Chapter 1

1.1 Introduction to Cellular Mobile Communication Systems

This chapter provides information concerning the following topics:

1.1.1 What is meant by Telecommunications?

1.1.2 Telecommunication Systems

1.1.3 Communication Systems

1.1.4 The Parts of a Communication System

1.1.5 Cellular System Architecture

1.1.6 Analog or Digital

1.1.7 Connection Types

1.1.8 About Duplex Transmission & Multiple Access

1.1.9 Important Definitions

1.1.10 Cell Classifications

1.1.11 Frequency Reuse

1.1.1 What is meant by Telecommunications?
Telecommunication is the assisted transmission over
a distance for the purpose of communication. In
earlier times, this may have involved the use of
smoke signals, drums, semaphore, flags or
heliograph. In modern times, telecommunication
typically involves the use of electronic devices such
as the telephone, television, radio or computer. Early
inventors in the field of telecommunication include
Alexander Graham Bell, Guglielmo Marconi and
John Logie Baird. Telecommunication is an
important part of the world economy and the
telecommunication industry's revenue was estimated
to be $1.2 trillion in 2006. [1]

Fig1.1.1 Telecommunications

1.1.2 Telecommunication Systems

A telecommunication system is two things:

1. A communication system—that is, a system in which information is

transmitted from one physical location, A, to a second physical location, B.
2. A system which allows this information to be sent beyond the range of usual
vocal or visual communications. preson1 and preson2’s lunchtime chat would
not qualify as a telecommunication system, but the telephone system which
they used later for an afternoon talk does qualify. [1]

1.1.3 Communication Systems

A communication system is, simply, any system in which information is transmitted
from one physical location—let’s call it A—to a second physical location, which we'll
call B.
A simple example of a communication system is one person talking to another person
at lunch.
Another simple example is one person talking to a second person over the telephone.
[1]

1.3.1 Communication Category:

Communication can be divided in to two categories (wired communication,
Wireless communication).
 Wired Communication:
Which Include Twisted Pair cable, Coaxial Cable, and Fiber Optic Cable. That
it point to point Communication and it is generally used in small areas such as
local telephone network.

Fig1.1.2 Type of Cables

Disadvantages of Wired Communication:

1. Difficult to Conducting the cable under the Ground.
2. There is big loss in long distance
3. Problem of Communication with the world by using Cables

 Wireless Communication:
Why Wireless Communication?
1. User Convenience.
2. No Need for Expensive Copper Wires.
3. Very law installation fees.
4. Roaming Capabilities.
5. Increased Security.
6. Bypass natural obstacles.
7. Increased mobility of the workforce and society more generally.
8. Potentially lower costs for certain fixed applications.
9. More fungible investment.
10. Propagation of waves in free space is different from that in cable or
waveguides.

Features of wireless wave:

1. Modulated.
2. Carried
 3. Amplified.
4. Electromagnetic wave [1]

1.1.4 The Parts of a Communication System

Any communication system is made up of three parts, shown in Figure 1.2. First is the
transmitter, the part of the communication system that sits at point A. It includes two
items: the source of the information, and the technology that sends the information out
over the channel. Next is the channel. The channel is the medium (the stuff) that the
information travels through in going from point A to point B. An example of a
channel is copper wire, or the atmosphere. Finally, there’s the receiver, the part of the
communication system that sits at point B and gets all the information that the
transmitter sends over the channel. [2]

Fig 1.1.3 Communication System

1.1.4.1 Transmitter
The transmitter, in this case, is made up of parts of preson1, namely his vocal
cords, windpipe, and mouth. When preson1 wants to talk, his brain tells his vocal
cords (found in her windpipe) to vibrate at between 100 Hz and 10,000 Hz,
depending on the sound he’s trying to make. (Isn’t it cool that, ever y time you
talk, a part of you is shaking at between 100 and 10,000 times per second?) Once
preson1’s vocal cords begin to vibrate, here are the three things that happen next:

• The vibrations of his vocal cords cause vibrations in the air in his windpipe.

• These vibrations in the air move up her windpipe to his mouth.

• As the vibrating air moves out through preson1’s mouth, the shape of his mouth
and lips, and the position of his tongue, work together to create the intended
sound. [2]

1.1.4.2 Channel
 In our example, the channel is simply the air between preson1 and preson2. The
shaped vibrations that leave preson1’s mouth cause vibrations in the air, and these
vibrations move through the air from preson1 to preson2. [2]

1.1.4.3 Receiver
The receiver in this case is preson2 eardrum and brain. The vibrations in the air hit
Preson2 ear drum, causing it to vibrate in the same way, Preson2 shaking eardrum
sends electrical signals to his brain, which interprets the shaking as spoken sound.
The human eardrum can actually pick up vibrations between 50 Hz and 16,500
Hz, allowing us to hear sounds beyond the range of what we can speak, including
a variety of musical sounds. [2]

1.1.5 Cellular System Architecture

Increases in demand and the poor quality of old service led mobile service providers
to research ways to improve the quality of service and to support more users in their
systems. Because the amount of frequency spectrum available for mobile cellular use
was limited, efficient use of the required frequencies was needed for mobile cellular
coverage. In modern cellular telephony, rural and urban regions are divided into areas
according to specific provisioning guidelines.

Deployment parameters, such as amount of cell-splitting and cell sizes, are

determined by engineers experienced in cellular system architecture. Provisioning for
each region is planned according to an engineering plan that includes cells, clusters,
frequency reuse, and handovers. [1]

1.1.5.1 Cells
A cell is the basic geographic unit of a cellular system. The term cellular comes
from the honeycomb shape of the areas into which a coverage region is divided.
Cells are base stations transmitting over small geographic areas that are
represented as hexagons. Each cell size varies depending on the landscape. [3]

1.1.5.2 Cell Geometry

The simplest shape of a cell is to be circular with its transceiver at the center. But
it is obvious from the following figure that there will be dead spots between the
adjacent cells, which will have no any coverage. To solve this problem, the cells
might be square, triangular, or hexagonal shaped.

Dead Spots
 Dead spot
Spot
Fig 1.1.4 Circular Cells and Dead Spots

Differentiation between these three shapes will be in order to optimize the number
of cells required to cover a given service area against the cell transceiver power,
where both parameters are functions of the variable “R”. By some calculations,
you will find that using hexagonal shaped cells achieves the optimum.

R R R

Fig 1.1.5 Hexagonal Shaped cells Vs Square and Triangle Ones

Practically speaking, the radiation of the transceiver antenna cannot take a

hexagonal shape. The circular shape is the nearest one, so the cells will take the
form of overlapping circles in order to overcome the problem of dead spots.
Usually a coverage area contains obstacles, like large buildings, which deform the
radiation of a cell. Hence the actual shape of a cell will be random. [3]

1.1.5.3 Transceiver Antenna

There are two types of antennas that are commonly used:

 Omni-directional antenna: transmits equally in all directions [360 degrees].

 Directional or sectorial antenna: with the main lobe of radiation directed to
specific area.
When using the second type of antennas, there will be three 120 degrees sectorial
antennae for each site, each sector is then called a "cell". Hence a site consists of
three cells at most.
A cell may be defined as geographical area of radio coverage from one BTS
antenna system. It is the smallest building block in a mobile network and is the
reason why mobile networks are often referred to as cellular networks. Typically,
cells are represented graphically by hexagons. [3]
 Fig. 1.1.6 Omni-Directional Cells & Sectorial Cells

1.1.5.4 Clusters
A cluster is a group of cells in which all available frequencies have been used
once. No channels are reused within a cluster.

Fig 1.1.7 cluster of N=7 Cells

1.1.6 Analog or Digital

Signals can be either analogue or digital. In an analogue signal, the signal is varied
continuously with respect to the information. In a digital signal, the information is
encoded as a set of discrete values (for example ones and zeros). During transmission
the information contained in analogue signals will be degraded by noise. Conversely,
unless the noise exceeds a certain threshold, the information contained in digital
signals will remain intact. This noise resistance represents a key advantage of digital
signals over analogue signals.

1.1.6.1 Superiority of Digital over Analog:

Digital Transmission, demanded by our customers, has continually increased since
it's introduced in 1962. This is due, in large part, to the fact that more of our
customers require a high degree of accuracy in the information they are
transmitting over our network. And with a digital transmission (as opposed to
analogue) system we are able to manage the quality of the signal by managing the
previously discussed transmission impairments. Thus, digital systems:

1. Are a better switching interface

2. Are easier to multiplex
3. Produce clearer signals.

Fig 1.1.8 (a) An Analog

signal ; (b) a Discrete time
signal ; and (c) a Digital
signal
 1.1.6.2 Advantage of Digital
1. All digitized information messages “look" the same to channel, thereby
allowing easy standardization, interchange ability, flexibility in transmission
& reception.

2. Control information, e.g. for address/routing, is easily accommodated. Just

insert “control bits" into the information message’s digital sequence.

3. Storage / retrieval are relatively fast and error-free.

4. Encryption is relatively easy.

5. Efficient/accurate regeneration of the physical signal along the physical

medium to combat attenuation of signal power due to propagation loss. E.g.
regenerators in fibre optical cables or in relay satellites.

6. Digital signal processing algorithms for transmission/reception processing

may be easily implemented in programmable circuits.

1.1.6.3 Disadvantage of Digital:

1. Overall system is more complex ---needs A/D & D/A converter, source
encoder/decoder, and channel encoder/decoder.

2. Transmission bandwidth increases ---due to Nyquist sampling criterion.

1.1.7 Connection Types

There are two principles for radio connections:

1.1.7.1 Simplex Connection

Simplex connections are a "one-way street" for communication in the form of
(mostly fixed) transmitters and mobile receivers. This has been realized as e.g.
(broadcast) radio and television. But simplex connections are also used for direct
communication exchange i.e. two-way communication using stations which can
be used both as a transmitter and a receiver (e.g. walkie-talkies). However the
equipment (transmitting / receiving stations) cannot transmit and receive
simultaneously. The call cycles or call intervals are determined by prior agreement
or personal code words ("over"). [4]
 Fig 1.1.9 Connections Type

1.1.7.2 Duplex Connections

Duplex connections signify two-way communication. Users can transmit and
receive messages simultaneously. An example of an early duplex connection is
radio telegraphy. [4]

1.1.8 About Duplex Transmission & Multiple Access

In a cell for access to a network two different principles have to be co-ordinate: The
way of co-coordinating UL and DL, i.e. the Duplex Transmission, and the way of
enabling the simultaneous access of several user to the same Base Station, i.e. the
multiple access principle.

The transmission directions are designated as Uplink UL (MS to BTS) and Downlink
DL (BTS to MS). [4]

1.1.8.1 Frequency Division Duplex "FDD"

Transmission and reception take place in different frequency ranges. The distance
between the Uplink UL and Downlink DL frequency range is designated as
duplex distance. [8]

1.1.8.2 Time Division Duplex "TDD"

Transmission and reception take place in the same frequency band. Uplink UL
and Downlink DL transmission take place at different times. There is fast
switching between UL and DL transmission, so that the user has the impression of
simultaneous transmission and reception. [4]
Fig 1.10
Duplex Transmissions

1.1.9 Multiple Access Techniques

Fig 1.1.11 Multiple Accesses

1.1.9.1 Frequency Division Multiple Accesses (FDMA)

1. Each user is assigned a unique
Frequency for the duration of their
Call.

2. Severe fading and interference can

cause errors.

3. Complex frequency planning required.

Not flexible.
 4. Used in analogue systems, such as Fig 1.1.12 Frequency Division Multiple Access

TACS (Europe), and AMPS (USA). [4]

1.1.9.2 Time Division Multiple Accesses (TDMA)

1. Each user can use all available Frequencies, for a limited period. The user
must not transmit until Its next turn.

2. High bit rates required, therefore Possible

problems with inter symbol-interference.

3. Flexible allocation of resources (Multiple time

Fig 1.1.13 Time Division Multiple Access
slots).

4. Used in second generation digital Networks, such as

GSM (Europe), and D-AMPS (USA).[4]

1.1.9.3 Code Division Multiple Accesses (CDMA)

1. All users occupy the same Spectrum at the
same time.

2. The modulated signal is spread to a much

larger bandwidth than the required by
multiplying with a spreading code. Users
are distinguished from each other by a
unique spreading code.
Fig 1.1.14 Code Division Multiple Access
3. Very flexible, but complex.

4. Currently used in 3G and 2nd Generation IS-95. [4]

1.1.10 Important Definitions

1.1.10.1 Additive White Gaussian Noise Channel (AWGN)
Any received signal is the sum of the transmitted signal (attenuated in some
way) and noise with a Gaussian probability density function (PDF).

AWGN is a reasonably accurate model of thermal noise in the electronic

circuitry of a receiver.

Because AWGN affects all electronic circuitry, it is almost always added to a

simulation channel model, irrespective of what other channel effects are taken
into account. [5]
1.1.10.2 Modulation
Modulation is the process of moving a signal’s spectrum to a different
frequency band centred on some chosen frequency, fc.

In amplitude modulation (AM), the amplitude of c(t) is varied with s(t). In

frequency modulation (FM) the frequency is varied and in phase modulation
(PM) the phase is varied.

1.1.10.3 Attenuation
Attenuation in a channel is reduction in signal amplitude due to loss of energy.

Opposite is amplification (requires active devices).

Attenuation measured by ratio of output amplitude to

input amplitude. Ratios usually expressed in decibels (logarithmic measure).

1.1.10.4 Distortion
 Shape of spectra change in channel distortion
 A channel does not attenuate all frequencies equally some frequencies are
(cutoff).
 Also different frequencies travel through channel at different speeds.

1.1.10.5 Interference
 There are two major kinds of interference:

Co-channel interference
Adjacent channel interference

1.1.10.6 Noise
1. Noise is random fluctuations in medium.

2. Superpose on and corrupt signal

White (Gaussian) Noise
 Caused by thermal motion of electrons and thermal radiation.
 Present in all electrical systems.
 All frequency components.
 Generated all along signal path.

3. Multipath fading Ideal Rayleigh Fading Channel

There are numerous causes of fading.
 Multipath nature of the propagating medium.

The transmitted signal arrives at the receiver from different paths, with
each path introducing a time-varying attenuation and a time delay +. The
result is a set of replicas of the transmitted signal arriving at the receiver
with time-varying amplitudes and phase shifts.

The time-varying nature of the individual paths means that sometimes the
replicas will add constructively, and sometimes destructively, forming a
periodically fading signal at the receiver.

It also occurs if a static receiver is placed in a field of time-varying

Scatterers.

1.1.10.7 Bandwidth
In electronic communication, bandwidth is the width of the range (or band) of
frequencies that an electronic signal uses on a given transmission medium. In this
usage, bandwidth is expressed in terms of the difference between the highest-
frequency signal component and the lowest-frequency signal component. Since
the frequency of a signal is measured in hertz (the number of cycles of change per
second), a given bandwidth is the difference in hertz between the highest
frequency the signal uses and the lowest frequency it uses.

1.1.10.8 Bit Rate

In digital telecommunication, the bit rate is the number of bits that pass a given
point in a telecommunication network in a given amount of time, usually a
second. Thus, a bit rate is usually measured in some multiple of bits per second -
for example, kilobits, or thousands of bits per second (Kbps).

1.1.10.9 Bit Error Rate

In telecommunication transmission, the bit error rate (BER) is the percentage of
bits that have errors relative to the total number of bits received in a transmission,
usually expressed as ten to a negative power. For example, a transmission might
have a BER of 10 to the minus 6, meaning that, out of 1,000,000 bits transmitted,
one bit was in error.

1.1.10.10 Signal to Noise Ratio

In analog and digital communications, signal-to-noise ratio, often written S/N or
SNR, is a measure of signal strength relative to background noise. The ratio is
usually measured in decibels (dB).If the incoming signal strength in microvolt's is
Vs, and the noise level, also in microvolt's, is Vn, then the signal-to-noise ratio,
S/N, in decibels is given by the formula

1.1.10.11 Shannon's Theorem

 Shannon Theorem Predicts reliable Communication in The Presence of noise.

 Given a Discreet Memory Less Channel with Capacity C, there is existing a

code such as the output of the source can be transmitted over a channel with
an arbitrarily small probability of error.

 B is the Channel Bandwidth in Hz, and The S/N is the signal to noise ratio.

1.1.10.12 Fading
Is an effect occurs when the received signal consist of a number of scattered
arrival, ( Variation Of The Signal Strength ).

1.1.10.13 Circuit and Packet Switching

We can divide data connections through a telecommunications network into
different categories based on the principle of how the communications circuit is
built between the communicating devices.

Data communications through the telecommunications network may use two basic
different types of circuits:

 Circuit Switched
Circuit switching provides the customer with a dedicated channel all the way
to the destination. The cost of switched service depends on the time the service
is used, the data rate, and the distance. [5]
 Fig 1.1.15 Circuit switched

 Packet Switched
Packet switched data transmission compresses the data and sends short data
bursts between or during gaps in conversations on the voice channels. Packet
data digital transmission is ideal for using your phone to send short messages,
and including E-mail, the cost is often fixed and depends on the amount of
transferred data. [5]

Fig 1.1.16 Packet switched

1.1.11 Cell Classifications

 Macro Cell :
The "normal" cells are called Macro Cells. They have ranges from approximately
one km to several.

 Micro Cell :
Cells for the support of restricted areas with very high mobile user density, e.g.
shopping malls, railway and subway stations, airport terminals. Their radius
ranges from some 100 meters to approximately 1 km.

 Pico Cell :
 Cells for the support of indoor applications, e.g. offices. Their range should be
several 10m.

 Umbrella Cell :
A cell that can give coverage to areas that do not have radio coverage. Usually the
antenna is as high as possible that the cell can fill in the gaps left by the other
cells.

1.1.12 Frequency Reuse

The ability to use the same frequencies repeatedly
across a cellular system, made possible by the
basic design approach for cellular.

Since each cell is designed to use radio frequencies

only within its boundaries, the same frequencies
can be reused in other cells not far away with little
potential for interference.

The reuse of frequencies is what enables a cellular

system to handle a huge number of calls with a
limited number of channels.

The key characteristic of a cellular network is the

Fig 1.1.17 Frequency Reuse
ability to re-use frequencies to increase both
coverage and capacity.

Adjacent cells must utilize different frequencies; however there is no problem with
two cells sufficiently far apart operating on the same frequency.

The elements that determine frequency reuse are the reuse distance and the reuse
factor.

1.2 Mobile System Evolution

This chapter provides information concerning the following topics:

1.2.1 0th Generation

1.2.2 First Generation "AMPS" (1G)

1.2.3 Second Generation "GSM" (2G)

1.2.3 Second Generation "GSM" (2G)

1.2.4 General packet radio service “GPRS” (2.5G)

1.2.5 Enhanced Data Rate for the GSM “EDGE” (2.75G)

1.2.6 Universal Mobile Telecommunications System “UMTS” (3G)

1.2.7 High Speed Downlink Packet Access “HSDPA” (3.5G)

1.2.8 High Speed Uplink Packet Access “HSUPA” (3.75G)

1.2.9 High Speed Packet Access Plus “HSPA+” (3.75G+)

1.2.1 0th Generation

The 0G refers to pre-cellphone mobile telephony technology, such as radio telephones
that some had in cars before the advent of cellphones. One such technology is the
Auto Radio Puhelin (ARP) launched in 1971 in Finland as the country's first public
commercial mobile mphone network. [6]

1.2.2 First Generation "AMPS" (1G)

First generation systems are the analog standards that were launched in the 1980’s.
All mobile systems that were introduced in this decade until the digital systems are
launched belong to the first generation. The most famous systems that belong to the
first generations are the NMT (Nordic Mobile Telephone) and AMPS (Advanced
Mobile Phone System), they were used in Nordic countries and the USA respectively.
[6]

1.2.2.1 Limits of the First Generation

Capacity: The capacities limits of analogue technology are reached quickly even
with cellular networks. The demand increases with the offer and the sinking
prices. A number of 850,000 subscribers, i.e. the maximum capacity of the
analogue C-network, correspond to less than 7 % of the mobile subscribers in
1998 (only 6 years after introducing digital networks). The capacity of digital
networks has not yet been exhausted.

Quality: A second problem was the often inadequate transmission quality of the
analogue systems, which increased with the distance of the mobile subscriber. A
detailed description and discussion of the problems regarding the transmission
quality or the disadvantages of the analogue system in comparison to digital one
can be found in the next chapter. [6]

Fig 1.2.1 First Generation Limitations

Incompatibility: One or more analogue networks on frequency bands 450/900

MHz existed in most European states in the late 1980s. Every one of these
networks formed a mobile communication island since the individual standards of
these networks were incompatible in most cases (or still is, as far as they still
 exist); they prevented mobile phone traffic across borders (International
Roaming). Europe thus looked like a rag rug of incompatible systems.

So, the GSM Standard was developed for this purpose [6]

2.3 Second Generation "GSM" (2G)

The most important feature in the second generation mobile systems is that they are
digital communication systems. They are also circuit switched systems. Until the
second generation systems, only voice calls and some basic data such as date and time
can be transmitted through the system. Also, Short Messaging Service (SMS) was
later employed in some standards. The multiple access technique before the second
generation was only FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access). In the 2-G
systems another multiple access technique is used jointly with the FDMA. 2-G
technologies can be divided into TDMA-based and CDMA-based standards
depending on the type of multiplexing used.

A further and very significant innovation in mobile radio communications took place
with the introduction of the second generation cellular mobile radio system (e.g.
GSM) in the early 90s. Transmission via radio interface is now digital.

Along with a significant improvement of transmission quality and expansion of

services, there has been a considerable increase in capacity. The increase in
subscribers led to more convenient, lighter and less expensive equipment with a wide
range of possibilities for use. [7]

2.3.1 The GSM History

The foundation for the GSM Standard was laid already in 1978, four years before
the name GSM was established. In 1978 the CEPT reserved a frequency range
round 900 MHz for mobile communications in Europe. The limits of analog
mobile communications in Europe were recognizable in the early 80s. At that time
the first analog cellular networks were just beginning their operation and were still
far from their maximum capacity. Despite this a group of experts was formed to
establish the longer-term challenges of mobile communications and to develop a
new binding international standard for digital mobile communications in Europe.
Thus the GSM Standard became undoubtedly one of the most successful
European products of the past decades; its sphere of influence is extended far
beyond the originally planned European scope.
 1986 Core of experts meets continuously.
 1987 Selection of central transmission techniques.
 1988 ETSI founded.
 1989 GSM _ Global System for Mobile Communication.
 1990 GSM900 Standard (phase 1).
 1991 DCS1800 adaptation.
 1992 Start of commercial operation.
 1993 Beginning of work on phase 2.
 1995 Completion of work on phase 2 (GSM900/DCS1800).
 1996 PCS1900 adaptation (USA).
 1997 Phase 2+: Annual Release `96 DCS1800 / PCS1900 _
GSM1800/GSM1900. Dual-band devices.
 1998 Phase 2+: Annual Release `97: GPRS, CAMEL ...
 1999 Phase 2+: Annual Release ’98.
 2000 Phase 2+: Annual Release ‘99: AMR, VHE, identical to UMTS Rel.
’99,60% of world market; 410 M. subscriber, 161 countries. [7]

1.2.3.2 Goals
 Free roaming.
 International accessibility under 1 number (international roaming).
 Large network capacity (bandwidth efficiency).
 Flexibility _ ISDN.
 Broad service offering.
 Security mechanisms.

2.3.3 GSM Architecture

Fig 1.2.2 Network architecture of GSM

 The Mobile Station (MS):

The Mobile Equipment is said to be a Mobile Station if the Subscriber
Identity Module (SIM Card) is added to it.
 The SIM Card:

Contains a processor and memory that stores: The international mobile

subscriber Identity IMSI

The Authentication and ciphering keys

 The Base Transceiver Station (BTS):

Consists of the radio transmitters, receivers and the antenna system

required to provide the coverage area for one cell.
Converts the GSM radio signals into a format that can be recognized by
the BSC.
Records and passes to the BSC the Signal strength measurements.
Performs the network end of the ciphering/encryption process
 The Base Station Controller (BSC):
Manages the Radio Communication with the mobile station over the air
interface

Controls the handover of calls in progress Between BTSs

Supervises the transmission network and the operation of each BTS

 The Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC):

Administers its Base Station Controller(s) BSC(s).

Switches calls to/from mobile subscribers.

Records charging and accounting details

Provides the gateway functionality to other networks

 The Visitor Location Register (VLR):

It stores a copy of the HLR Profile for all currently registered mobile
subscribers who are covered by cells belonging to the MSC coverage area.

The VLR is always integrated with the MSC.

The VLR stores the Location area of the MS (which is not stored in the
HLR).

 The Home Location Register (HLR):

Controls the routing of mobile terminated calls and SMS

 Stores for each mobile subscriber:

1. Basic subscriber categories.

2. Supplementary services.
3. Current location (MSC address).
4. Allowed/barred services.
5. Authentication data.

 Authentication Center (AUC):

Generation of triples and it consists of A3 and A8.

An Authentication Center AUC contains all necessary means, keys and

algorithms for the creation of security related authorization parameters, the
so-called Triples.

The Triples are created on VLR request and delivered via HLR to the
VLR.

An AUC is always associated with an HLR.

 Equipment Identity Register (EIR):

The Equipment Identity Register EIR contains the Mobile Equipment
identity:

The International Mobile Equipment Identity IMEI.

An IMEI clearly identifies a unique Mobile Equipment ME and contains

information about the place of manufacture device type and the serial
number of the equipment

1.2.3.4 GSM Band

The GSM adaptations GSM900, GSM1800, GSM1900, GSM-R and GSM400
differ in the frequency ranges used and the resulting different technical
implementations.

 GSM900 (GSM, E-GSM)

Originally 2 x 25 MHz in the frequency range around 900 MHz (890 -
915; 935 – 960 MHz) were provided for mobile communication
applications.

In an extension of this range, called E-GSM (Extended GSM) these ranges

will be increased to 2 x 35 MHz (880-915; 925-960 MHz) on a national
level when further operation licenses expire.

1. E-GSM
OF= 880 MHZ, DD= 45 MHZ, B.W= 35 MHZ, GB= 10 MHZ,
Carrier B.W=200 KHZ, Number of carriers= 174 carriers.
 2. GSM 900
OF= 890 MHZ, DD= 45MHZ, B.W= 25MHZ, GB= 20MHZ,
Carrier B.W= 200KHZ, Number of carriers= 124 carriers.

Fig 1.2.3 GSM 900 Band

 GSM1800 (DCS1800)
As an adaptation of the GSM900 Standard the DCS1800 Standard

(Digital Cellular system) was introduced in 1991.

The DCS1800 was a British initiative with the intention of opening mobile
communications to all sections of population.

The GSM1800 has 2 x 75 MHz in the frequency range around 1800 (1710-
1785; 1805-1880 MHz).

In 1997 the designation DCS1800 was changed to GSM1800 in order to

clarify the common standard.

GSM 1800
OF= 1710 MHZ, DD= 95 MHZ, B.W= 75 MHZ, GB=
20MHZ,
Carrier B.W= 200KHZ, Number of carriers= 374 carriers. [7]

1.2.3.5 The GSM system originally offers the following 4 features

 Voice service.
 SMS Services.
  Fax service.
 Data service , maximum Transfer rate 9.6Kbps

1.2.3.6 Data Service Limitation in GSM

 Limited capacity, 9.6 kbps.
 Uplink and downlink channels were allocated for the entire call time.
 The user consequently paid a lot, as charging was based on connection time
rather than being volume based.
 Connection set-up was slow, typically 20-25 secs.
 The fact that GSM was designed for voice and not data, meant that, on
average, 50% of radio resources were wasted as the transfer of data was
optimized for speech.
 To increase the data transmission rates, in GSM phase 2+ new bearer services
with rates comparable to or higher as ISDN are developed:
1. HSCSD (High Speed Circuit Switched Data).
2. GPRS (General Packet Radio Services).
3. EDGE (Enhanced Data Rates for the GSM Evolution). [7]

1.2.3.7 High Speed Circuit Switched Data [HSCSD]

In HSCSD technology a single user can use several time slots rather than one time
slot as in GSM, in current commercial applications the maximum is four time
slots.

The total bit rate then is the number of time slots multiplied by the bit rate of one
time slot.

However, HSCSD is a circuit switching technology which means that the HSCSD
allocates the time slots constantly even when nothing is being transmitted. This
feature makes HSCSD a good choice for real-time applications.

1.2.4 General packet radio service “GPRS” (2.5G)

GPRS gives GSM subscribers access to data communication applications such as e-
mail, corporate networks, and the Internet using their mobile phones.

The GPRS service uses the existing GSM network and adds new packet-switching
network equipment.

Existing GSM networks use circuit-switched technology to transfer information

(voice or data) between users. However, GPRS uses packet switching, which means
there is no dedicated circuit assigned to the GPRS mobile phone. A physical channel
is established dynamically, only when data is being transferred. Once the data has
been sent, the resource (a timeslot on the air interface) can be re-allocated to other
users for more efficient use of the network.

When packet-switched data leaves the GPRS/GSM network, it is transferred to TCP-

IP networks such as the Internet or X.25. Thus, GPRS includes new transmission and
signaling procedures as well as new protocols for interworking with the IP world and
other standard packet networks.

To support high data rates, GPRS employs new air interface error coding schemes and
multiple timeslots, in a way similar to HSCSD (high-speed circuit-switched data).
Theoretically we can get a maximum data rate of 171.2 kbps by using eight timeslots.
However, today this seems unlikely due to challenges of designing the mobile phones
and to inadequate air interface quality.

Because packet-switched communication allows noncontinuous assignment of

resources to a user, GPRS billing will not be based on connection time, but rather on
resource usage. [6]

1.2.4.1 GPRS Network Architecture

Fig 1.2.4 Network architecture of GPRS

 Channel code unit (CCU):
Inside the BTS also it is in GSM.

CCU function:

1. Radio measurements (SNR, BER, TA).

2. Selecting the channel scheme.

 Packet central unit (PCU):

Inside the BTS & BSC

PCU function:
1. Protocol conversion
2. It send radio blocks in packets
3. Radio Resource measurements (Radio block)
4. Scheduling of data management

 Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN):

The Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) is a primary component in the
GSM network using GPRS and is a new component in GSM.

The SGSN forwards incoming and outgoing IP packets addressed to/from

a mobile station that is attached within the SGSN service area.

SGSN function:

1. Mobility management
2. Location update
3. Paging
4. Attach (connected to GPRS)
5. Authentication
6. Start to ciphering
7. P-TMSI allocation
8. IMEI check
9. Routing of user packet
10. Traffic management
11. Collecting of charging data Records

 Charging Gateway Function(CGF):

Sending of collected charging data Records to billing system

 Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN):

Creation PDP
Screening and filtering
 collecting of charging data Records
Interworking with other PLMN or PDN.

1.2.4.2 The GPRS offers the following

GPRS technology brings many changes to the existing GSM network. Most of the
changes are amendments made by adding new blocks rather than by modifying
existing resources.

A simplified view of this new hybrid network shows the elements introduced by
GPRS

 Enhancement of GSM data transfer capabilities.

 A new set of bearer services.
 A new kind of “data-pipe”.
 Focus on IP-networking.
 Quality of Service categories.
 Packet switching technology.
 Efficient use of air interface resources.
 Volume based traffic.
 Always connected.
 High data rate up to 171.2 kbps

1.2.4.3 GPRS Applications

It is probable that once a wireless Internet infrastructure is in place, it will be used in
ways that we cannot predict. This is all the more likely as parallel developments in
technology will, for example, raise the computing power of a wireless terminal by a
factor of hundreds.

 With GPRS a new complete solution to mobile computing is available.

 It is possible to build cars with GPRS communication facilities.
 This would provide GPRS subscribers with the opportunity to utilize
their laptops while traveling on the bus or train.
 GPRS will make the work of journalists and photographers easier and
cheaper. [7]
1.2.5 Enhanced Data Rate for the GSM “EDGE” (2.75G)
EDGE is implemented as an enhancement for 2G and 2.5G GSM and GPRS
networks, making it easier for existing GSM carriers to upgrade to it to increase the
rate of data.

EDGE is able to realize up to 69.2 kbit/s per physical channel though the change of
the GSM modulation procedure (8PSK instead of GMSK). Theoretically,
transmission rates of up to 553.6 kbit/s (meeting 3G requirements) would be possible
by combining up to 8 channels. A combination of GPRS and EDGE could offer
optimum usage of Inter- and Intranet, ensuring highest economy in frequency
resource utilization at the same time.

1.2.6 Universal Mobile Telecommunications System

“UMTS” (3G)
1.2.6.1 About UMTS:
Third generation systems are designed for multimedia communication: with them
person-to- person communication can be enhanced with high quality images and
video, and access to information and services on public and private networks will be
enhanced by the higher data rates and new flexible communication capabilities of
third generation systems.
In the standardization forums, WCDMA technology has emerged as the most widely
adopted third generation air interface. Its specification has been created in 3GPP (the
3rd Generation Partnership Project), which is the joint standardization project of the
standardization bodies from Europe, Japan, Korea, the USA and China. Within
3GPP, WCDMA is called UTRA (Universal Terrestrial Radio Access) FDD
(Frequency Division Duplex) and TDD (Time Division Duplex), the name WCDMA
being used to cover both FDD and TDD operation.

1.2.6.2 What is the UMTS

 UMTS is envisioned as the successor to Global System for Mobile
Communications (GSM). UMTS signals the move into the third generation
(3G) of mobile networks.

 UMTS also addresses the growing demand of mobile and Internet

applications for new capacity in the overcrowded mobile communications
sky.

 The new network increases transmission speed to 2 Mbps per mobile user and
establishes a global .roaming standard.
1.2.6.3 IMT 2000
The main characteristics of 3G systems, known collectively as IMT–2000, are a
single family of compatible standards that have the following characteristics:
1. Used worldwide.
2. Used for all mobile applications.
3. Support both packet-switched (PS) and circuit-switched (CS) data
transmission.
4. Offer high data rates up to 2 Mbps (depending on mobility/velocity).
IMT–2000 is a set of requirements defined by the International Telecommunications
Union (ITU). [7]
The most important IMT–2000 proposals are the UMTS (W-CDMA) as the
successor to GSM.

Fig 1.2.5 IMT-2000

UMTS is being developed by Third-Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), a joint

venture of several SDOs—ETSI (Europe), Association of Radio Industries and
Business/Telecommunication Technology Committee (ARIB/TTC) (Japan),
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) T-1 (USA).

1.2.6.4 3GPP (3rd Generation Partnership Project)

In December 1998, five regional standards organizations (Japan: ARIB and TTC,
Europe: ETSI, South Korea: TTA, USA: T1) agreed to found a new global
standardization body. The objective of this body, known as 3GPP, is the joint
standardization, testing and continued development of UMTS.

The UMTS (3G) Standard drafted by the 3GPP is based on the success and
experiences of the GSM Standard.
1.2.6.5 Improvements in UMTS
1. Improved speech quality.
2. User-friendliness.
3. World-wide access.
4. World-wide HPLMN services.
5. Specific service definition.
6. Fast transfer of large data (Inter-/Intranet, File Transfer, E-Mail, Multimedia).

1.2.6.6 GSM to UMTS Evolution

 The UMTS strategy was changed with the publication of the ETSI GMN (Global
Multimedia Mobility) Reports 1996.
 The UMTS Network are how to be designed on the basis of the existing GSM
infrastructure and are to be down ward compatible with GSM – UMTS has a
modular design for the Reason.

Fig 1.2.6 GSM to UMTS Evolution

1.2.6.7 Frequency Bands in UMTS

Fig 1.2.7 UMTS Frequency Band

 A recommendation for the national authorities for reserving frequencies for 3G
applications was passed on the initiation of the ITU-R at the World
Administrative Radio Conference in February 1992 (WARC-92). The frequency
ranges from 1885 – 2025 MHz and from 2110 – 2200 MHz are to be reserved
globally for 3G systems.

 They include frequency ranges for MSS's: 1980 - 2010 MHz and 2170 - 2200
MHz. [7]

1.2.6.8 UMTS Services

3G service capabilities for these services should take account of their discontinuous
and asymmetric nature in order to make efficient use of network resources. Basic
services provided in 3G networks are audio, video, facsimile transfer, data
communication, Internet services, e-mail/voice mail, paging, messaging, and
combinations of these i.e. multimedia.

1. High Security Data.

2. New Services

Video Conference
Video Streaming
Internet
LAN
3. World Wide Roaming

4. Multi-environment Support

5. High Quality of Voice & Services

6. Low Cost

2.6.9 Overview on UMTS Network

The UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network UTRAN is connected to the enhanced
Phase 2+ CN via IU interface. The GSM Base Station Subsystem BSS and UTRAN
can be connected to the same CN. The GSM Mobile Station MS is connected to the
GSM BSS via GSM radio interface Um, the UMTS User Equipment UE to UTRAN
via UMTS radio interface Uu. [6]
 Fig 1.2.8 UMTS Network

1. Characteristic of UE
High Data Rate up to 2Mbps.

High Services Quality & High Voice Quality.

Support of Typical Services.

2. Functions of Access Network:

Radio Resource Management.

Call Setup & Handover.

Helps User Access to Core Network.

3. Functions of Core Network:

Inter-working with other Networks.

Support or Supervision of User Services.

Switching & Transmission.

4. CS Domain:

The CS Domain of the UMTS CN consists of the following

functions:
MSC: Mobile Services switching Center.

GMSC: Gateway MSC.

SMS-GMSC: Short Message Services Gateway MSC.

 SMS-IWMSC: Short Message Services Interworking MSC.
Fig 1.2.9 CS Domain
VLR: Visitor Location Register.

TC/IWF: Transcoding & Interworking function.

5. PS Domain:
The PS Domain of the UMTS CN consists of the following
functions:
GGSN: Gateway GPRS Support Node.

SGSN: Serving GPRS Support Node.

CGF: Charging Gateway Function.

Fig 1.2.10 PS Domain

6. Common Elements:
 HLR: Home Location Register.
 AUC: Authentication Center.
 EIR: Equipment Identity Register.
 CSE: CAMEL Service Environment

Fig 1.2.11 Common Elements

7. The UTRAN:
Consists of the following functions:

RNC: Radio Network Controller.

Node B.

UE: User Equipment.

Fig 1.2.12 The UTRAN

2.6.10 UMTS Architecture:

 Fig 1.2.13 UMTS Architecture

1. User Equipment (UE):

 The UE consists of two parts:
The Mobile Equipment (ME) is the radio terminal used for radio
communication over the Uu interface.

The UMTS Subscriber Identity Module (USIM) is a smartcard that holds

the subscriber identity, performs authentication algorithms, and stores
authentication and encryption keys and some subscription information that
is needed at the terminal.

2. Node B:
Node B's are controlled and addressed
by an RNC. A Node B is a physical
unit for implementation of the UMTS
radio interface. It is converting the
physical transmission of the data from
fixed network transmission (ATM
Fig 1.2.14 Sectorization
based) to WCDMA transmission.

3. Radio network controller:

The Radio Network Controller RNC is the central controlling unit of a RNS. It is
controlling itself and all the Node Bs of the RNS. The main task of the RNC is to
perform Radio Resource Management RRM for all UEs in its service area.
Allocation of Radio Channels

Release of Radio Channels

Monitoring & Maintain of Link Quality

 Handover Control

Separation of Circuit Switching Traffic & Packet Switching Traffic

Macro Diversity Combining & Splitting

Fig 1.2.15 Radio Network Controller

1.2.6.11 UMTS Frequencies

The UMTS frequency starts from 1920MHz to 2170 MHz in the up and the uplink
and the downlink it take a band
of 60MHz as GSM but the
CDMA RF carrier are 5MHz
wide. We separate the uplink
than the downlink with a duplex
distance of 190MHz.
Fig 1.2.16 UMTS Frequencies

1.2.7 High Speed Downlink Packet Access “HSDPA” (3.5G)

2.7.1 About HSDPA
High speed downlink packet access (HSDPA) is a digital packet-based service in the
3GPP W-CDMA radio format,  introduced in release 5 of the 3GPP specifications.
HSDPA which employs adaptive modulation and coding to continually reconfigure
the downlink, optimizing data throughput for each user depending on the
instantaneous quality of the link, and is expected to provide higher data throughput
(up to 14.4 Mbps in the W-CDMA downlink). R99 W-CDMA uses QPSK
modulation, while HSDPA can utilize 16QAM when the link quality permits and
supports up to 15 multicodes.

The basic downlink channel configuration consists of one or more HS-PDSCHs,

along with an associated  DPCH combined with a number of separate shared physical
control channels (HS-SCCH). The group of HS-SCCHs allocated to the UE at a
given time is called an HS-SCCH set, and more than one set can be used in one given
cell. The UE is provided one HS-SCCH set per HS-PDSCH configuration. HSDPA
also includes an uplink channel, the HS-DPCCH, that provides critical feedback
information from the UE to the BTS, such as the channel quality indicator (CQI) and
ACK/NACK data.

High-speed data is transmitted on the HS-DSCH, while the associated signaling

information is transmitted by the HS-SCCH. There can be a maximum of four HS-
SCCH channels. For each HS-DSCH  transmission time interval (TTI) each HS-
SCCH carries the HS-DSCH related downlink signal information for one UE. The
signal information on the HS-SCCH includes:

 Channelization-code set information

 Modulation scheme information
 Transport-block size information
 Hybrid-ARQ process information
 Redundancy and constellation version
 New data indicator
 UE identity [6]

1.2.7.2 HSDPA Network Architecture

Fig 2.17 Network architecture of HSDPA

2.7.3 What are the requirements for HSPA?

 Data Rate
Demand for higher peak data rates
 Delay
Lower latency
 Capacity
 Better capacity and throughput, Better spectrum efficiency, Finer resource
granularity
 Coverage
Better coverage for higher data rate

2.7.4 Applications of HSDPA

 Voice-over-IP (VoIP)
Low latency, Quality of Service (QoS) control, fine resource granularity and
improved capacity
 Video Telephony (in Packet Switched domain)
Low latency, Quality of Service (QoS) control, high data rates and improved
coverage and capacity
 Gaming
Low latency, fast resource allocation
 Video Share / Picture Share
High Uplink data rates and improved coverage and capacity
 File Uploading (large files)
High Uplink data rates and improved coverage and capacity

1.2.7.5 How will HSDPA address the limitations of UMTS?

 Multi-Code operation
 Adaptive modulation and coding
QPSK and 16-QAM Coding from R=1/3 to R=1 Fast feedback of channel
condition
 Improve transmission efficiency
Fast retransmission and Physical Layer
HARQ
 Fast resource management
Node B scheduling
 Reduce transmission latency
2 ms TTI
 Modulation (16-QAM)
Data Rate with 16-QAM : 7.2 Mbps X
2 = 14.4 Mbps

Fig 2.18 16-QAM

1.2.8 High Speed Uplink Packet Access “HSUPA” (3.75G)

2.8.1 About HSUPA
 HSUPA (high speed uplink packet access) is a digital packet based service in the
3GPP W-CDMA radio format introduced in release 6 of the 3GPP specifications.
HSUPA is expected to provide higher data throughput (up to 5.76 Mbps in the W-
CDMA uplink) through the use of numerous spreading factor combinations.

Several new physical channels are added to provide and support high-speed data
transmission for the Enhanced Data Channel (E-DCH). As shown in the figure
below, two new code-multiplexed uplink channels are added:

 E-DCH Dedicated Physical Channel (E-DPDCH)

 E-DCH Dedicated Control Channel (E-DPCCH)

Similarly, three new channels are added to the downlink:

 E-DCH HARQ Acknowledgement Indicator Channel (E-HICH)
 E-DCH Absolute Grant Channel (E-AGCH)
 E-DCH Relative Grant Channel (E-RGCH)

The E-DCH subframes can be either 2 ms or 10 ms in length. The corresponding E-

DPDCH carries the payload data, and the E-DPCCH carries the control data which
consists of the E-TFCI, RSN and Happy bit.

In the downlink, the E-HICH carries the HARQ protocol for the corresponding E-
DPDCH, while the E-AGCH provides an absolute limitation of the maximum
amount of uplink resources the UE may use. The E-RGCH controls the resource
limitations by increasing or decreasing the limitations with respect to the previous
value. [6]

1.2.9 High Speed Packet Access plus “HSPA+” (3.75G+)

1.2.9.1 About HSPA +
HSPA+ (High Speed Packet Access Plus) is also known as HSPA Evolution and
Evolved HSPA. HSPA+  was standardized in 3GPP Release 7 and Release 8.
HSPA+ will apply some of the techniques developed for Long Term Evolution
(LTE) and allow operators to extend the life of their HSPA networks. 3G Americas
initiated proposals at 3GPP to lead the development of the HSPA+ standards which
now have received wide scale commitments from operators.

HSPA+ will bring improved support and performance for real-time conversational
and interactive services such as Push-to-Talk over Cellular (PoC), picture and video
sharing, and Video and Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) through the introduction
of features like Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO) antennas, Continuous
Packet Connectivity (CPC) and Higher Order Modulations.
 Fig 1.2.19The HSPA+ evolution

Some of the key features of HSPA+ include the following:

 HSPA+ is a simple upgrade to today’s HSPA networks, protecting an operator’s

investment in the network. HSPA+ enhancements are backward-compatible with
UMTS Release 99/Release 5/Release 6

 HSPA+ provides a strategic performance roadmap advantage for incumbent

GSM-HSPA operators providing OFDMA-equivalent performance in 5X5 MHz
spectrum allocations with only incremental investment. HSPA+ could match, and
possibly exceed, the potential performance capabilities of IEEE 802.16e-2005
(mobile WiMAX) in the same amount of spectrum, and could match LTE
performance when using 5 MHz of spectrum.

 HSPA+ will significantly increase HSPA capacity as well as reduce latency

below 50 milliseconds (ms)

 The first phase of HSPA+ with 64 QAM has already been deployed
commercially and is providing peak theoretical downlink throughput rates of 21
Mbps

 HSPA+ with 64 QAM and advanced antenna techniques such as 2X2 MIMO can
deliver 42 Mbps theoretical capability and 11.5 Mbps on the uplink and could be
ready for deployment in 2010
 Smooth interworking will be provided between HSPA+ and LTE that facilitates
operation of both technologies. As such, operators may choose to leverage the
System Architecture Evolution/Evolved Packet Core (SAE/EPC) planned for
LTE.

 HSPA+ supports voice and data services on the same carrier and across all of the
available radio spectrum and offers these services simultaneously to users

HSPA+ is an affordable and incremental upgrade to existing HSPA networks. It

provides a tremendous advantage to HSPA operators, which is not an option for
CDMA operators who are already unable to compete with the higher data throughput
performance of HSPA and have no future evolution commercially viable for
enhancement to their EV-DO  networks today. Because it offers impressive
performance at an incremental cost, some HSPA operators plan to use HSPA+ as a
companion to LTE.

Telstra in Australia, Starhub in Singapore, CSL in Hong Kong and Mobilkom

Austria in Central and Eastern Europe were the first operators to launch commercial
HSPA+ networks in early 2009, initially providing peak theoretical download speeds
of 21 Mbps. Several operators such as Telstra plan to upgrade their  networks to 42
Mbps in the short term.  [6]

1.9.2.2 Multicarrier Further Enhances the Broadband Experience

The multicarrier feature aggregates multiple 5 MHz HSPA carriers, creating a fatter
data pipe and thus providing an enhanced mobile broadband experience to all users
in the cell

The initial HSPA+ R8 implementation of multicarrier supports two aggregated

downlink (DL) carriers that will double the user data rates to all users across the cell
—all the way to the cell edge. Furthermore, the peak data rates scales with the
bandwidth and doubles to 42 Mbps in the downlink in 10 MHz (without MIMO in
R84).

Fig 2.20 Multicarrier further enhances the broadband experience

Multicarrier thus allows subscribers to enjoy an enhanced broadbandexperience with

quicker overall network responses thanks to the higher data rates. This is especially
beneficial for bursty applications like Web browsing in which the user can be served
twice as fast compared to a single carrier and experience 50% reduced over-the-air
latency.

Fig 1.2.21 R8 Multicarrier doubles user data rates to all users in the cell5
Multicarrier is typically a cost-effective software upgrade to the Node B that allows
for incremental introduction—multicarrier can be introduced in high demand areas or
even single sites with seamless interoperability with single carrier deployments.
Multicarrier leverages spectrum resources better through dynamic load balancing
across carriers and improved trunking efficiency, creating a better network
performance as data services increase. Multicarrier mainly enhances the broadband
experience, but can also provide significant capacity improvement for bursty
applications over partially loaded carriers.

As shown in Figure, multicarrier can support significantly more bursty applications

users, like Web browsing, compared to two single carriers for the same user
experience (latency) in partially loaded networks.
 Fig 1.2.22 R8 Multicarrier capacity vs. latency tradeoff6
Networks are not typically fully loaded all the time and multicarrier could double the
bursty application capacity compared to two single carriers. A multicarrier
deployment approaching a fully loaded network scenario will resemble the full buffer
scenario and provide limited capacity gain even for bursty applications.

1.2.9.3 Characteristics of 3GPP technologies

 Table 1.2.1 Characteristics of 3GPP technologies

1.2.9.4 Overview of LTE

The multiple access scheme in LTE downlink uses Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiple Access (OFDMA) and uplink uses Single Carrier Frequency Division
Multiple Access (SC-FDMA). These multiple access solutions provide orthogonality
between the users, reducing the interference and improving the network capacity.
The resource allocation in the frequency domain takes place with a resolution of 180
kHz resource blocks both in uplink and in downlink.

The frequency dimension in the packet scheduling is one reason for the high LTE
capacity.

The uplink user specific allocation is continuous to enable single carrier transmission
while the downlink can use resource blocks freely from different parts of the
spectrum. The uplink single carrier solution is also designed to allow efficient
terminal power amplifier design, which is relevant for the terminal battery life. The
LTE solution enables spectrum flexibility where the transmission bandwidth can be
selected between 1.4 MHz and 20 MHz depending on the available spectrum. The 20
MHz bandwidth can provide up to 150 Mbps downlink user data rate with 2 × 2
MIMO, and 300 Mbps with 4 × 4 MIMO. The uplink peak data rate is 75 Mbps.

 Peak data rate evolution of 3GPP technologies

Fig 1.2.23 data rates evolution of 3GPP

And we will show this system at Chapter 3 in details.