Earliest human occupations at Dmanisi
(Georgian Caucasus) dated to 1.85–1.78 Ma
Reid Ferringa,1, Oriol Omsb, Jordi Agustíc, Francesco Bernad,2, Medea Nioradzee, Teona Sheliae, Martha Tappenf,
Abesalom Vekuae, David Zhvaniae, and David Lordkipanidzee,1
a
Department of Geography, University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203; bDepartment of Geology, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra,
Spain; cInstitute of Human Paleoecology and Social Evolution, Catalan Institute for Research and Advanced Studies, 43005 Tarragona, Spain; dDepartment
of Earth Sciences “Ardito Desio,” Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; eGeorgian National Museum, 0105 Tbilisi, Georgia; and
f
Department of Anthropology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455
Contributed by David Lordkipanidze, April 28, 2011 (sent for review February 27, 2011)
The early Pleistocene colonization of temperate Eurasia by Homo
erectus was not only a significant biogeographic event but also
a major evolutionary threshold. Dmanisi’s rich collection of homi-
nin fossils, revealing a population that was small-brained with
both primitive and derived skeletal traits, has been dated to the
earliest Upper Matuyama chron (ca. 1.77 Ma). Here we present
archaeological and geologic evidence that push back Dmanisi’s
first occupations to shortly after 1.85 Ma and document repeated
use of the site over the last half of the Olduvai subchron, 1.85–1.78
Ma. These discoveries show that the southern Caucasus was occu-
pied repeatedly before Dmanisi’s hominin fossil assemblage accu-
mulated, strengthening the probability that this was part of a core
area for the colonization of Eurasia. The secure age for Dmanisi’s
first occupations reveals that Eurasia was probably occupied be-
fore Homo erectus appears in the East African fossil record.
Lower Paleolithic | paleoanthropology
I n recent years, paleoanthropologists have intensified the search
for evidence for one of the most significant events in human
evolution: the dispersal of early Homo from Africa to Eurasia.
That Homo erectus was the first hominin to leave Africa and
colonize Eurasia has been accepted by paleoanthropologists for
over a century. However, models that linked the first African
exodus to increases in stature, encephalization, and technolog-
ical advances (1–3) have been challenged by discoveries at
Dmanisi (4). Dmanisi is located in the southern Georgian Cau-
casus (41°20’10”N and 44°20’38”E), 55 km southwest of Tbilisi
(Fig. 1). The prehistoric excavations at Dmanisi have been
concentrated in the central part of a promontory that stands
above the confluence of the Masavera and Pinasauri rivers.
Lower Pleistocene deposits are preserved below the Medieval
ruins and above the 1.85-Ma Masavera Basalt (Fig. 1). Those
excavations yielded numerous exceptionally preserved hominin
fossils. Stratigraphic studies revealed that that all of those
hominin fossils are from sediments of stratum B, dated to ca.
1.77 Ma, based on 40Ar/39Ar dates, paleomagnetism, and pale-
ontologic constraints (4, 5). In the main excavations, no artifacts
or fossils have been found in the older stratum A deposits, which
conformably overlie the Masavera Basalt. Dmanisi’s rich col-
lection of hominin fossils reveals a population with short stature
and cranial capacities of only 600–775 cc (4–9). Artifact as-
semblages are all indicative of a Mode I technology, with no
bifacial tools (10). Recently completed testing in the M5 sector
of Dmanisi has yielded in situ artifacts and faunal remains from
the older stratum A deposits, pushing back Dmanisi’s occupa-
tional history into the upper Olduvai subchron. These findings
indicate that African and Eurasian theaters for the evolution of
early humans had been established even earlier than thought
previously, with implications for the age of dispersals not only
within Eurasia but also between Eurasia and Africa. This article
describes the results of these investigations at Dmanisi and their
implications for future research.
www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1106638108
Results
Geology and Geochronology of the M5 Section. The M5 test unit is
situated 85 m west of the block 1 excavations (Fig. 1). A narrow
geologic trench and then a 2 × 2-m test unit exposed 6.2 m of
deposits overlying the Masavera Basalt (Fig. 2). This thick expo-
sure of conformably bedded deposits is divided into nine strati-
graphic units, named A1 to B5 (SI Text and Table S1). At M5, as in
the main excavation areas, stratum A deposits display normal
geomagnetic polarity and are correlated with the upper Olduvai
ANTHROPOLOGY
subchron. The stratum B deposits all display reverse polarity and
are correlated with the earliest Upper Matuyama chron. Stratum
A1, which conformably overlies the Masavera Basalt, is a massive
to weakly laminated bed of silt and fine sand-sized black volcanic
glass shards and tears, with rare obsidian granules. The only
pedogenic features of these deposits are rare carbonate filaments.
These sediments and the Masavera Basalt contain olivine, in-
dicating rapid deposition with little weathering (SI Text). Here,
and across the site, the A1a ashes quickly filled the lowest
depressions on the irregular basalt surface. A1b deposits are glass
sands and fine obsidian granules, indicative of erosional sorting of
A1 sediments from a higher position.
Stratum A2 is a black, indurated fine to medium silt ash. These
sediments show evidence of moderate pedogenesis, including
many carbonate filaments, veins and concretions, and thin clay
and carbonate pore linings (Table S2). Micromorphological
analysis of stratum A2 in the main excavations record similar
pedogenic features (11). The substrata of A2 lack olivine and
contain clay minerals supporting the soil morphological evidence
for cyclic deposition and stability; however, the clear contacts
between the substrata indicate serial ash falls that promoted the
stratification of artifacts in this unit. Strata A3 and A4 are firm
dark reddish brown silt ashes with common carbonate filaments
and pore linings.
The weak to moderate soil development in each of the stratum
A deposits is illustrated by the weak structure, high porosity, and
lack of argillic (clay-enriched) horizons. All of the strata A soils
here have pedogenic carbonates, indicating a drier setting and
probably slower rates of weathering. However, above stratum
A2a, those carbonate fabrics are limited to filaments, pore linings,
and rhizomorphs; these are Stage I soil carbonates (12), indicating
brief periods of surface stability and weathering.
Accordingly, the entire suite of sediments in stratum A can be
viewed as a cumulic sedimentary profile consisting of a series of
Author contributions: R.F. and D.L. designed research; R.F., O.O., J.A., F.B., M.N., T.S., M.T.,
A.V., and D.Z. performed research; R.F., O.O., F.B., and M.T. analyzed data; M.N., T.S., and
D.Z. conducted fieldwork; and R.F. wrote the paper.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
1
To whom correspondence may be addressed. E-mail: ferring@unt.edu or dlordkipanidze@
museum.ge.
2
Present address: Archaeology Department, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215.
This article contains supporting information online at www.pnas.org/lookup/suppl/doi:10.
1073/pnas.1106638108/-/DCSupplemental.
PNAS Early Edition | 1 of 5

Fig. 1. Dmanisi promontory and map of excavation areas. Sediments be-
neath Medieval ruins in blocks 1 and 2 yielded Dmanisi’s assemblage of early
Homo fossils, dated to ca. 1.77 Ma. The recent discovery of stratified stone
artifacts in Unit M5, push back even farther the age of Dmanisi’s first
occupations to the late Olduvai subchron, 1.85–1.78 Ma.
ash fall events, alternating and overprinted by weakly developed
soils stabilized by grasses, a few shrubs, and rare trees (13). Al-
though stratum A deposits also accumulated in the areas of main
excavations, they experienced more erosion, leaving thinner and
sometimes incomplete sections. In those main excavations, all of
the hominin fossils and thousands of mammal fossils have been
recovered from reversely polarized strata B1x–B1z pipe and gully
sediments (4, 10), which are notably absent at the A4/B1 contact
in the M5 section (Fig. 2).
The M5 paleomagnetic data are in accord with the results of
previous studies in the main excavation areas (4, 5) as well as
lithostratigraphic correlation of the deposits between the two areas
of the site (Fig. 2 and Fig. S1). Although a single sample from the
top of stratum A exhibited normal inclination and reversed decli-
nation (i.e., south directed but downward dipping), this sample
is not sufficient to indicate the Olduvai/Upper Matuyama transi-
tion. Here, the magnetostratigraphy and 40Ar/39Ar dating of the
Masavera Basalt (4) constrain the age of stratum A deposits and
the recently discovered artifact and faunal assemblages between
1.85 Ma and 1.78 Ma, the age of the Olduvai/Upper Matuyama
reversal (14). Moreover, the lowest artifacts, in stratum A2a, are
separated from the Masavera Basalt by the unweathered stratum
A1 ashes, showing that these artifacts must be close in age to the
basalt, i.e., just after 1.85 Ma.
Archaeological Assemblages. Excavations at M5 produced a total of
122 lithic artifacts, including 49 from stratum B (SI Text and
Tables S2 and S3). The 73 artifacts from stratum A were re-
covered over a vertical range of ∼1.5 m in strata A2a–A4a (Fig. 2
and Table 1). The bones were all unidentifiable but included 32
fragments from A4 and two long bone fragments from A2a; a
hyaena coprolite was recovered from A3. All of the bones were
quite weathered, in contrast to the well-preserved bones from the
rapidly deposited pipe and gully fills in the main excavation (5,
15). These M5 faunas and artifacts record serial living surfaces
2 of 5 | www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1106638108
as supported by the stratigraphic separations, fine-grained sedi-
ments, and associated soil features (SI Text and Table S1). The
location of M5 and the stratigraphic range of the recently discov-
ered finds emphasize that the site-wide spatial and stratigraphic
distribution of artifacts and faunas at Dmanisi is both extensive and
dense. This finding reveals that the site was inhabited many times,
implying an established, apparently quite mobile population.
The stratum A artifact assemblage is dominated by flakes but
includes cores and core/choppers (Table 1 and Fig. 3). No
retouched tools were found, but these are rare in the larger
samples of artifacts from the Dmanisi excavations (10). Of the 73
flakes in stratum A, 48 are complete or proximal fragments with
platforms. The size and raw materials of distal flake fragments
indicate that breakage has not unduly inflated the sample size.
The dorsal scar patterns on the flakes are predominantly unidi-
rectional (Fig. 3 B–E). However, four of the larger flakes, each
of a different raw material, reveal core rotation to produce thick
flakes with one sharp edge (Fig. 3 F–G). Dorsal cortex forms
indicate that the tuffs were principally acquired from Cretaceous
bedrock exposed near the site, whereas the other raw materials
were well-rounded alluvial cobbles from more distant channel
and/or terrace sources. The one complete core, mentioned above,
has unidirectional flaking from a roughly facetted platform of
nearly 90°. The four core fragments are all tuff and have flake
scars on two or three surfaces. Two core/choppers with bifacial
platforms, one of green tuff and the other basalt, were recovered
in stratum A2b.
The artifacts from stratum A differ from those in stratum B in
terms of raw material selection and reduction intensity (Table 1
and Tables S3 and S4). Compared with stratum B raw materials,
stratum A artifacts have a high proportion of red tuff, which is very
rare in the materials from blocks 1 and 2. The stratum A sample
has no andesite and only two pieces of basalt; excluding tuffs,
those materials dominate artifacts from stratum B, both in M5
and the main excavation areas (10). Three flakes of rhyodacite,
a black, near-glassy material, are the first reported incidences of
this material recovered at Dmanisi (Fig. 3F). This material has
been found in outcrops ∼15 km west of the site and as cobbles in
the Masavera River gravels. A notable difference between the
strata A and B assemblages is that only 29% of the stratum A
flakes have dorsal cortex, compared with 71% in stratum B.
Debitage from stratum B in the main excavations has a similarly
high proportion of cortical pieces (10), suggesting that, during the
earlier occupations, either cores were more intensively reduced or
selected flakes were made elsewhere and carried to the site.
Larger samples, with good prospects for refitting, will allow
comparisons of Dmanisi’s earliest assemblages with those from
contemporary and earlier African sites. Progress in the study of
Mode I industries (16–18) reveals knapping skills that were nei-
ther simplistic nor static and that raw material quality was a major
factor in technological variation among these early assemblages.
Discussion
The stratified lithic assemblages at M5 affirm that the site was
occupied repeatedly during the late Olduvai subchron, ca. 1.85–
1.78 Ma. The stratified finds in stratum B deposits, including all
of the Dmanisi hominins, extend the range of Dmanisi’s occu-
pations to ca. 1.77 Ma, with a minimum age of ca. 1.76 Ma, based
on stratigraphic correlation of Dmanisi sediments to the nearby
Zemo Orozmani locality (4). It is now clear that Dmanisi was
occupied repeatedly over an interval of as much as 80 ka,
strongly suggesting a sustained regional population. The recently
discovered data show that Dmanisi was occupied at the same
time as, if not before, the first appearance of Homo erectus in
east Africa (1, 19). This scenario has important implications for
understanding the origins, dispersal, and biological variability of
our first cosmopolitan ancestor. The case for a possible Eurasian
Ferring et al.
 ANTHROPOLOGY
Fig. 2. Stratigraphy and archaeological discoveries in Unit M5. The 6.2-m section shows that Dmanisi’s sedimentary/geomagnetic record spans the late
Olduvai subchron (stratum A) through earliest Upper Matuyama chron (stratum B). Test excavations recovered 73 stone artifacts from strata A2–A4, which are
firmly dated to 1.85–1.78 Ma.

origin of Homo erectus (1, 20) is increasingly supported by chro-
nometric and biogeographic evidence.
The initial occupations of Dmanisi are possibly older than the
first appearance of Homo erectus in East Africa. With the ex-
ception of the surface find of a human occipital fragment (KNM-
ER 2598) at Koobi Fora, the earliest appearance of African Homo
erectus is considered to be ca. 1.78 Ma (21) but probably is closer
to 1.65 Ma (22). The newly dated horizons at Dmanisi also ac-
commodate the increasingly older ages documented for hominin
fossils in both eastern and western Eurasia. Human presence in
China is dated to ca. 1.7 Ma (23, 24), and Homo erectus fossils
in Java are dated to ca. 1.6 Ma (25). The earliest occupations of
Flores are now dated in excess of 1 Ma (26). The record of col-
onization of Western Europe is also >1 Ma (27–29). The in-
creasingly older age of Eurasian occupations by early Homo is
important for defining patterns of dispersal and adaptations in
environmental context (3, 30–32).
The possibility that Homo erectus evolved in Eurasia provokes
two obvious corollaries. The first, that a more primitive ancestor
arrived from Africa more than ca. 1.85 Ma (1, 19), is consistent
with anatomical analyses of both the Dmanisi fossils (17) and
those of Homo floresiensis (33). The second, that Homo erectus

Table 1. Lithic artifacts from M5

Stratum A Stratum B Total, %

Raw material A2a A2b A2c A3 A4 B1a B1c B2 A B

Red tuff 8 6/2 6 2 2 1 35.6 2.0

Brown tuff 1 13/1 4/2 3 1 32.9 2.0
Tan tuff 4 5 1 1/1 1 8/3 13.7 28.6
Green tuff 2/1 2 3 6.8 6.1
Vitreous green tuff 1 4 10.2
Rhyolite 2 1 1 1 4.1 2.0
Andesite −/1 2/1 1/4 18.4
Rhyodacite 2 1 4.1
Basalt −/1 1 −/1 9/2 2.7 24.5
Aplite 1 2.0
Diorite 1 2.0
Chert 1 2.0
Total 11 28/5 11/2 11 6 2/2 6/2 28/9 73 49

Single digits are counts of flakes; n/n shows counts of flakes/cores.

Ferring et al. PNAS Early Edition | 3 of 5

Fig. 3. Lithic artifacts from stratum A deposits at Dmanisi. These flakes (A–G), all from stratum A2 (Fig. 2), were recovered from two of the five occupation
horizons defined thus far in the 1.85- to 1.78-Ma deposits in the M5 unit. Although simple unidirectional flaking is dominant (B–E), three of these pieces have
scar patterns showing core rotation to permit removal of large flakes with sharp edges (A, F, and G). (Drawn by O. Bar-Yosef, Department of Anthropology,
Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.)
may have migrated back to Africa, receives support from the
conclusion that Homo erectus and Homo habilis survived as
contemporaries after the appearance of the former in the East
African fossil record (34).
Although the presence of hominins beyond East Africa as
early as 1.9 Ma is documented at Ain Hanech in North Africa
(35), claims for occupations of that age or somewhat earlier in
Israel (36) and Pakistan (37, 38) are based on lithic materials
collected from gravels. Although it seems ever more probable
that hominins were in Eurasia before Dmanisi was first occupied,
well-dated materials in unequivocal contexts are required. Both
the age and evolutionary affiliations of the earliest hominins to
arrive in Eurasia remain to be determined by new discoveries.
This important, unresolved issue in human evolution is a call for
the aggressive survey for evidence of even earlier colonists.
Methods
For magnetostratigraphic study, one to four samples were obtained from each
studied horizon. All samples were collected by hand after exposure of fresh
sediment that was oriented with a magnetic compass. Remanent magneti-
zation measurements were carried out with a 2G Enterprises high-resolution
cryogenic magnetometer with superconducting quantum interference device
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(SQUID) sensors at the Paleomagnetism Laboratory of the Scientific Technical
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alogical analyses, and Gocha Kiladze and the entire Dmanisi team for their
fine research. We also thank Bernard Wood, Jay Quade, and Philip Rightmire
for helpful comments on the manuscript. This research was supported
by National Science Foundation Grants BCS-0324567 and BCS-1025245, the
L. S. B. Leakey Foundation, the Georgian National Science Foundation, a Rolex
Award for Enterprise, BP Georgia, the Fundación Duques de Soria, Spanish
Ministry of Science and Innovation Projects GENCAT09-324 and MICIN09-7986,
and the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
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Supporting Information
Ferring et al. 10.1073/pnas.1106638108
SI Text
Geology. This section and the details in Table S1 provide a de-
tailed profile description for the M5 section, a summary of key
soil morphological properties (Table S2), and additional dis-
cussion of the geology and site formation setting.
Sedimentary and pedogenic features of the stratum A deposits
indicate an overall favorable site formation setting (Table S2).
Pedogenic features show the immature soils in stratum A de-
posits compared with those in stratum B. Stratum A1 was buried
by stratum A2a deposits before soils could develop, indicating
that the artifacts in that stratum must have been deposited
shortly after cooling of the Masavera Basalt and its burial by
stratum A1 ashes. Longer periods of surface stability for stratum
A2 deposits are shown by more soil structure and clay films,
which may have contributed to the higher artifact densities in
those strata, compared with strata A3 and A4 (Fig. 2).
In strata A4 and A3, evidence for bioturbation includes fine
(<1.5-cm diameter) vertical burrows probably created by insects
and 2- to 3-cm krotovina excavated by micromammals. However,
the fills of the krotovina are very distinct from the surrounding
matrix, and none of the 54 artifacts mapped in situ were found in
those features. Only three of the flake fragments from stratum
A4 were small enough to have been moved in burrows, but,
despite differences in raw materials, the remote possibility for
their biogenic introduction from stratum B1 cannot be excluded.
The many fine pores in strata A2a–A4b are characteristic of soils
formed in young ashes (1); the preservation of pores as well as
the absence of any shrink–swell features indicates that soil tur-
bation did not promote vertical displacement of artifacts. Im-
portantly, the artifacts range in size from small flakes 2.0–2.5 cm
long up to a 12.1-cm brown tuff core, supporting evidence for the
fact that the stratum A archaeological horizons register serial
living surfaces.
At the stratum A/B contact in the M5 section, A4 sediments
have been truncated by minor erosion, with a lag of rare granules
and pebbles. There are small rip-ups of the A4 sediments within
the lower part of B1, which is a pale yellowish brown silt ash
dominated by clear glass shards and small glass spheres. This unit,
like stratum B3 above, was rapidly invaded by micromammals,
most probably migratory hamsters (Cricetulus sp.) and gerbils
(Parameriones aff. Obeidiyensis), which together comprise ∼80%
of the rodent fauna. Their burrowing activity is indicated by
many burrows (krotovina) within the freshly deposited ashes that
penetrate into the underlying sediments. The B1 ashes in M5
also have distinctive laminated calcretes, which are present in all
exposures across the site except in the M6 section (Fig. 1). These
and higher calcretes retarded or arrested water percolation,
contributing to the excellent preservation of fossils in the main
excavation areas.
Stratum B2 is composed of ashes having basal matrix–sup-
ported colluvial pebbles and cobbles, apparently derived from
nearby terrace deposits. The B2 surface was stabilized long
enough for moderate to strong soil development, indicated by
an argillic horizon that was later intensively bioturbated and
calcified, leaving the pedorelicts (Fig. 2). Stratum B2, in turn, is
overlain by the fresh B3 ashes and then the B4 ashes, which have
a well-developed argillic horizon and Stage II–III pedogenic
carbonates, including a surmounting nodular and laminated ca-
liche (indurated soil carbonate). Stratum B5 sediments are silt
loams of a very different character than all sediments below and
appear to be eolian. A strongly developed soil formed in these
deposits, with a thick argillic horizon and pedogenic carbonates
Ferring et al. www.pnas.org/cgi/content/short/1106638108
with a “ladder-backed” fabric (2), indicating a prolonged period
of soil formation. In sum, the progressively stronger expression
of soil morphology in strata B1–B5 deposits indicates that the
entire suite of deposits was characterized by waning rates of
episodic deposition, separated by increasingly long periods of
stability and weathering.
Mineralogical Discussion. The estimated frequencies of crystalline
mineral phases for the M5 sedimentary sequence is summarized
in Fig. S2. Throughout the entire sequence, the most abundant
crystalline mineral phase is represented by the feldspars, princi-
pally plagioclase. Olivine is only present in the Masavera Basalt
and the A1a black ash. Pyroxenes are present in the basalt and in
the sediments of strata A1–A3. The absence of pyroxenes above
stratum A3 is presumably because of weathering, although pos-
sible changes in sediment sources need to be investigated further.
Clay minerals are mainly composed of randomly interstratified
mica-smectite, random smectite, and hydroxy-interlayered smec-
tite with moderately polymerized Al-hydroxyls and kaolinite.
The black stratum A1a ashes have composition very similar to
that of the underlying Masavera Basalt, suggesting a possible
common source. The presence of olivine and the absence of
carbonates and clay minerals in both the basalt and the A1a ashes
is evidence for rapid burial and minimal weathering. The presence
of clay minerals and calcite in the A2 sediments support the field
evidence for cyclical surface stability, vegetative cover, and soil
formation. These are the first deposits that register human oc-
cupation. The parent material of the A4 layer and the B sediment
sequence underwent more weathering and associated pedogen-
esis compared with the underlying layers as shown by the absence
of pyroxenes and the formation of clay minerals.
Artifact Descriptions. The dorsal cortex and scar patterns for flakes
from M5 are shown in Tables S2 and S3. These show the low fre-
quency of cortical pieces and the more complex scar patterns among
flakes from stratum A compared with those from stratum B.
SI Methods
Archeology. After the initial discovery of artifacts in stratum A2
deposits, all excavated sediment was screened through 3-mm
mesh. During excavation of the expanded 2 × 1.9-m test, ex-
cavations were conducted following the natural stratigraphy. All
deposits were screened, and all artifacts found in situ were
mapped in three dimensions. Attributes of all artifacts, including
platform, dorsal scar patterns, dorsal cortex, and metrics were
recorded. Summaries of scar patterns and dorsal cortex for the
stratum A and stratum B combined assemblages are shown in
Tables S3 and S4.
Paleomagnetism. One to four samples were obtained from each
studied horizon to undergo magnetostratigraphic study. All
samples were collected by hand, after exposure of fresh sediment
that was oriented with a magnetic compass.
Remanent magnetization measurements were carried out with
a 2G Enterprises high-resolution cryogenic magnetometer with
superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) sensors at
the Paleomagnetism Laboratory of the Scientific Technical Serv-
ices of Barcelona University. After measuring the natural rema-
nent magnetization, a stepwise demagnetization was applied at
least to one specimen per horizon. Demagnetization of 99 sam-
ples was done thermally because it was observed to be an efficient
method in previous studies (3). A stepwise demagnetization from
1 of 5
room temperature to 600 °C was accomplished, generally with an
8- to 10-step protocol.
Mineralogy. The bulk mineralogical composition of the sediments
was characterized by integrating elemental analysis by X-ray
fluorescence, X-ray diffractometry, and FTIR spectroscopy. Major
element composition (Si, Ti, Al, Fe, Mn, Mg, Ca, Na, K, and P)
were obtained on fused La-bearing lithium borate glass disks using
a Siemens MRS-400 multichannel, simultaneous X-ray spec-
trometer. X-ray diffractometry analysis was carried out with a
Philips X’Pert diffractometer, with Cu kα radiation (tube settings:
40 kV and 30 mA measuring in the range of 3–60° 2θ, at a rate of
0.02° per min). Representative FTIR spectra were obtained by
grinding a few tens of micrograms of sample with an agate mortar
and pestle and suspended with ∼80 mg of KBr (IR grade). A 7-
mm pellet was made by using a hand press (Qwik Handi-Press;
Spectra-Tech Industries Corporation) without evacuation. The
spectra were collected between 4,000 and 400 cm−1 at 4-cm−1
resolution with a Thermo-Nicolet Nexus 470 IR spectrometer.
The clay size fraction of each sample was obtained by pre-
treating the sediments in solutions of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
and sodium hydroxide (NaOH). The resulting silt fractions were
then dispersed both at pH 4 (HCl solution) and at pH 10 (NaOH
solution). The clay fractions obtained were then treated as fol-
low: saturation with Mg and K, solvation with glycerol of the Mg-
saturated specimens and heating at 105 °C, 330 °C, 380 °C, and
550 °C of the K-saturated specimens. Oriented samples of the
untreated and treated clay separates were analyzed by X-ray
diffraction using a Philips PW 1830 diffractometer, using a Fe-
filtered Co-Kα1 radiation and operating at 35 kV and 25 mA; the
step size was 0.02° 2θ, and the scanning speed was 1 s per step.

1. Agnelli AE, et al. (2007) Features of some paleosols on the flanks of Etna volcano (Italy) 3. Lordkipanidze DL, et al. (2007) Postcranial evidence from early Homo from Dmanisi,
and their origin. Geoderma 142:112–126. Georgia. Nature 449:305–310.
2. Holliday VT (1989) The Blackwater Draw Formation (Quaternary): A 1.4 m.y. record of
eolian sedimentation and soil formation on the Southern High Plains. Geol Soc Am Bull
101:1598–1607.

Fig. S1. Stereographic plots for the individual characteristic remnant magnetization values for M5 and block 2 sections (1). Empty and filled circles belong to
the Southern and Northern hemispheres, respectively. Samples from stratum A display northern declinations and positive inclinations. Conversely, stratum B
samples are southward-directed and show negative inclinations. Thus, the M5 section confirms the normal and reverse polarities observed in strata A and B,
respectively. n, number of samples; decl., declination; incl., inclination; K and a95, Fisher statistic values.

1. Lordkipanidze DL, et al. (2007) Postcranial evidence from early Homo from Dmanisi, Georgia. Nature 449:305–310.

Ferring et al. www.pnas.org/cgi/content/short/1106638108 2 of 5

 cm STRATIGRAPHY RELATIVE MINERAL QUANTITY

CHRONS AND
000

SUBCHRONS
Wt (%)

OTHER CLAY
PYROXENES
ARTIFACTS

FELDSPARS

KAOLINITE

MINERALS
CALCITE
QUARTZ
OLIVINE
b XXXXX 70-100
B5
XXXX 50-70
a
- X
100 - XXX XXX - XXX

c - - - TR XXXX X - XXX 20-50

b - - XXXX XX - X XXX
B4 XX 10-20

Upper Matuyama
a - - XXXX XXX - X XX
X 2-10
200 B3 -
-
-
-
XXXXX
XXXX
X
XX
XX
XX
X
X
XX
XX
TR 2 (trace)
b 24 - - XXXX XXX - X XX

B2 - Not-detectable
a 13 - - XXXX XXX - X XX

c 8 - - XXXX XX XXX X XX
- - XXX X XXX TR XX
300 b
B1 4 - - XXX XX XX TR XX
a
- - XXXX X X TR XX
b
A4 a lithic
6 - - XXXXX X X TR XXX
artIfacts
400 A3 11 - X XXXX XX X TR XX krotovina
c 13 - XX XXXX X TR TR XX
soil carbonates
A2 b 32 - X XXXXX X TR TR XX

pedorelicts
500 a 11 - XX XXXXX X - X XX

laminated
b
calcrete
A1
a X? XX XXXXX X - - -
600 normal
Mashavera XX XX XXXXX TR - - - polarity
basalt reverse

Fig. S2. Estimated relative abundance of crystalline mineral phases in the M5 deposits. The presence of olivine is evidence for minimal weathering of the
Masavera Basalt and its rapid burial by A1a ashes. The upward declines in olivine and pyroxenes through stratum A suggest slower deposition and weak soil
formation, although potential changes in sources of eolian sediment (volcanic and nonvolcanic) may be a factor as well. Overall, the mineralogy and mor-
phology of the stratum A sediments and soils indicate cycles of episodic deposition interrupted by variable yet overall brief periods of surface stability and
weathering. This pattern created an excellent site formation setting for the accumulation of the stratified assemblages recovered in M5.

Ferring et al. www.pnas.org/cgi/content/short/1106638108 3 of 5

Table S1. M5 profile description
Depth
below
Stratum surface, cm Description

B5 0–115 Brown (7.5YR4/4m) to yellowish brown (10YR5/6) silt loam; moderate medium prismatic structure, breaking to
strong medium subangular blocky structure; common fine pores; many thick argillans (clay films); common
fine mangans (MnO coatings) over argillans; many carbonate filaments and rare fine concretions; many
coarse vertical masses of very pale brown (10YR7/4) pedogenic carbonate; many thick carbonate coats
over argillans and mangans; diffuse, smooth boundary
B4 115–195 Dark yellowish brown (10YR3/4m) to brown (7.5YR4/4) silt loam; moderate fine subangular blocky structure;
rare fine ferro-manganese stains; common vertical masses of pedogenic carbonate; upper 15-cm nodular and
laminated petrocalcic horizon; abundant carbonate filaments and coats; common fine carbonate rhizoliths
(root casts); abundant fine pores with clay and carbonate linings; many obsidian sand grains and rare
granules; rare granule-sized rip-ups of A3 sediment in basal part; clear smooth boundary
B3 195–220 Grayish brown (10YR5/2m); medium and fine silt ash; massive; 50% black/50% clear obsidian; violent reaction
to dilute HCl; many fine to medium pores with rare carbonate linings; many 2- to 2.5-cm krotovina
(micromammal burrows), with soft, pale calcareous fills and hard carbonate linings; narrow tongues into
subjacent B2 deposits; abrupt irregular boundary
B2b 220–245 Brown (7.5YR4/4m) silt loam; moderate medium subangular blocky structure; many medium argillans; few
ferro-manganese stains; common fine pores; no reaction to HCl; abundant obsidian sand and rare granules;
rare medium and fine sand grains of tuff and basalt; few krotovina with B3 fill; gradual smooth boundary
B2a 245–275 Strong brown (7.5YR4/6m) matrix-supported gravelly loamy sand to silt loam; vertical “pedorelicts” (in situ
remnants of an argillic horizon, isolated by bioturbation) with strong fine subangular blocky structure;
many fine to medium argillans; many ferromanganese stains; abundant fine pores with clay and carbonate
linings; many carbonate filaments; common coarse sand to granule, black and clear obsidian grains; common
well rounded, poorly sorted pebbles and cobbles of diverse lithology; clear smooth boundary
B1c 275–290 Brown (7.5YR5/4m) silt loam; massive; abundant fine pores, many with carbonate linings; violent reaction
to HCl; abrupt smooth boundary
B1b 290–310 Pale brown (10YR6/3m); massive with secondary subhorizontal to anastomosing, indurated calcareous laminae;
envelops darker sediment in small patches; many black coarse silt and fine sand obsidian clasts; many fine
pores with carbonate linings; common carbonate filaments overprinting calcareous laminations; abrupt
smooth boundary
B1a 310–340 Pale brown (10YR6/3m); massive calcareous silt ash; many coarse silt and fine sand glass shards, and few
granules of obsidian, mainly black; few medium pores with carbonate linings; few to common fine
(3- to 4-mm) subangular rip-ups of A4 sediment; few bioturbated coarse remnants of A4; common
krotovina with soft calcareous fill and hard carbonate linings
A4b 340–355 Dark yellowish brown (10YR3/4m); massive silt; black, light tan, and clear obsidian clasts in sand-coarse silt
fraction; few to rare fine pores with carbonate linings; few glass shards; few carbonate filaments; common
krotovina with gray calcareous fill; abrupt wavy boundary
A4a 355–390 Very dark grayish brown (10YR3/2m) massive, friable coarse and medium silt; well rounded black, tan, and few
reddish clasts, mainly obsidian; common fine pores with carbonate linings; many carbonate filaments; few
medium rhizoliths; common krotovina with gray calcareous fill; abrupt wavy boundary
A3 390–430 Dark brown (7.5YR3/2.5m); massive fine silt; many carbonate filaments and coarse and medium pores with
carbonate linings; tan and minor black clasts, mainly obsidian; few krotovina with soft, grayish brown
calcareous fill; abrupt bioturbated boundary
A2c 430–455 Dark brown (7.5YR3/2m) coarse silt and fine sand ash; fine and medium subangular blocky structure; hard
when dry; abundant coarse pores with carbonate linings, and many fine pores with and without linings;
black glass shards predominate, with subordinate tan and clear obsidian; thick carbonate rinds on some
ped surfaces; abrupt to clear wavy boundary
A2b 455–490 Dark reddish brown (8.75YR3/3m) in upper part and dark brown (7.5YR3/2) in lower part; very fine, fresh silt
ash; moderate medium subangular blocky structure; very hard when dry; fresh black and subordinate clear
obsidian in upper part, with many shards and tears in lower part; many fine and medium pores, rarely with
pendant sparry calcite; few clay linings of larger pores in upper part, common in lower part; clay linings
overlain by carbonate; few larger pores (2–5 mm), which frequently show bifurcations; rare krotovina
with soft fill; abrupt wavy boundary
A2a 490–530 Very dark brown (10YR2.5/2m); very compact fine and medium silt ash; very hard when dry; fresh black, tan,
and subordinate clear glass shards; moderate medium subangular blocky structure; many fine and few coarse
pores with many thin to medium clay linings of fine pores only; no reaction to HCl in upper part, common
carbonate filaments on ped surfaces and many medium calcareous rhizoliths and concretions in lower
part; abrupt wavy boundary
A1b 530–570 Black (10YR2/1) to very dark brown (10YR2/2m) coarse sand and granules (∼5%) in silt matrix; granules are well
rounded clear and black obsidian, and rounded pumice clasts with frosted surfaces; common coarse pores
with carbonate linings; abrupt wavy to irregular boundary

Ferring et al. www.pnas.org/cgi/content/short/1106638108 4 of 5

Table S1. Cont.
Depth
below
Stratum surface, cm Description

A1a2 570–590 Black (10YR2/1m); massive, friable moderately sorted fine sand and coarse silt ash with a few thin beds with fine
laminations; black and clear obsidian shards and tears predominate, with many clear, rounded, unfrosted
obsidian sand clasts; very rare granules of clear pumice with frosted surfaces; common fine, unlined pores,
and few medium to large pores with carbonate linings
A1a1 590–620 Black (7.5YR2.5/1m); massive coarse silt and fine sand ash; subequal black and clear shards, with rare red
obsidian and rare coarse sand to fine granule pumice with frosted surfaces; abundant fine unlined pores,
and few medium to large pores with carbonate linings
Masavera 620 Black, fine-grained massive to vesicular basalt with sharp, fresh edges on blocky surface
Basalt

Table S2. Soil morphologic features of M5 deposits

Munsell Color value/ Structure, Illuvial Soil carbonates,
Stratum Depth, cm hue* chroma* Texture† G SC T‡ clay, A L§ A T¶

B5 0–115 7.5YR 4/4 SiL-SiCL 3 m sab 3 pf 3 k, f, cc

B4 115–195 10YR 3/4 SiL-SiCL 2 f sab 3 po 3 k, f, r; K
B3 195–220 10YR 5/2 fSi ash M 3p
B2b 220–245 7.5YR 4/4 SiL 2 m sab 2 pf N rctn
B2a 245–275 7.5YR 4/6 gr LS-SiL 3 f sab 2 pf 3 f, p
B1c 275–290 7.5YR 5/4 SiL M 3p
B1b 290–310 10YR 6/3 SiL M 3 f, p; K-lam
B1a 310–340 10YR 6/3 cSi ash M 1p
A4b 340–355 10YR 3/4 cSi M 1fp
A4a 355–390 10YR 3/2 c, mSi M 3 f, p, r
A3 390–430 7.5YR 3/2.5 fSi M 3 f, p
A2c 430–455 7.5YR 3/2 cSi, fS ash 2 f sab 3 p, k
A2b 455–490 8.75YR 3/3 fSi ash 2 m sab 1 po 1 p, f
A2a 490–530 10YR 2.5/2 f, mSi ash 2 m sab 3 po 2 f, p; 3 r, cc
A1b 530–570 10YR 2/1 c LS M 2p
A1a2 570–590 10YR 2/1 fS, cSi ash M 1p
A1a1 590–620 7.5YR 2.5/1 cS, fS ash M 1p

*Munsell values in moist soil.

†
SiL, silt loam; SiCL, silty clay loam; Si, silt; S, sand; gr, gravelly; c, coarse; f, fine.
‡
G, grade: m, massive; 2, moderate; 3, strong. SC, size class: f, fine; m, medium. T, type: sab, subangular blocky.
§
A, amount: 1, few; 2, common; 3, many. L, location: po, pore linings; pf, ped faces.
¶
A, amount: 1, few; 2, common; 3, many. T, type: f, filaments; po, pore linings; k, coats; cc, concretions; r, rhizoliths.

Table S3. Cortex and dorsal scar patterns of flakes from M5, stratum B
Dorsal cortex, %
Platform
Dorsal scar pattern only None 1–50 50–99 100 Sum

Cortex only 9 9
Unidirectional 9 9 5 23
Bidirectional 2 2
Opposed 1 1
Sum 0 10 11 5 9 36

Table S4. Cortex and dorsal scar patterns of flakes from M5, stratum A
Dorsal cortex, %
Platform
Dorsal scar pattern only None 1–50 50–99 100 Sum

Cortex only 6 6
Unidirectional 3 34 2 7 46
Bidirectional 5 1 6
Opposed 1 1
Platform removal 2 1 3
Sum 3 41 5 7 6 62

Ferring et al. www.pnas.org/cgi/content/short/1106638108 5 of 5