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Sanjay Pandey
MECHANICS

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Contents

1 Measurements 3
1.1 Systematic Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Random Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Quantifying the Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 How many Decimal Places? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

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1.5 How does an uncertainty in a measurement affect the FINAL result? . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6 Percentage Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

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1.7 Combination of Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

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2 Dimensional Analysis 9
2.1 The International System Of Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

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2.2 Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
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2.3 Dimensional Formulae And Dimensional Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

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2.4 Uses of Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
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2.4.1 Homogeneity of dimensions in an equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4.2 Conversion of units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
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2.4.3 To find relations among the physical quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

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2.5 Limitations of the Dimensional Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

3 Vectors 14
3.1 Scalar Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2 Vectors Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.3 Some Properties of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
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3.4 Multiplication of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

3.5 Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
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4 Kinematics 30
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2
1 Measurements

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A measurement should always be regarded as an estimate. The precision of the final result of an
experiment cannot be better than the precision of the measurements made during the experiment, so the
aim of the experimenter should be to make the estimates as good as possible.
There are many factors which contribute to the accuracy of a measurement. Perhaps the most obvious
of these is the level of attention paid by the person making the measurements: a careless experimenter
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gets bad results! However, if the experiment is well designed, one careless measurement will usually be
obvious and can therefore be ignored in the final analysis. In the following discussion of errors and level
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of precision we assume that the experiment is being performed by a careful person who is making the
best use of the apparatus available.

1.1 Systematic Errors

If a voltmeter is not connected to anything else it should, of course, read zero. If it does not, the "zero
error" is said to be a systematic error: all the readings of this meter are too high or too low. The same

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 1 Measurements

problem can occur with stop-watches, thermometers etc. Even if the instrument can not easily be reset
to zero, we can usually take the zero error into account by simply adding it to or subtracting it from
all the readings. (It should be noted however that other types of systematic error might be less easy to
deal with.) Similarly, if 10 ammeters are connected in series with each other they should all give exactly
the same reading. In practice they probably will not. Each ammeter could have a small constant error.
Again this will give results having systematic errors.
For this reason, note that a precise reading is not necessarily an accurate reading. A precise reading
taken from an instrument with a systematic error will give an inaccurate result.

1.2 Random Errors

Try asking 10 people to read the level of liquid in the same measuring cylinder. There will almost certainly

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be small differences in their estimates of the level. Connect a voltmeter into a circuit, take a reading,
disconnect the meter, reconnect it and measure the same voltage again. There might be a slight difference

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between the readings. These are random (unpredictable) errors. Random errors can never be eliminated

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completely but we can usually be sure that the correct reading lies within certain limits.

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To indicate this to the reader of the experiment report, the results of measurements should be written
as

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Result ± Uncertainty
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• Any measurement that we made without a knowledge of it’s uncertainty is meaningless.

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For example, suppose we measure a length, l to be 25 cm with an uncertainty of 0.1cm. We write the
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result as
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l = 25cm ± 0 · 1cm
By this, we mean that all we are sure about is that l is somewhere in the range 24.9cm to 25.1cm.

1.3 Quantifying the Uncertainty

The number we write as the uncertainty tells the reader about the instrument used to make the measure-
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ment. (As stated above, we assume that the instrument has been used correctly.) Consider the following
examples.
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Example 1: Using a ruler

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The length of the object being measured is obviously somewhere near 4·3cm (but it is certainly not
exactly 4·3cm).
The result could therefore be stated as
4·3cm ± half the smallest division on the ruler
In choosing an uncertainty equal to half the smallest division on the ruler, we are accepting a range of
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possible results equal to the size of the smallest division on the ruler.
However, do you notice something which has not been taken into account? A measurement of length
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is, in fact, a measure of two positions and then a subtraction. Was the end of the object exactly opposite
the zero of the ruler? This becomes more obvious if we consider the measurement again, as shown below.

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 1 Measurements

Notice that the left-hand end of the object is not exactly opposite the 2cm mark of the ruler. It is
nearer to 2cm than to 2·1cm, but this measurement is subject to the same level of uncertainty.
Therefore the length of the object is

(6 · 3 ± 0 · 05)cm − (2 · 0 ± 0 · 05)cm

so, the length can be between

(6 · 3 + 0 · 05) − (2 · 0 − 0 · 05) and (6 · 3 − 0 · 05) − (2 · 0 + 0 · 05)

that is, between

4·4 cm and 4·2 cm

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We now see that the range of possible results is 0·2cm, so we write

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1
length = 4 · 3cm ± 0 · 1cm

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In general, we state a result as

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reading ± the smallest division on the measuring instrument
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Example 2: Using a Stop-Watch
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Consider using a stop-watch which measures to 1/100 of a second to find the time for a pendulum to
oscillate once. Suppose that this time is about 1s. Then, the smallest division on the watch is only about
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1% of the time being measured. We could write the result as

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T = 1s ± 0 · 01s

which is equivalent to saying that the time T is between 0·99s and 1·01s.
This sounds quite good until you remember that the reaction-time of the person using the watch might
be about 0·1s. Let us be pessimistic and say that the person’s reaction-time is 0·15s. Now considering
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the measurement again, with a possible 0·15s at the starting and stopping time of the watch, we should
now state the result as
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T = 1s ± (0 · 01 + 0 · 3)s
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In other words, T is between about 0·7s and 1·3s.

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We could probably have guessed the answer to this degree of precision even without a stop-watch!
Conclusions from the preceding discussion
If we accept that an uncertainty (sometimes called an indeterminacy) of about 1% of the measurement
being made is reasonable, then

a) a ruler, marked in mm, is useful for making measurements of distances of about 10cm or greater.
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b) a manually operated stop-watch is useful for measuring times of about 30s or more (for precise mea-
surements of shorter times, an electronically operated watch must be used)
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 1 Measurements

1.4 How many Decimal Places?

Suppose you have a timer which measures to a precision of 0·01s and it gives a reading of 4·58s. The
actual time being measured could have been 4·576s or 4·585s etc. However, we have no way of knowing
this, so we write

t = 4 · 58s ± 0 · 01s

If we now repeat the experiment using a better timer which measures to a precision of 0·0001s. The
timer might still give us a time of 4·58s but now we would indicate the greater precision of the instrument
being used by stating the result as

t = 4 · 5800s ± 0 · 0001s

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So, as a general rule, look at the precision of the instrument being used and state the result to that
number of decimal places.

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Another point to remember is that very often we will be using our results to plot a graph. On most

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graph paper you can represent a result to a precision of 3 significant figures (3 sig. fig.). So (assuming

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that your measurements allow for this level of precision) convert your table of results to lists of numbers

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in standard form and give them to two decimal places. (By “standard form” we mean a number between
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0·00 and 9·99 multiplied by the appropriate power of 10.)
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1.5 How does an uncertainty in a measurement affect the FINAL

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result?
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The measurements we make during an experiment are usually not the final result; they are used to
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calculate the final result.

When considering how an uncertainty in a measurement will affect the final result, it will be helpful to
express uncertainties in a slightly different way. Remember, what really matters is that the uncertainty
in a given measurement should be much smaller than the measurement itself. For example, if you write,
"I measured the time to a precision of 0·01s", it sounds good: unless you then inform your reader that the
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time measured was 0·02s ! The uncertainty is 50% of the measured time so, in reality, the measurement
is useless. We will define the quantity Relative Uncertainty as follows
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Absolute Uncertainty
Relative Uncertainty =
Measured Value
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(to emphasise the difference, we use the term “absolute uncertainty” where previously we simply said
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“uncertainty”).
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We will now see how to answer the question in the title.

It is always possible, in simple situations, to find the effect on the final result by straightforward calcu-
lations but the following rules can help to reduce the number of calculations needed in more complicated
situations.
(to emphasise the difference, we use the term "absolute uncertainty" where previously we simply said
"uncertainty").
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We will now see how to answer the question in the title.

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It is always possible, in simple situations, to find the effect on the final result by straightforward calcu-
lations but the following rules can help to reduce the number of calculations needed in more complicated
situations.

1.6 Percentage Error

If there is an error ∆L in measurement of any physical quantity L, then ∆L/L is called fraction error
and ∆L/L × 100 is called percentage error.

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 1 Measurements

1.7 Combination of Errors

If we do an experiment involving several measurements, we must know how the errors in all the measure-
ments combine.
(a) Error of a sum or a difference
D D
Suppose two physical quantities A and B have measured values A ± A, B ± B respectively where
D D D
A and B are their absolute errors. We wish to find the error Z in the sum
Z = A + B.
D D
We have by addition, Z ± Z = (A ± A) + (B ± B). D
The maximum possible error in Z
DZ= A+ B D D
For the difference Z = A – B, we have
D D D
Z ± Z = (A ± A) – (B ± B) = (A – B) ± A ± B D D

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D
or, ± Z = ± A ± B D D
D
The maximum value of the error Z is again A + B. D D

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Hence the rule : When two quantities are added or subtracted, the absolute error in the final result is

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the sum of the absolute errors in the individual quantities.

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ä Example 1. The temperatures of two bodies measured by a thermometer are t1 = 20 0C ± 0.5 0C

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and t2 = 50 0C ± 0.5 0C. Calculate the temperature difference and the error theirin.
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Sol. t0 = t2 − t1 = (500C ± 0.50C) − (200C ± 0.50C)t0 = 300C ± 10C

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(b) Error of a product or a quotient

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Suppose Z = AB and the measured values of A and B are A ± A and B ± B.Then D
D D D D D D D
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Z ± Z = (A ± A) (B ± B) = AB ± B A ± A B ± A B.
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Dividing LHS by Z and RHS by AB we have,

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D D D
1±( Z/Z) = 1 ± ( A/A) ± ( B/B) ± ( A/A)( B/B). D D
D D
Since A and B are small, we shall ignore their product.
Hence the maximum relative error
D D
Z/ Z = ( A/A) + ( B/B). D
Hence the rule : When two quantities are multiplied or divided, the relative error in the result is the
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sum of the relative errors in the multipliers.

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ä Example2. The resistance R = V/I where V = (100 ± 5)V and I = (10 ± 0.2)A. Find
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the percentage error in R.

Answer . The percentage error in V = ∆V 5
V × 100 = 100 × 100 = 5%
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and percentage error in I = I × 100 = 10 × 100 = 2% .

∆I 0.2

The total error in R would therefore be 5% + 2% = 7%.

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ä Example 3. Two resistors of resistances R1 = 100 ± 3 ohm and R2 = 200 ± 4 ohm are
connected (a) in series, (b) in parallel. Find the equivalent resistance of the (a) series
combination, (b) parallel combination. Use for (a) the relation R = R1 + R2 , and for
0
(b) R10 = R11 + R12 and ∆R R02
= ∆R
R12
1
+ ∆RR22
2
.
Answer. (a) The equivalent resistance of series combination
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R = R1 + R2 = (100 ± 3)ohm + (200 ± 4)ohm = 300 ± 7 ohm.

(b) The equivalent resistance of parallel combination
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R0 = RR11+R
R2
2
= 2003 = 66.7ohm
Then, from R0 = R11 + R12 we get,
1

∆R0
R02
= ∆RR12
1
+ ∆RR22
2

2
2
∆R0 = R02 ∆R + R02 ∆R = 66.7 3 + 66.7



R2
1
R2
2
100 200 4 = 1.8
1 2
Then, R0 = 66.7 ± 1.8 ohm
(Here, ∆R is expresed as 1.8 instead of 2 to keep in confirmity with the rules of significant figures.)

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 1 Measurements

(c) Error in case of a measured quantity raised to a power

Suppose Z = A2 ,
Then, ∆Z/Z = (∆A/A) + (∆A/A) = 2(∆A/A).
Hence, the relative error in A2 is two times the error in A.
In general, if Z = Ap B q /C r Then, ∆Z/Z = p(∆A/A) + q(∆B/B) + r(∆C/C).
Hence the rule : The relative error in a physical quantity raised to the power k is the k times the relative
error in the individual quantity.

ä Example 4. Find the relative error in Z, if Z = A4 B 1/3 /CD3/2 .

Answer. The relative error in Z is ∆Z/Z = 4(∆A/A) + (1/3)(∆B/B) + (∆C/C) + (3/2)(∆D/D).

ä Example5. The period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is T = 2p Lg . Measured value

q

of L is 20.0 cm known to 1 mm accuracy and time for 100 oscillations of the pendulum

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is found to be 90s using a wrist watch of 1s resolution. What is the accuracy in the
determination of g ?

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1
Answer Given that T = 2p Lg , therefore
q

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g = 4π 2 L/T 2 Here, T = nt and ∆T = ∆tn .
Therefore, T = t .
∆T ∆t

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The errors in both L and t are the least count errors. Therefore,
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(∆g/g) = (∆L/L) + 2(∆T /T )

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= 20.0 + 2 90 = 0.32
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Thus, the percentage error in g is

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= (∆g/g) × 100 = (∆L/L) × 100 + 2(∆T /T ) × 100 = 3%
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2 Dimensional Analysis
2.1 The International System Of Units
Unit: It is the smallest part of physical quantity (a quantity which can be measured) in any system of
units. Any standard unit should have the following two properties:
(a) Invariability: The standard unit must be invariable. Thus assuming your height as standard

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as standard unit of length is not invariable because your height changes with your age.

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(b) Availability: The standard unit should be easily made available for comparing with other quantities.

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1
Also you will not be available every where for comparision.

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Types of units

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(i) F.P.S. system of units: It is the british engineering system of units which uses foot as the unit of
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length, pound as the unit of mass and second as the unit of time.

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(ii) C.G.S. system of units: It is the Gaussian system which uses centimeter as the unit of length,
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gram as the unit of mass and second as the unit of time.
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(iii) M.K.S. system of units: In this system, meter is the unit of length, kilogram is the unit of mass
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and second is the unit of time.

(iv) International system of units (SI units): This system of units was introduced in 1960, by the
general conference of weights and measures and was internationally accepted. Our calcullations
mainly will be in this system of units.
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Units are divided in two groups as fundamental units and Derived units.
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(A) Fundamental unit: If the unit of a physical quantity is independent of of the other unit, the
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physical quantity is said to be fundamental quantity and its unit as fundamental unit.
The SI unit is based on the following seven fundamental units and two supplementary units:
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S. No. Fundamental Fundamental Unit Unit Symbol Used

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Quantity
1. Mass kilogram Kg
2. Length meter m
3. Time second s
4. Temperature kelvin K
5. Electric Current ampere A
m

6. Luminous Intensity candela cd

7. Amount of Matter mole mol
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S. No. Supplementary Supplementary Unit Symbol Used

Physical Quantity Unit
1. Plane Angle Radian rad
2. Solid Angle Steradian sr
Note:
(i) Unit cannot be plurel e.g. writing 5kgs is wrong concept, the correct is 5kg.

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 2 Dimensional Analysis

(ii) If the name of a unit is the name of a scientist and you are writing the complete name, then
start from a small letter, e.g. 5 ampere and if you are writing the single latter use big letter,
e.g., 5A.

(B) Derived Unit: If the unit of a physical quantity depends on the units of the fundamental quantities
then the quantity is said to be dependent physical quantity (or derived quantity) and its unit is
dependent unit (or derived unit). e.g. unit of velocity is m/s, which depends on the unit of length
and time and hence the velocity is said to be dependent physical quantity and its unit is derived
unit.

2.2 Dimensions
The word dimension has a special meaning in physics. It denotes the physical nature of a quantity.

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Whether a distance is measured in units of feet or meters or fathoms, it is still a distance. We say its

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dimension is length.

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All the physical quantities represented by derived units can be expressed in terms of some combination

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of seven fundamental or base quantities. We shall call these base quantities as the seven dimensions of
the physical world, which are denoted with square brackets [ ]. Thus, length has the dimension [L], mass

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[M], time [T], electric current [A], thermodynamic temperature [K], luminous intensity [cd], and amount
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of substance [mol]. The dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers (or exponents) to which the
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base quantities are raised to represent that quantity. Note that using the square brackets [ ] round a
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quantity means that we are dealing with ‘the dimensions of’ the quantity.
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In mechanics, all the physical quantities can be written in terms of the dimensions [L], [M] and [T]. For
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example, the volume occupied by an object is expressed as the product of length, breadth and height,
or three lengths. Hence the dimensions of volume are [L] × [L] × [L] = [L]3 = [L3 ]. As the volume is
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independent of mass and time, it is said to possess zero dimension in mass [M 0 ], zero dimension in time
[T 0 ] and three dimensions in length.
Similarly, force, as the product of mass and acceleration, can be expressed as
Force = mass × acceleration = mass× (length)/(time)2
The dimensions of force are [M ][L]/[T ]2 = [M LT −2 ]. Thus, the force has one dimension in mass, one
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dimension in length, and −2 dimensions in time. The dimensions in all other base quantities are zero.
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2.3 Dimensional Formulae And Dimensional Equations

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The expression which shows how and which of the base quantities represent the dimensions of a physical
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quantity is called the dimensional formula of the given physical quantity.

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For example, the dimensional formula of the volume = [M 0 L3 T 0 ],

Dimensional formula of speed or velocity is = [M 0 LT −1 ]
Dimensional formula of acceleration = [M 0 LT −2 ]
Dimensional formula of mass density = [M L−3 T 0 ]
An equation obtained by equating a physical quantity with its dimensional formula is called the di-
mensional equation of the physical quantity. Thus, the dimensional equations are the equations, which
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represent the dimensions of a physical quantity in terms of the base quantities. For example, the dimen-
sional equations of volume [V ], speed [v], force [F ] and mass density [ρ] may be expressed as
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[V ] = [M 0 L3 T 0 ]
[v] = [M 0 LT −1 ]
[F ] = [M LT 2 ]
[ρ] = [M L−3 T 0 ]
Note:
1. Numerical values are dimensionless. e.g., dimensional formula of two (2) is
[2] = [M 0 L0 T 0 ]

10
 2 Dimensional Analysis

2. All trigonometrical ratios are dimensionless. e.g., If

y = sin θ, then [y] = [sin θ] = [M 0 L0 T 0 ]

3. Exponential functions are dimensionless. e.g., If

y = ex , then [x] = [M 0 L0 T 0 ], [y] = [ex ] = [M 0 L0 T 0 ]

4. Logarithmic functions are dimensionless. e.g., if

y = loga x , then [x] = [M 0 L0 T 0 ], [a] = [M 0 L0 T 0 ] [y] = [loga x] = [M 0 L0 T 0 ]

5. All ratios are dimensionless, e.g.,

wt. of compound
(a) mole= molecular wt. of compound , then [mole]=[M L T ]
0 0 0
weight of certain volume of a substance
(b) Specific gravity = weight of same volume of water at 4◦ C , hence [sp. gr.] = [M L T ]
0 0 0
density of a substance
(c) Relative density = density of water at 4◦ C , [Relative density]=[M L T ].
0 0 0

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2.4 Uses of Dimensions

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2.4.1 Homogeneity of dimensions in an equation

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It states that in a correct physical equation the dimensions of each term added or subtracted must be

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same.
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With the help of above statement we can check the correctness of a physical equation.
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• A dimensionally correct equation may be incorrect also.
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• But a dimensionally incorrect equation will be always incorrect equation.

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Let us check the equation v = u + at. Here u is the initial velocity, v is the final velocity, a is constant
acceleration
 m and t is−1
the
 time considered for motion between a segment of a path.
[u] =  sec  =  LT 
m
[v] = sec = LT −1 
[at] = [acc.][time] = LT −2 [T ] = LT −1
  
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Thus, the equation is correct as the dimensions of each term are the same. So, we can say that the
equation is dimensionally correct.
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2.4.2 Conversion of units

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The numerical value of a physical quantity in a system of units can be changed to another system of units
h i h ia h ib h ic
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using the equation nu = const, i.e. n1 u1 = n2 u2 or n2 = n1 uu21 or n2 = n1 M 1 L1 T1

where
p

M2 L2 T2
n1 is the numerical value in one system having unit [u1 ] and n2 is the numerical value in other system
having unit [u2 ].
Ex. The unit of work in SI system is joule. Now, how many CGS energy is equal to 1 joule ?
Dimensional formula of energy is M L2 T −2 , therefore
h ia h ib h ic h i1  h i1 
M1 L1 T1 kg meter 2 sec −2 1000gram 100 cm 2 sec −2
     
n2 = n1 M =⇒ n 2 = n 1 = 1 =
m

2 L2 T2 gram cm sec gram cm sec

107
E

=⇒ 1 joule=107 CGS units

Thus, knowing the conversion factors for the base quantities, one can find the numerical value of a
physical quantity from one system of units to other system of units.

11
 2 Dimensional Analysis

2.4.3 To find relations among the physical quantities

Suppose we want to find relation between force, mass and acceleration. Let force depends on mass and
acceleration as follows
F = Kmα aβ where K is dimensionless constant and α and β are the powers of mass and acceleration.
According to principle of homogeneity
[F ] = [K][m]α[a]β 
=⇒ M LT −2  = M 0 L0 T 0 [M ]α [LT −2 ]β


=⇒ M LT −2 = M α Lβ T −2β


Equating the dimensions on both sides we get α = 1, β = 1, −2β = −2

=⇒ α = 1, β = 1
Now putting the values of α and β in required equation we will get a mathematical equation F = Kma.
The value of K can be found experimentally.

05 m
94 co
2.5 Limitations of the Dimensional Method

27 a )

1
17 gm ur
1. It cannot provide the exact expression for a physical quantity.

51 il.
2. A dimensionally correct equation may be incorrect also.e.g.

+9 @ np
37 sic nd y s
v = 2u + 3at
45 hy a b ic

have [v] = [LT −1 ], [2u] = [2][u] = M L T [LT −1 ] = [LT −1 ]

 0 0 0

8, rld a
and [6at] = [6][a][t] = M 0 L0 T 0 [LT −2 ][T ] = [LT −1 ]

ys

05 o (K
Hence, the equation is dimensionally correct.
But, experimentally found result prove that the above equation is numericaly inconsistent.
h

63 sw ey
P

Assignments
Q1. The
 dimension of
 permeability2 is−2 −2
(a) M L T A2 −2 −1 (b) M L T A (c) M LT −2 A−1 (d) M LT −3 A−1
Q2. In which of the following pairs, the two physical quantities do not have the same dimensional
19 p P

formula
(a) pressure and stress (b) impulse and momentum
y

(c) work and energy (d) moment of inertia and angular momentum
+9 : s ja

Q3. Dimensions of young’s modulus and shear modulus are

(a) different (b) same, and are that of work (c) same, and are that of force (d) same, and
o. il n

are that of pressure

Q4. The dimension of co-efficient of viscosity is
M a Sa

(a) M L−1 T −1 (b) M 0 L−1 T −2 (c) ML2 T −1 (d) M LT 2

      

Q5. Given the dimension of potential difference M L2 T −3 A−1 . The dimension of resistance is


(a) [M LT −3 A−2 ] (b)[M L2 T −3 A−2 ] (c) [M L2 T −3 A−1 ] (d) [M L2 T −3 A−3 ]

Q6. The dimension of Planck’s constant is
(a) it is dimensionless, since it is a constant (b) same as that of frequency (c) [M L2 T −1 ] (d)
[M L2 T −2 ]
m

Q7. Theqperiod of oscillation, T of a floating cylinder with length h immersed in a liquid of density ρ
E

is, T = 2π hρ c , where c is a constant. The dimension of C is

(a) it is dimensionless (b) M LT −2 (c) M L−2 T −2 (d) L2 T −2
Q8. Which one of the following is not a base SI unit
(a) coulomb (b) kilogram (c) metre (d) candela
Q9. The speed of a particle varies in time according to v = AT −Bt3 . The dimensions of A and B
respectively are
(a) L, LT −2 (b) L, LT −3 (c) LT −2 , LT −4 (d) L2 , LT −4

12
 2 Dimensional Analysis

Q10. In the equation P + Va2 (V −b) = RT , where V is the volume, P is the pressure, T is the

absolute temperature  and

 R is the universal gas constant, the5 constants a and b have the dimensions
(a) [M 2 L4 T −2 θ], L4 (b) [M L5 T −2 θ], L3 (c) [M L T −2 θ], [L3 ] (d) [M L5 T −2 ], [L3
h ]
1/2 i
Q11. The speed v of a particle of mass m as a function of time t is given by v = αA sin m k
t ,
where dimension of A is L. The dimensions of α and k respectively are
(a) LT −1 , M LT −2 (b) T −1 , M T −2 (c) LT −2 , M LT −2 (d) LT −2 , M L−1 T −2
Q12. If A and B have different dimensions, which one of the following operations is not possible.
(a) AB (b) 1 − A/B (c) A − B (d) AB 1/2
Q13. The planck’s constant has the same dimension as
(a) angular velocity (b) energy (c) angular momentum (d) momentum
Q14. The quantity eh/(4pm) has the same dimension as
(a) electric dipole moment (b) magnetic dipole moment (c) potential difference (d) current

05 m
density
Q15. Which one of these is dimensionless

94 co
(a) refractive index (b) resistivity (c) universal constant of gravitation (d) solar constant

27 a )

1
17 gm ur
Q16. The product of resistance and capacitance has the same dimension as

51 il.
(a) permittivity (b) potential difference (c) magnetic
 flux  (d) time

+9 @ np
Q17. The equation of motion of a rocket is v = V0 log 1 − M αt
+ v0 where v is the velocity of the
37 sic nd y s
0
rocket at time t, v0 is its initial velocity, M0 is its initial mass V0 is the velocity of the fuel ejecting out
45 hy a b ic

of the vehicle with respect to the vehicle. The constant α has the dimension
8, rld a
(a) it is dimensionless (b) M (c) T (d) M T −1
ys

05 o (K
Answers
µ0 I1 I2
1. (c) using the formula of force between two current carrying conductors Force/unit length = 2π
h

r
2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (a)
63 sw ey
P

5. (b): obtain it from V = iR

6. (c) 7. (c) dimension of two sides of equation must be equal
8. (a), 9. (c) same as 7
10. (d): a/v 2 has dimension of P and b has dimension of V
11. (b): the argument of a trigonometric function must be dimensionless
19 p P

12. (c), 13. (c) 14.(b) 15. (a) 16. (d) 17. (d)
y
+9 : s ja
o. il n
M a Sa

p
m
E

13
3 Vectors

05 m
94 co
27 a )

1
17 gm ur
51 il.
+9 @ np
37 sic nd y s
45 hy a b ic

8, rld a
ys

05 o (K
h

63 sw ey
P
19 p P y
+9 : s ja
o. il n
M a Sa

3.1 Scalar Quantities

m

Physical quantities which can completely be specified by a number (magnitude) having an appropriate unit
are known as “SCALAR QUANTITIES”.
E

• Scalar quantities are comparable only when they have the same physical dimensions.

• Two or more than two scalar quantities measured in the same system of units are equal if
they have the same magnitude and sign.

• Scalar quantities are denoted by letters in ordinary type.

• Scalar quantities are added, subtracted, multiplied or divided by the simple rules of algebra.

14
 3 Vectors

EXAMPLES
Work, energy, electric flux, volume, refractive index, time, speed, electric potential, potential difference,
viscosity, density, power, mass, distance, temperature, electric charge etc.

3.2 Vectors Quantities

Physical quantities having both magnitude and direction with appropriate unit are known as “VECTOR
QUANTITIES”.

• We can’t specify a vector quantity without mention of direction.

• vector quantities are expressed by using bold letters or with arrow sign such as: V, F, A, τ
or V
~ , F~ , A,
~ ~τ .

05 m
• vector quantities can not be added, subtracted, multiplied or divided by the simple rules of

94 co
algebra.

27 a )

1
17 gm ur
vector quantities added, subtracted, multiplied or divided by the rules of trigonometry and

51 il.
•
geometry.

+9 @ np
37 sic nd y s
EXAMPLES
45 hy a b ic

Velocity, electric field intensity, acceleration, force, momentum, torque, displacement, electric current,

8, rld a
weight, angular momentum etc.
ys

05 o (K
REPRESENTATION OF VECTORS
On paper vector quantities are represented by a straight line with arrow head pointing the direction of
h

vector or terminal point of vector. A vector quantity is first transformed into a suitable scale and then a
63 sw ey
P

line is drawn with the help of the scale chosen in the given direction.
19 p P y
+9 : s ja
o. il n
M a Sa

p
m

3.3 Some Properties of Vectors

E

Equality of Two Vectors

For many purposes, two vectors A and B may be defined to be equal if they have the same magnitude
and point in the same direction. That is, A~=B ~ only if A = B and if A
~ and B~ point in the same direction
along parallel lines. For example, all the vectors in Figure 1. are equal even though they have different
starting points. This property allows us to move a vector to a position parallel to itself in a diagram
without affecting the vector.

15
 3 Vectors

05 m
94 co
27 a )

1
17 gm ur
51 il.
Addition of Vectors
1. Triangle Law:

+9 @ np
Let ~a and ~b are two vectors in different directions.
37 sic nd y s
45 hy a b ic

When you shift the vector ~b without changing its magnitude and direction to coincide its terminal

8, rld a
point to the same of vector ~a, you find the two vectors are acting at single point but acting in different
ys

05 o (K
directions.
Complete the triangle by joining AC. The vector AC ~ is the addition of vector AB
~ and vector BC.
~
h

63 sw ey
P
19 p P y
+9 : s ja

In following figure, ~a and ~b are any two vectors and angle between them is α. Let ~c is their resultant
o. il n

vector and it makes an angle θ with vector ~a, then in ∆OM B

M a Sa

OB 2 = OM 2 + M B 2
=⇒ c2 =√(a + b cos α)2 + (b sin α)2 = a2 + b2 + 2ab cos α
=⇒ c = a2 + b2 + 2ab cos α
m
E

16
 3 Vectors

b c
b b sin α

α
θ α
O A M

05 m
a

94 co
b cos α

27 a )

1
17 gm ur
51 il.
Again in ∆OBM

+9 @ np
tan θ = BM b sin α
OM = a+b
37 sic nd y s
 cos α 
45 hy a b ic

=⇒ θ = tan−1 a+b b sin α

8, rld a
cos α
ys

05 o (K
A geometric construction can also be used to add more than two vectors. This is shown in following
figure for the case of four vectors. The resultant vector R
~ =A~ +B ~ +C ~ +D ~ is the vector that completes
h

the polygon. In other words, R ~ is the vector drawn from the tail of the first vector to the tip of the last
63 sw ey
P

vector.
19 p P y
+9 : s ja
o. il n
M a Sa

2. Parallelogram Law:
m

Consider two vectors ~a and ~b acting at a point A. Without changing the magnitude and direction, shift
the vector ~a to point D and the vector ~b to point B.
E

Complete the parallelogram ABCD and join the diagonal AC. The vector AC ~ is the sum of the vectors
AB and AC.
~ ~
This result can also be arrived by applying triangular law of addition of vectors by considering the
triangle ABC.
Therefore, the parallelogram law of addition of vectors is equivalent to the triangular law of addition
of vectors.
Now look at the triangles ABC and ADC in the parallelogram.

17
 3 Vectors

~ is the sum of vectors ~a and ~b.

The triangle ABC gives the result as the vector AC
~ is the sum of vectors ~b and ~a.
The triangle ADC gives the result as the vector AC
Commutative Law Of Addition: A ~+B ~ =B ~ +A~

05 m
94 co
27 a )

1
17 gm ur
51 il.
+9 @ np
37 sic nd y s
45 hy a b ic

8, rld a
ys

05 o (K
h

63 sw ey
P

Associative Law of Addition:

19 p P

Vectors addition is associative. i.e., A

~ + (B
~ + C)
~ = (A
~ + B)
~ +C
~
y
+9 : s ja
o. il n
M a Sa

Vector Subtraction
You probably know that subtraction is the same thing as adding a negative: 8 − 5 is the same thing
as 8 + (−5). The easiest way to think about vector subtraction is in terms of adding a negative vector.
What’s a negative vector? It’s the same vector as its positive counterpart, only pointing in the opposite
m

direction.
E

18
 3 Vectors

05 m
94 co
~ then, is the same thing as A
~ − B, ~ For instance, let’s take the two vectors A
~ + (−B). ~ and B:
~

27 a )
A

1
17 gm ur
51 il.
A

+9 @ np
37 sic nd y s
B
45 hy a b ic

8, rld a
ys

05 o (K
A B
h

A B B
63 sw ey
P

To subtract B
~ from A,
~ take a vector of the same magnitude as B, ~ but pointing in the opposite direction,
and add that vector to A, using either the tip-to-tail method or the parallelogram method.
~
The operation of vector subtraction makes use of the definition of the negative of a vector. We define the
19 p P

operation A~−B~ as vector −B ~ added to vector A:~

~ ~ ~
A − B = A + (−B) ~
y

Examples of Subtractions
+9 : s ja

(i) If a particle makes an elastic collision with a wall in a direction normal to its surface and gets
o. il n

reflected just in opposite direction with same momentum, then

M a Sa

p1
m

p2
E

19
 3 Vectors

|p~1 | = |p~2 | = p and p~1 = +~

p, p~2 = −~p
Hence change in momentum is ∆~ p = p~2 − p~2 = (−~
p) − p~ = −2~
p
(ii) A particle is moving on a circular path of constant radius. What will be the change in its velocity
when it completes half the revolution?
v1

05 m
94 co
27 a )

1
v2

17 gm ur
Here, if v~1 = +~v , then v~2 = −~v

51 il.
Thus change in velocity ∆~v = v~2 − v~1 = ~v − (−~v ) = −2~v

+9 @ np
(iii) A particle is moving with a velocity v~1 due north in a tube. If the tube is also moving with same
37 sic nd y s
velocity v~2 due east, then what will be its resultant velocity?
45 hy a b ic

N 8, rld a v2
ys

05 o (K
h

63 sw ey
P

v1
19 p P

v1+v2
y
+9 : s ja
o. il n
M a Sa

p E
R= v12 v22
+ + 2v1 v2 cos 90◦
If |v~1√
| = |v~2 | = v, then
√
R = v2 + v2 = v 2
Resultant velocity will be along North-east direction.
m

(iv) If a particle moving towards north changes its direction and moves towards east with the same
E

speed, then what will be the change in its velocity?

20
 3 Vectors

∆~v = v~2 − v~p

1 √ √
and |∆~v | = v12 + v22 + 2v1 v2 cos 90◦ = v 2 + v 2 = v 2
Now the, direction ∆~v will be along south-east direction.

05 m
Multiplication by a Scalar:
Multiplication is like repeated addition. Multiplying 4 by 3 means adding four three times: . The

94 co
27 a )
multiplication of a vector times a scalar works in the same way. Multiplying the vector A~ by the positive

1
17 gm ur
scalar c is equivalent to adding together c copies of the vector A. Thus 3A = A + A + A.
~ ~ ~ ~ Multiplying a

51 il.
vector by a scalar will get you a vector with the same direction, but different magnitude, as the original.

+9 @ np
37 sic nd y s
45 hy a b ic

8, rld aA
ys

05 o (K
h

63 sw ey
P

A 3A
A
A
19 p P y
+9 : s ja

The result of multiplying A ~ by c is a vector in the same direction as A,

~ with a magnitude of cA.
~ If c
o. il n

is negative, then the direction of A is reversed by scalar multiplication.

~
M a Sa

Example 1. Two equal forces act on a particle. Find the angle between them when the square of their
p

resultant is equal to three times their product.

Solution. Let the angle between the two equal forces, P, P be α and let R be their resultant.
Hence, R2 = P 2 + P 2 + 2P × P cos α
=⇒ 3P × P = 2P 2 (1 + cos α)
=⇒ 32 = 1 + cos α = 2 cos2 α2
√
m

=⇒ cos α2 = 23
=⇒ α2 = 30◦ =⇒ α = 60◦
E

Hence the required angle is 60◦ .

• Component of a Vector

21
 3 Vectors

05 m
94 co
27 a )

1
17 gm ur
51 il.
+9 @ np
37 sic nd y s
45 hy a b ic

8, rld a
ys

05 o (K
h

63 sw ey
P

• Unit vectors
A vector of unit magnitude is called a unit vector. If any vector ~a is divided by its own magnitude,
the result is a unit vector having the same direction as ~a. This new vector is denoted by â so that
â = ~aa
19 p P

The unit vector along axes X, Y and Z are represented by î, ĵ and k̂ respectively.
Thus any vector
~ can be written as A
A ~ = Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂
y

q
and A = A2x + A2y + A2z
 ~
+9 : s ja
o. il n
M a Sa

p
m
E

22
 3 Vectors

√ √
Example 2. Forces of magnitudes 2N, 3N , 5N, 3N and 2N act respectively at one of the angular
points of a regular hexagon towards the five other in order. Find the magnitude and direction of the
resultant force. √ √
Solution. Let the forces of magnitudes 2N, 3N , 5N, 3N and 2N act at A of the regular hexagon
ABCDEF along AB, AC, AD, AE and AF respectively
E D

05 m
3
F 3 C

94 co
27 a )

1
17 gm ur
51 il.
2
60

+9 @ np
120 90
37 sic nd y s
45 hy a b ic

8, rld a
30
ys

05 o (K
A 2 B
h

Clearly, ∠BAC = ∠CAD = ∠DAE = ∠EAF = 30◦

63 sw ey
P

Hence, AC, AD, AE and AF make angles 30◦ , 60◦ , 90◦ and 120◦ with AB. We take the perpendicular
lines AB and AE as the X and Y-axes respectively and resolve all the forces along these two lines. If X
and Y be the sums of the resolved parts of all the forces along X- and Y-axes respectively, then

√ √
X = 2 cos 0◦ + 3 cos 30◦ + 5 cos 60 + 3 cos 90◦ + 2 cos 120◦
√
19 p P

√ 3 1 1
= 2×1+ 3× +5× +0−2× =5
2 2 2
y
+9 : s ja

√ √
Y = 2 sin 0◦ + 3 sin 30◦ + 5 sin 60 + 3 sin 90◦ + 2 sin 120◦
o. il n

√ √
√ 1 3 √ 3 √
M a Sa

= 2×0+ 3× +5× + 3×1+2× =5 3

p

2 2 2
Hence, the resultant R of all the forces is given by
r  √ 2
p
R= X2 +Y =2 52 + 5 3 = 10

If θ be the angle
√ made by the resultant with X-axis, then
m

√
tan θ = X = 5 = 3 = tan 60◦
Y 5 3
E

∴ θ = 60◦
Hence, the magnitude of the resultant is 10 N and it will act in the direction AD.

23
 3 Vectors

3.4 Multiplication of Vectors

Multiplication

By a Scalar By a Vector
→
>

mV = mV n = R, the resultant is
a vector whose magnitude is m times
→ SCALAR PRODUCT
the magnitude of V while direction is
→ (dot product) VECTOR PRODUCT
the same as that of V
→ → (cross product)
A.B
→ →
A×B

05 m
• The Scalar Product A. ~B
~

94 co
1. Suppose the vectors A
~ and B
~ have representations OA
~ and OB
~ . Then the scalar product A.
~B ~ of

27 a )

1
17 gm ur
A and B is defined by
~ ~

51 il.
~B
A. ~ = AB cos θ
Β

+9 @ np
37 sic nd y s
45 hy a b ic

8, rld a
ys

05 o (K
h

→
Β
63 sw ey
P

θ
Α
19 p P

→
2 Α
y
+9 : s ja

where θ is the angle between OA

~ and OB.
~ [Note that A.
~B ~ is a scalar quantity.]
o. il n

2. Above equation can also be expressed as below:

~B ~ = A(B cos θ) = B(A cos θ)
M a Sa

A.
p

Β
Β
→
Β
→
Β
m
E

A cos θ
θ
Α θ
2
→
Α →
Α
B cos θ 2 Α

where B cos θ is the magnitude of component of B~ along the direction of vector A

~ and A cos θ is
the magnitude of component of vector A
~ along the direction of B[
~ See Figure]. Therefore, the dot
product of two vectors can also be interpreted as the product of magnitude of one

24
 3 Vectors

vector and the magnitude of the component of other vector along the direction of first
vector.

3. Dot product of two vectors can be positive, zero or negative depending upon whether θ is less than
90◦ , equal to 90◦ or 90◦ < θ < 180◦ .

4. Dot product of two vectors is always commutative i.e.,

~B
A. ~ = B. ~ A,
~ A.
~B~ = AB cos θ (θ is the angle between A
~ and B
~ measured in anticlockwise(ACW)
direction)
and B.
~ A ~ = BA cos(−θ) = AB cos θ
Thus A.B
~ ~ = B.
~ A
~

5. The dot product of a vector with itself gives square of its magnitude i.e.
~A ~ = AA cos 0◦ = A2

05 m
A.

6. The dot product of two mutually perpendicular vectors is zero i.e., if two vectors A
~ and B
~ are

94 co
27 a )
perpendicular then A.B = AB cos 90 = 0
~ ~

1
◦

17 gm ur
51 il.
 
7. The dot product obeys the distributive law i.e., A.
~ B ~ +C
~ = A.
~B ~ + A.
~C ~

+9 @ np
8. Two vectors are collinear, if their dot product is numerically equal to product of their magnitudes
37 sic nd y s
45 hy a b ic

i.e.,

8, rld a
 
when θ = 0◦ or 180◦ , A.
~ ~
B  = AB
ys

05 o (K
9. In case of unit vectors î, ĵ and k̂, we have the following two properties:
h

(a) î.î = ĵ.ĵ = k̂.k̂ = 1 (as θ = 0◦ )

63 sw ey
P

(b) î.ĵ = ĵ.k̂ = k̂.î = 0 (as θ = 90◦ )

10. Dot product of two vectors in terms of their rectangular components in three dimen-
sions:    
~ ~
A.B = Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂ . Bx î + By ĵ + Bz k̂ = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz
19 p P

11. Examples of some physical quantities which can be expressed as scalar product of two
vectors:
y

 
(a) Work (W) is defined as the scalar product of force F~ and the displacement (~s) i.e., W = F~ .~s
+9 : s ja

 
(b) Power (P) is defined as the scalar product of force F~ and the velocity (~v ) i.e., P = F~ .~v
o. il n

ä Vector Product of Two Vectors

M a Sa

1. The vector product of two vectors is is defined as a vector having magnitude equal to the product
of the magnitudes of two vectors with the sine of angle between them and direction ⊥ to the plane
containing the two vectors in accordance with right handed screw rule or right hand thumb rule.

2. Mathematically, if θ is the angle between vectors A ~ and B,

~ then
~ ~
m

A × B = AB sin θn̂
The direction of vector A ~×B ~ is the same as that of unit vector n̂. It is decided by the following
E

two rules:
(a) Right Hand Rule: The direction of the vector product can be visualized with the right-hand
rule. If you curl the fingers of your right hand so that they follow a rotation from vector A
~ to vector
B, then the thumb will point in the direction of the vector product A × B.
~ ~ ~

25
 3 Vectors

(b) Right hand screw rule: Rotate a right handed screw from vector A ~ to B
~ through the smaller
angle between them; then the direction of motion of screw gives the direction of vector A
~×B ~

05 m
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27 a )

1
17 gm ur
51 il.
+9 @ np
37 sic nd y s
45 hy a b ic

8, rld a
ys

05 o (K
In case of vector B~ × A,
~ the direction of advancement of screw, on rotating it from vector B
~ to A,
~
~ ~ ~ ~
will be just opposite to that observed in the case of vector A × B. Hence vector B × A is directed
h

~×B
just in opposite direction to that of vector A ~ i.e., B
~ ×A~=− A ~×B ~ .
63 sw ey
P

3. The cross product of two vectors does not obey commutative law.
As discussed above 
~×B
A ~ =− B ~ ×A~ i.e., A
~×B ~ 6= B
~ ×A ~

4. The 
cross product follows the distributive law i.e.,
19 p P


~ ~ ~
A× B+C =A×B ~ ~ +A~×C ~
y

5. The cross product of a vector with itself is a NULL vector i.e.,

+9 : s ja

~×A
A ~ = AA sin 0◦ n̂ = 0
o. il n

6. The cross product of two vectors represents the area of the parallelogram formed by them,
Figure, shows a parallelogram P QRS whose adjacent sides P~Q and P~S are represented by vectors
M a Sa

~ and B
A ~ respectively.
S
R

→
B
B sin θ
m

θ
E

→
P M A Q

Now, area of parallelogram = QP × SM = QP.AB sin θ

Because, the magnitude of vectors A~ ×B ~ is AB sin θ, hence cross product of two vectors represents
the area of parallelogram formed by it. It is worth noting that the area vector A
~ × Bacts
~ along the
perpendicular to the plane of two vectors A and B.
~ ~

7. In case of unit vectors î, ĵ, k̂, we obtain following two important properties:

26
 3 Vectors

(a) î × î = ĵ × ĵ = k̂ × k̂ = (1)(1) sin 0◦ (n̂) = 0

(b) î × ĵ = (1)(1) sin 90◦ k̂ = k̂
where, k̂ is a unit vector ⊥ to the plane of î and ĵ in a direction in which a right hand screw will
advance, when rotated from î  to ĵ 
Also, −ĵ × î = −(1)(1) sin 90 −k̂ = k̂
◦

Similarly, ĵ × k̂ = −k̂ × ĵ = î and k̂ × î = −î × k̂ = ĵ

8. Cross product of two vectors in terms of their rectangular components:

~×B
A ~ = (Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂) × (Bx î + By ĵ + Bz k̂)
 
 î ĵ k̂ 

05 m

=  Ax Ay Az 

94 co
 Bx By Bz 

27 a )

17 gm ur
 Ay Az   Ax Az 
 + k̂  Ax Ay
 
= î   − ĵ 

51 il.

By Bz   Bx Bz   Bx By 

+9 @ np
= î(Ay Bz − Az By ) − ĵ(Ax Bz − Az Bx ) + k̂(Ax By − Ay Bx )
37 sic nd y s
45 hy a b ic

9. Examples of some physical quantities which can be expressed as cross product of two
vectors:
8, rld a
ys

05 o (K
(a) The instantaneous velocity (~v ) of a particle is equal to the cross product of its angular
velocity (~ω )and the position vector (~r) i.e.,
h

~v = ω~ × ~r
63 sw ey
P

(b) The tangential acceleration (a~t ) of a particle is equal to the cross product of its angular
acceleration (~ α) and the position vector (~r) i.e.,
~ × ~r
a~t = α
(c) The centripetal acceleration (a~c ) of a particle is equal to the cross product of its angular
velocity and the linear velocity (~v ) i.e.,
19 p P

~ × ~v
a~c = ω
(d) The torque of a force (F~ ) is equal to cross product of the position vector (~r) and the applied
force (F~ ) i.e.,
y

~τ = ~r × F~
+9 : s ja

(e) The angular momentum (L) ~ is equal to the cross product of the position vector (~r) and
o. il n

linear momentum (~ p) of the particle i.e.,

~ = ~r × p~
L
M a Sa

Note: If a physical quantity itself has no direction but has different values in different directions, then it
is said to be TENSOR. We consider here following two examples:
(a) Moment of Inertia: It is not a vector as its direction is not to be specified but has different
values in different directions. Hence it is neither scalar nor a vector but a tensor.
(b) Stress: It is defined as force per unit area (acting at a point). It has no direction so it is not a
m

vector but at a point it has different values for different areas so it is not a scalar also. It is actually
a tensor.
E

(c) Normally, density, dielectric constant are scalars but in case these quantities have different
values in different directions, they will be called tensors

Solved Examples

Ex.1. If ~v = 6î − 3ĵ + 15k̂ and ~a = 2î − ĵ − 2k̂, find the component of ~v in the direction of ~a.

27
 3 Vectors

p √
Sol. |~a| = 22 + (−1)2 + (−2)2 = 4+1+4=3

~a 2î − ĵ − 2k̂
= â =
a 3
The required magnitude of component of ~v is therefore

2î − ĵ − 2k̂ 12 + 3 − 30
~v .â = (6î − 3ĵ + 15k̂). = = −5
3 3
Therefore, component of vector ~v along ~a = (~v .â)â = (−5) 2î−ĵ−2
3
k̂
= − 53 (2î − ĵ − 2k̂)

Ex.2. If ~a = 2î − ĵ + 2k̂ and ~b = −î − 3k̂, find a unit vector perpendicular to both ~a and ~b.

05 m
Sol. The vector ~a × ~b is perpendicular to both ~a and ~b. Now

94 co
27 a )

1
17 gm ur
51 il.
 
 î ĵ k̂

+9 @ np

~
 
~a × b =  2 −1 2
37 sic nd y s
 

45 hy a b ic

 −1 0 −3 

8, rld a = (3 − 0)î − ((−6) − (−2))ĵ + (0 − 1)k̂

ys

05 o (K
= 3î + 4ĵ − k̂
h

  p √
The magnitude of this vector is ~a × ~b = 32 + 42 + (−1)2 = 26
 
63 sw ey
P

~a×~b
Hence the required unit vector can be either ± = ± 3î+4
√ ĵ−k̂
|~a×~b| 26
   
Ex.3. If A + B  = A − B , then find the angle between A
~ and B.
~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Sol. Here,
19 p P

   
~ ~ ~ ~
A + B  = A − B
y

 ~ ~ 2  ~ ~ 2
+9 : s ja

   
=⇒ A + B  = A − B
       
o. il n

=⇒ A~+B
~ . A ~+B ~ = A~−B ~ . A ~−B
~
M a Sa

~A
=⇒ A. ~ + A.
~B ~ + B.
~ A~ + B.
~ B~ = A.
~A ~ − A.
~B ~ − B.
~ A~ + B.
~ B~
=⇒ A2 + 2AB cos θ + B 2 = A2 − 2AB cos θ + B 2 , here θbe the angle between A
~ and B.
~
=⇒ 4AB cos θ = 0
=⇒ cos θ = 0 [∵ 4AB 6= 0]
=⇒ θ = 90◦
m

3.5 Assignment
E

Questions
1. Two vectors have unequal magnitudes. Can their sum be zero? Explain.

2. Can the magnitude of a particle’s displacement be greater than the distance traveled? Explain.

3. The magnitudes of two vectors A and B are A = 5 units and B = 2 units. Find the largest and
smallest values possible for the magnitude of the resultant vector R = A + B.

28
 3 Vectors

4. Which of the following are vectors and which are not: force, temperature, the volume of water in a
can, the ratings of a TV show, the height of a building, the velocity of a sports car, the age of the
Universe?

5. A vector A lies in the xy plane. For what orientations of A will both of its components be negative?
For what orientations will its components have opposite signs?

6. A book is moved once around the perimeter of a tabletop with the dimensions 1.0m × 2.0m. If the
book ends up at its initial position, what is its displacement? What is the distance traveled?

7. While traveling along a straight interstate highway you notice that the mile marker reads 260. You
travel until you reach mile marker 150 and then retrace your path to the mile marker 175. What is
the magnitude of your resultant displacement from mile marker 260?

05 m
8. If the component of vector A along the direction of vector B is zero, what can you conclude about the
two vectors?

94 co
27 a )

1
17 gm ur
9. Can the magnitude of a vector have a negative value? Explain.

51 il.
10. Under what circumstances would a nonzero vector lying in the xy plane have components that are

+9 @ np
equal in magnitude?
37 sic nd y s
45 hy a b ic

11. If A = B, what can you conclude about the components of A and B?

8, rld a
ys

05 o (K
12. Is it possible to add a vector quantity to a scalar quantity? Explain.
h

13. The resolution of vectors into components is equivalent to replacing the original vector with the sum
of two vectors, whose sum is the same as the original vector. There are an infinite number of pairs
63 sw ey
P

of vectors that will satisfy this condition; we choose that pair with one vector parallel to the x axis
and the second parallel to the y axis. What difficulties would be introduced by defining components
relative to axes that are not perpendicular—for example, the x axis and a y axis oriented at 45° to
the x axis?

14. In what circumstance is the x component of a vector given by the magnitude of the vector times the
19 p P

sine of its direction angle?

y
+9 : s ja
o. il n
M a Sa

p
m
E

29
4 Kinematics
Kinematics is the study of the motion of material bodies without regard to the forces that cause their
motion.
Everything moves-even things that appear to be at rest. They move relative to the Sun and stars. As
you’re reading this, you’re moving at about 107,000 kilometers per hour relative to the Sun, and you’re
moving even faster relative to the center of our galaxy. When we discuss the motion of something, we
describe the motion relative to something else. If you walk down the aisle of a moving bus, your speed

05 m
relative to the floor of the bus is likely quite different from your speed relative to the road. When we
say a racing car reaches a speed of 300 kilometers per hour, we mean relative to the track. Unless stated

94 co
27 a )

1
otherwise, when we discuss the speeds of things in our environment, we mean relative to the surface of

17 gm ur
Earth. Motion is relative.

51 il.
• Description of motion

+9 @ np
Motion, the change of the position of a body during a time interval. To describe the motion, numerical
37 sic nd y s
values (coordinates) are assigned to the position of the body in a coordinate system. The time variation
45 hy a b ic

of the coordinates characterizes the motion.

8, rld a
Uniform motion exists if the body moves equal distances in equal time intervals. Opposite: non-
ys

05 o (K
uniform motion.
• Basic Definitions
h

Position Vector (also called Radius vector)

63 sw ey
P

The vector drawn from the reference point (origin of the co-ordinate system) to the particle to specify
its position.
Y

P (x, y, z)
19 p P y

r
+9 : s ja

O X
o. il n
M a Sa

~r = xî + y ĵ + z k̂
where ~r is the position vector of point P with respect to origin O.
Displacement:
m

Change in position vector of a moving particle in a time interval is defined as displacement. The
following figures illustrate the displacement of the particle in different situations.
E

Displacement = ∆~r = AB
~ = OB
~ − OA
~ = r~2 − r~1
= (x2 − x1 )î + (y2 − y1 )ĵ + (z2 − z1 )k̂

q
Magnitude of displacement from A to B = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 + (z2 − z1 )2

30
 4 Kinematics

Y
B(x2,y2,z2)
∆ r = r2-r1

r2
A(x1,y1,z1)

r1 A B
O X

Points A and B coincide.

Z Displacement = 0

05 m
Displacement is not merely “the shortest distance between the initial and final positions of the particle”.
This phrase stands for the separation between the initial and final positions.

94 co
27 a )
For the one dimensional motion shown in figure:

1
17 gm ur
B W +X

51 il.
-X A
x2 x1

+9 @ np
37 sic nd y s
Position vector of A is, OA
~ = +x1 î
45 hy a b ic

Position vector of B is, OB = −x2 î

~

8, rld a
For the two dimensional motion:
ys

05 o (K
Y
h

63 sw ey
P

P (x, y)

θ X
O
19 p P

To locate the particle P in the coordinate system shown we draw vector OP

~ . Let it be represented by
y

~r.
+9 : s ja

Polar coordinates = (r, θ), Cartesian coordinates = (x, y)

You can change (x, y) into (r, θ) or (r, θ) into (x, y) as follows:
o. il n

If (x,py) are known, then

M a Sa

r = x2 + y 2 , θ = tan−1 xy
p

And if (r, θ) are known, then x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ.

Vector ~r can also be written as ~r = xî + y ĵ, where î and ĵ are unit vectors along the X and Y axes.
/ Common Misconceptions

1. Distance ? Is it “path covered by a particle” ? No. It’s length of the path the particle travels.
m

2. Displacement ? Is it “shortest distance between initial and final positions” ? No. It is

change in position, represented by the vector drawn from the initial position to the final position.
E

3. There is no difference between deceleration and retardation! No. The do differ. In a decelerated
motion, which basically means that acceleration in a given coordinate system is −ve, speed may
decrease, may increase depending on the direction of motion and when the speed of the particle
decreases, it physically slows down, it is called retardation.

31
 4 Kinematics

+ve direction
of motion

-ve direction
of motion

05 m
Motion is continuously decelerated (both
up and down). Only upward motion is

94 co
27 a )
retardation

1
17 gm ur
51 il.
4. For motion in one-dimension, distance d = |~s|, ~s is the displacement? Not necessarily. d = |~s|

+9 @ np
if motion takes place in one dimension. If the particle changes the direction of motion during a
37 sic nd y s
time interval, d 6= |~s|. In such cases the distance is calculated by tracing the path followed and
45 hy a b ic

calculating its length.

8, rld a
ys

05 o (K
Distance:
In strict sense of definition it is length of the (actual path) followed by a body (precisely speaking a
h

particle). Many a time distance is used rather loosely for ’separation’ between two points.
63 sw ey
P

Example.1. An Indian policeman chasing a terrorist at the time of attack on Indian parlia-
ment reported as follows. The terrorist moved 40 m towards east, made a perpendicular
right turn, ran for 50 m, made a perpendicular right turn, ran for 160 m and finally
he was gunned down. Find
(i) the component of displacement in east direction,
19 p P

(ii) the component of displacements of displacement in north direction,

(iii) the total displacement
y

(iv) the total distance traversed by the terrorist, from the point when police man
+9 : s ja

started chasing.
o. il n

Sol. Let the path followed by terrorist is 40m from O to A, 50m from A to B and 160m from B to C.
M a Sa

The total displacement is OC

~ = OA~ + AB ~ + BC~ = 40î + 50(−ĵ) + 160(−î) = −120î − 50ĵ
p

Y (N)

O A
W X (E)
α
m

C B
E

(i) the component of displacement in east = −120m i.e. 120m in west direction from starting point.
(ii) the displacement in in north direction = −50m i.e., 50m in south direction from starting point.
(iii) the net displacement is 130m at 22◦ 370 south of west
(iv) total distance=path length traversed = OA + AB + BC = 40 + 50 + 160 = 250m
Instantaneous Speed

32
 4 Kinematics

Things in motion often have variations in speed. A car, for example, may travel along a street at
50 km/h, slow to 0 km/h at a red light, and speed up to only 30 km/h because of traffic. You can

05 m
tell the speed of the car at any instant by looking at its speedometer. The speed at any instant is the
instantaneous speed. A car traveling at 50 km/h usually goes at that speed for less than one hour. If it

94 co
27 a )

1
did go at that speed for a full hour, it would cover 50 km. If it continued at that speed for half an hour,

17 gm ur
it would cover half that distance: 25 km. If it continued for only one minute, it would cover less than 1

51 il.
km.

+9 @ np
Average Velocity and Average Speed
37 sic nd y s
Average velocity v̄ is defined as the ratio of displacement divided by the corresponding time interval.
45 hy a b ic

8, rld a
t1 t2
ys

O X
05 o (K
x x2
1
h

∆~
x x~2 −x~1
v̄ = ∆t = t2 −t1
63 sw ey
P

whereas average speed is just the total distance divided by the time interval,
average speed = total ∆t
distance

For the two and three dimensional motion

Y
t1
19 p P

t2
r1
y
+9 : s ja

r2
O X
o. il n
M a Sa

Z
r~2 −r~1
average velocity = ∆~r
∆t = t2 −t1
The direction of average velocity is that of change in position vector.
The instantaneous velocity is given as
m

~
∆r ~
dr
~v = lim =
E

∆t→0 ∆t dt
When the instantaneous velocity of a particle is constant over entire time interval of motion, it is said
to be moving with uniform velocity. Or “when the average velocity of the particle calculated over
different time intervals chosen randomly turns out to be the same, the velocity of the particle is uniform”.
Acceleration:
Rate of change of velocity is called acceleration.
Average acceleration = nettotal
change in velocity
time elapsed

33
 4 Kinematics

For the one-dimensional motion shown in the figure,

t1 t2 v2
v1
-X +X
O x1 x2

average acceleration
v2 −v1
< a >= ∆v∆t = t2 −t1
Acceleration of the particle at any given instant of time given by
Y

v1
t1

t2
r1
v2

05 m
r2
O X

94 co
27 a )

1
17 gm ur
51 il.
Z

+9 @ np
~a = lim∆t→0 ∆~ ∆t = dt ,
v d~v
37 sic nd y s
is called the instantaneous acceleration.
45 hy a b ic

8, rld a
F When the instantaneous acceleration is same over entire time interval of the motion, the motion is
ys

05 o (K
said to be uniformly accelerated.
h

F When the average acceleration calculated over different time intervals chosen randomly turns out to
63 sw ey
P

be the same the motion of the particle is uniformly accelerated.

Example.2: The position of a particle moving on a straight line is defined by the relation x = t3 −2t2 −4t,
where x is expressed in meter and t in second. Determine
(a) the velocity at t = 1 second and t = 4 second,
(b) the distance traveled in first 4 seconds,
19 p P

(c) the average velocity during the interval of 1 second to 4 second,

(d) The acceleration at t = 4 second and
y

(e) the average acceleration during 1 second to 4 second

+9 : s ja

Solution. Equation of motion of the particle is

o. il n

x = t3 − 2t2 − 4t ... (1)

Instantaneous velocity
M a Sa

v = dx 2
dt = 3t − 4t − 4 ... (2)
Instantaneous acceleration
a = dvdt = 6t − 4 ... (3)
(a) v1 (t = 1) = 3 × 1 − 4 × 1 − 4 = −5m/s
2 (using equation (2))
v4 (t = 4) = 3 × 42 − 4 × 4 − 4 = 28m/s
(b) Let us check, whether particle continues to move in same direction or it changes its direction
m

during the considered section of motion. Using equation (2) if we put v = 0 we will find
3t2 − 4t − 4 = 0
E

=⇒ 3t2 − 6t + 2t − 4 = 0
=⇒ 3t(t − 2) + 2(t − 2) = 0
=⇒ (t − 2)(3t + 2) = 0
=⇒ (t = 2) [because t 6= − 23 ]
i.e., at t = 2 second velocity becomes zero and the particle reverses the direction of motion. Let
the displacement in right direction be taken as positive and left direction as negative. The figure
given below is the path followed by the particle in first four seconds from A to C.

34
 4 Kinematics

at t = 2 sec. at t = 0 sec. at t = 4 sec.

A'
B'
C

B A
VB= 0 VA= -4m/s

x2 (t = 2) = 23 − 2 × 22 − 4 × 2 = −8m
(-ve sign indicates that particle is in left direction relative to starting point A)
i.e., AB = +8m and x4 (t = 4) = 43 − 2 × 42 − 4 × 4 = +16m i.e., A0 C = 16m.

Note: In the above figure the path of the particle during returning is shown along B 0 A0 C to understand
the problem easily, actually the path of particle during returning will be same as its initial path (line
AB).

05 m
From above figure the distance traversed by the particle is given by
AB + B 0 C = AB + B 0 A0 + A0 C = 8 + 8 + 16 = 32m

94 co
(c) x1 (t = 1) = 13 − 2(12 ) − 4(1) = −5m

27 a )

1
17 gm ur
x2 (t = 4) = 43 − 2(42 ) − 4(4) = 16m

51 il.
Therefore the average velocity during 1 second to 4 second is given by:
−x1
vav = xt22 −t = 16−(−5) = 21

+9 @ np
1 4−1 3 = 7m/s
37 sic nd y s
(d) a(t = 4) = (6 × 4) − 4 = 20m/s2
45 hy a b ic

(e) v1 (t = 1) = 3(12 ) − 4(1) − 4 = −5m/s

8, rld a
v2 (t = 4) = 3(42 ) − 4(4) − 4 = 28m/s
ys

05 o (K
28−(−5)
aav = vt22 −v
−t1 =
1
4−1 = 33
3 = 11m/s
Equations of motion of a particle moving with uniform acceleration along a straight line:
h

Equation Equation Missing

63 sw ey
P

Number Quantity
1. v = u + at s
2. s = ut + 12 at2 v
3. s = vt − 12 at2 u
19 p P

4. s = 21 (u + v)t a
y

5. v2 = u2 + 2as t
+9 : s ja

6. < v >= u+v

2
o. il n

7. sn = u a
+ 2 (2n − 1)
M a Sa

Note: (i) (u, v, a and s are +ve if they are directed along the +ve direction of motion and −ve if they
are oppositely directed). You can take opposite sign also, but final equation of motion will be same.
However to avoid the miscalculation we generally take parameters in the direction of motion as
positive and in reverse direction as negative.
(ii) These equations are applicable only when acceleration a remains constant in magnitude and
direction both.
m

Example 3:
E

A particle, moving with a uniform acceleration along a straight line ABC, crosses point A at t = 0 with
a velocity 12m/s. B is 40m away from A and C is 64m from A. The particle passes B at t = 4sec.
(i) After what time will the particle be at C ?
(ii) What is its velocity at C ?
Sol. Let the acceleration of the particle be a.

35