular acidosis, drug induced RTA,
and UK\Ucreat O 2 ureteral diversion
Hypokalemia and metabolic alkalosis Gastrointestinal loss of potassium due to
and UCl ! 20 mEq\L vomiting, NG suctioning
Diuretics (UCl measure after
diuretic effect resolved)
Hypokalemia and metabolic alkalosis Diuretics (UCl measured
and UCl O 20 mEq\L during diuretic effect)
Increased mineralocorticoid effect
Abbreviations: UCl, chloride; UK, potassium; UNa, sodium; Ucreat, creatinine.
Adapted from Ref. [34]. Whittier WL, Rutecki GW. Primer on clinical acid-base problem
solving. Dis Mon 2004;50:117–62 and Lin SH, Chiu JS, Hsu CW, et al. A simple and rapid
approach to hypokalemic paralysis. Am J Emerg Med 2003;21:487–91.
DISORDERS OF POTASSIUM 733
Table 4
Treatment of hypokalemia
Formulation Dose and rate Indication
Oral potassium 20–80 mEq/d in divided doses Nonurgent correction
chloride (multiple and/or maintenance
formulations)
Oral potassium liquid 40–60 mEq/dose: serum Rapid elevation for patients
potassium should be followed requiring urgent, but not
to determine dosing interval emergent correction.
Intravenous 20–40 mEq/h serum Patients with severe symptoms
potassium chloride potassium should be (eg, dysrhythmias, paralysis)
reassessed after 60 mEq or unable to tolerate oral dosing
Adapted from Kim GH, Han JS. Therapeutic Approach to Hypokalemia. Nephron
2002;92(Supp. 1):28–32.
Special care must be taken in the treatment of patients with low serum
potassium due to transcellular potassium shifts. These patients may not
have significant total body potassium deficits. Rebound hyperkalemia can
occur as the cause of the transcellular shift is corrected and if aggressive
potassium replacement has been given [29,35].
Hyperkalemia
Although hypokalemia is a more common clinical disorder, hyperkalemia
is generally more serious and less well tolerated [2,6]. A total body
potassium depletion of 200 to 400 mEq will reduce the serum concentration
by about 1 mEq/L, whereas an excess of only 100 to 200 mEq will increase
the serum potassium concentration by about 1 mEq/L [6]. With this in mind,
it’s understandable that increases in the total body potassium content can
result in a rapid and potentially life-threatening hyperkalemia.
Case
A 40-year-old male presented to the ED with a chief complaint of
profound weakness. He had noticed some mild weakness, generalized
malaise, and mild nausea for 2 days but this marked weakness developed
suddenly on the morning of admission. He was unable to weight bear, and
had to slide himself along the floor to call a neighbor, and was brought in by
ambulance.
Until 3 weeks ago, the patient had been healthy with no known medical
problems and had not seen a doctor ‘‘for years,’’ when he suffered a small
acute myocardial infarction. On that admission, hypertension (218/138 on
arrival) and hypercholesterolemia were diagnosed and the patient was
started on enalapril (Vasotec) 20 mg twice a day, metolprolol (Lopressor) 50
mg twice a day, pravastatin (Pravachol) 20 mg daily, aspirin 81 mg daily,
and clopidogrel (Plavix) 75 mg daily.
734 SCHAEFER & WOLFORD
In this case, the patient’s impaired cardiac conduction and weakness are
typical symptoms of both hypo- and hyperkalemia; however, the ECG
suggests hyperkalemia.
Hyperkalemia is defined as a level O5.5 mmol/L [5,7]. Some further
divide hyperkalemia into: minimal, 5.5 to 6.5 mmol/L with only minor
electrocardiographic changes; moderate, 6.6 to 8.0 mmol/L with ECG
changes limited to peaking of T-waves; and severe, O8.0 mmol/L or any
level with a widened QRS complex, atrioventricular (AV) block, or
ventricular dysrhythmia [36]. Readers are reminded that serious complica-
tions do not strictly correlate with a given level, and are related more to the
rate of rise in the potassium level, the affect on cardiac conduction, and the
underlying cause than on the exact serum potassium concentration [5,7].
Etiologies of hyperkalemia
As with hypokalemia, hyperkalemia results from an imbalance of normal
potassium handling. This imbalance can develop from increased potassium
load, transcellular shifting of potassium, or decreased potassium elimination
736 SCHAEFER & WOLFORD
(Table 4). In addition to ‘‘real’’ disease, one other fairly common cause for
elevated potassium readings is ‘‘pseudohyperkalemia,’’ which is discussed
below.
Pseudohyperkalemia
This may be more common than true hyperkalemia, and occurs when
potassium is unexpectedly released from cells either at the time of
phlebotomy or after collection [4,5]. Traumatic hemolysis during venipunc-
ture or in vitro hemolysis is the most common cause of psyedohyperkalemia
being reported in 20% of all blood samples with an elevated potassium level
[6]. The laboratory will generally report a ‘‘slightly hemolyzed’’ specimen as
a clue to explain the hyperkalemia [4]. Another cause is potassium released
from muscle cells distal to a tourniquet with fist clenching during
phlebotomy. [3,6,12,43]. This can be avoided by not having the patient
clench their fist, limiting tourniquet time, or releasing the tourniquet after
the needle enters the vein. Finally, potassium can be released from white
blood cells or platelets, after blood is drawn, in patients with severe
leukocytosis (white blood cell count O50,000–100,000/mm3 or thrombocy-
tosis (platelet counts O500,000–1 million/mm3). If this is suspected, recheck
the potassium from a tube of unclotted blood [5,12]. The possibility of
pseudohyperkalemia should always be considered if unexpected hyper-
kalemia is found in an asymptomatic patient with otherwise normal
electrolytes and acid-base balance [5,6,12].
failure can result in hyperkalemia. There must be adequate blood flow for
glomerular filtration and some amount of urinary tubular flow, to the distal
collecting tubule, for potassium secretion to occur. When the glomerular
filtration rate falls below about 10 mL/min or about 1 L/d, this can lead to
hyperkalemia [6]. Patients with acute renal failure are at greater risk for life-
threatening complications from hyperkalemia as the potassium level is rising
more rapidly, before the body has a chance to develop compensatory
mechanisms.
Hypoaldosteronism
A more common renal cause for hyperkalemia than complete renal failure
is renal insufficiency with development of hypoaldosteronism [4,7,10]. This
is a condition of relatively well-preserved glomerular filtration rate but
decreased aldosterone levels. There are multiple medical causes and
hypoaldosterone-inducing medications that play a role in the susceptible
patient (see Box 1) [1–3,11]. Hypoaldosteronism can be subdivided by the
accompanying renin levels as low, normal, or high [10].
Hyporeninemic hypoaldosteronism results from impaired renin levels
ultimately resulting in hypoaldosteronism. Several conditions are associated
with defective renin production, including damage to the juxtaglomerular
apparatus, dysfunction of sympathetic innervation, and inhibition of
prostaglandin synthesis [11]. The classic patient is an elderly diabetic
patient with mild to moderate renal insufficiency; however, any condition
that damages or limits normal renal production of renin can result in
hyporeninemia (see Box 1) [4,7]. The best examples of medications
implicated in causing hyporeninemic hypoaldosteronism associated hyper-
kalemia are nonsteriodal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). NSAIDs can
cause hyperkalemia by decreasing glomerular filtration rate, increasing
sodium retention, but primarily by suppressing renin output via inhibition
of prostaglandins [7,11]. Patients at increased risk for developing hyper-
kalemia with NSAID use include the elderly, those with serum creatinine
concentration greater than 1.2 mg/dL, patients with congestive heart failure,
or those using diuretics [11]. The selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors have
been reported to cause severe hyperkalemia by the same mechanism as the
traditional NSAIDs [45,46].
Hypereninemic hypoaldosteronism occurs when there is lack of aldoste-
rone production. In adrenal insufficiency (Addison’s Disease), the adrenal
glands do not produce enough aldosterone. Medications disrupting the
renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system include angiotensin converting en-
zyme inhibitors (eg, captopril, enalapril, lisinopril), angiotensin receptor
blockers (eg, irbesartan, losartan, valsartan) and heparin. Identifying
patients at risk for developing hyperkalemia before starting these
medications is difficult. Hyperkalemia can occur in patients with only
modest renal insufficiency, and may not be predicted by the pretreatment
738 SCHAEFER & WOLFORD
Transcellular shifting
Insulin deficiency
Rhabdomyolysis/increased tissue catabolism
Acidosis
Hypertonicity
Exercise
Hyperkalemic periodic paralysis
Drugs
1. Non-selective beta-blockers (inhibits Na-P-ATPase pump)
2. Digitalis toxicity (inhibits Na-P-ATPase pump)
3. Succinylcholine (membrane leak)
Modified from Zull DN. Disorders of potassium metabolism. Emerg Med Clin North Am 1989;7(4):771–94; with permission
and data from Gennari FJ. Disorders of potassium homeostasis: hypokalemia and hyperkalemia. Crit Care Clin 2002;18(2):273–88
and Linas SL. The patient with hypokalemia or hyperkalemia. In: Schrier RW, editor. Manual of Nephrology, 5th ed. Philadelphia:
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2000.
DISORDERS OF POTASSIUM 739
Transcellular shifting
Redistribution of potassium from the intracellular to the extracellular
space is another etiology of hyperkalemia. Insulin is a key hormone for
740 SCHAEFER & WOLFORD
Membrane stabilization
Calcium is used to temporarily antagonize and stabilize the cardiac
membrane from the effects of hyperkalemia. It is indicated in patients with
significant ECG abnormalities (ie, loss of P-waves and prolonged QRS
duration) and when it is potentially dangerous to wait 30 to 60 minutes for
other therapies to take affect [6,38]. Calcium gluconate is generally used, and
Table 5 gives dosing. The calcium dose can be repeated in 10 minutes [4,5,7].
Calcium chloride can also be used with 10 mL of a 10% solution providing
three times the elemental calcium than that of 10 mL of 10% calcium
gluconate. This higher dose of calcium, theoretically, may be beneficial in
patients with marked cardiovascular compromise and instability [6].
There are several cautions with calcium use. First, calcium can potentiate
digitalis toxicity [4,5,7,40]. If it is necessary to give calcium to a patient
742 SCHAEFER & WOLFORD
Table 5
Treatment of hyperkalemia
Medication Dose and route Onset Duration
Membrane stabilizing
Calcium Gluconate 10 mL of 10% solution, 1–3 min 20–60 min
(caution: digoxin may repeat once in 5–10 min
toxic pt.) (children, 0.5 mL/kg
IV)
Transcellular potassium
shifting
Insulin, regular AND 10 units IV with 50 mL 10–20 min 2–4 h
Glucose (if serum glucose of 50% solution
!250 mg/dL) (caution: (consider following
monitor glucose) with D10W infusion at
50 mL/h) OR
10 units in 500 mL
of D10W over 1 h (children,
insulin 0.1 units/kg with
D25W infusion 2 mL/kg
(0.5 g/kg over 30 min)
Albuterol (nebulized) 10–20 mg in 4 mL saline 20–30 min 2–4 h
(caution: pts with severe nebulized over 20 min
coronary artery disease) (children, 2.5 mg if !25
kg or 5 mg if O25 kg)
NaHCO3 (Only in 50–100 mEq IV over 5 min !30 min 1–2 h
metabolic acidosis) (children, 1–2 mEq/kg IV)
Elimination of potassium
Sodium polystyrene 30 g PO, 50 g PR w2 h (PO) d
sulfonate (caution: (children, 1–2 g/kg w1 h (PR)
give with laxative) PO or PR)
Furosemide 20–40 mg IV (children, 30–60 min d
1–2 mg/kg IV)
Hemodialysis minutes d
Created from data from Refs. [58,59,60].
Intracellular shifting
Insulin
The next step in acute management is to shift potassium from the
extracellular to the intracellular space. Insulin is the most consistent and
reliable treatment (even in patients with end-stage renal disease), and is
indicated in all cases of hyperkalemia requiring emergency treatment [7,40]
DISORDERS OF POTASSIUM 743
(see Table 5 for different dosing options). Treatment should lower the
potassium level by about 0.5 to 1.2 mmol/L in 1 hour [6,7,40]. If glucose
levels are below about 250 to 300, then glucose should also be administerd
with the insulin to prevent hypoglycemia (typical 50 mL of 50% glucose; 1
ampule or 25 g). Hypoglycemia occurs in 11% to 75% of normoglycemic
patients, in 30 to 60 minutes, if they are given less than 25 g of glucose [7,40].
In all patients treated with insulin, close glucose monitoring and if
necessary, infusion of 10% dextrose at 50 mL/h or repeat dextrose boluses
should be given as needed [7,40].
Beta-2 agonist
Another possible treatment to shift potassium intracellularly is IV or
nebulized beta-2 agonists. The nebulized dose is 10 to 20 mg in 4 mL of
saline, which is higher that the typical 2.5 to 10 mg every 1 to 4 hours
recommended for acute bronchospasm (see Table 5). Side effects may include
tachycardia or possible development of angina in susceptible patients [7,38].
Bicarbonate
Another historically suggested treatment is sodium bicarbonate. How-
ever, the routine use of sodium bicarbonate is controversial, and has fallen
out of favor for several reasons [3,6,7,11,40,61]. First, bicarbonate is most
effective in the clinically uncommon condition of nonanion gap metabolic
acidosis [6]. Bicarbonate is less effective in organic metabolic acidosis (ie,
lactic and ketoacidosis) and in patients with renal failure (which is one of the
most common causes of hyperkalemia) [6]. Second, bicarbonate will
precipitate with calcium if given in the same line. Finally, patients could
receive a large amount of sodium, a concern in heart failure and renal failure
patients [7]. In Ahee and Crowe’s [42] review of the efficacy of various
treatments for hyperkalemia, they cited four studies showing no reduction in
serum potassium within 60 minutes after sodium bicarbonate treatment. So
it seems, in the most ‘‘clinically common’’ cases of hyperkalemia, there
appears to be little or no value in routinely adding sodium bicarbonate, and
this treatment should be reserved for selective cases of nonanion gap
metabolic acidosis [2,7,11,40,61].
It must be remembered that these steps to shift potassium to the
intracellular space are also only temporary measures. Most cases of
hyperkalemia are caused by a total body potassium excess and this excess
potassium must be removed.
Enhancing clearance
Sodium polystyrene sulfonate (Kayexalate)
Sodium polystyrene sulfonate (Kayexalate) is an exchange resin that
works across the gastrointestinal mucosa [7,38]. Each gram of resin will
744 SCHAEFER & WOLFORD
Diuretics
Loop (eg, furosemide [Lasix] and bumetanide [Bumex]) and thiazide
diuretics can be used to increase renal tubular flow and potassium
elimination. However, the patient must have an adequately functioning
kidney, and this is obviously a limiting factor for patients with chronic renal
failure. In other patients (particularly those with hyporeninemic hypo-
aldosteronism) this is an effective additional treatment [7].
Hemodialysis
Finally, the most definitive and effective method of rapidly lowering the
serum potassium is hemodialysis, which can lower levels by as much as
1.2 to 1.5 mEq/h [5,7,38,40]. This is indicated in patients when the above
treatments are ineffective or in cases of severe rapidly rising serum
potassium levels. Because hemodialysis only affects the extracellular
component, small amounts of the total body potassium content may be
removed and rebound hyperkalemia may occur in 1 to 2 hours [4,7].
Summary
Regarding hyperkalemia, several closing comments are offered. First, in
the area of causation, the majority of patients that develop hyperkalemia
have some underlying renal dysfunction. Medications are frequently
associated with the development of acute hyperkalemia, especially in
patients predisposed by age, medical condition, other medication use, or
kidney disorders.
Next in the area of diagnosis, the ‘‘classic’’ ECG changes in a patient with
hyperkalemia indicate need for emergent treatment but the ECG by itself is
not a consistent predictor of the presence or severity of hyperkalemia.
Finally, in the area of treatment, rapidly rising levels are more serious
than slowing rising levels, and the most consistent response to treatment, in
DISORDERS OF POTASSIUM 745
all types of patients, is with insulin and glucose. Remember to monitor for
hypoglycemia. Routine bicarbonate therapy is not indicated, and should be
reserved for patients with nonanion metabolic acidosis. Finally, inhaled
albuterol is perhaps an underused treatment.
Hypokalemia and hyperkalemia are frequently encountered in the ED
and are the result of disturbances in potassium intake, potassium secretion,
and transcellular shifts. An understanding of these disturbances is
helpful, and guides appropriate management and prevention of significant
morbidity and even death. Presenting symptoms tend to be vague, and
generally affect the cardiac, neuromuscular, and gastrointestinal systems.
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