Dr. S.

Alexander Reed

Set Theory: Identifying and Notating a Set in Prime Form

Set Theory is a method of analysis particularly useful for understanding and composing
atonal music. The first step in applying this approach is to identify and notate a set in its
prime form.

1. Select a structurally significant group of pitches in the score. This is your SET.

2. Assuming enharmonic and octave equivalence, determine the distinct pitches in the set
by number (as per the keyboard here). These are PITCH CLASSES.

3. Put brackets around the pitch classes and arrange them in a pitchwise ascending order
so that the distance between the outermost pitches is smallest. (Remember that the
octave wraps around — 11 goes next to 0!)
If the smallest outer distance is the same in more than one possible order, choose from
among those the order with the smallest distance between the first two pitch classes.

This is the NORMAL FORM.

4. Transpose the set to begin on zero.

5. Find the set’s INVERSION by first mapping all ascending intervals from 0 downwards
instead. The pitch classes’ inversions will be as follows:

PITCH CLASS 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
INVERSION 0 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Then reverse the pitch classes’ order to put the set in ascending order. This is now the
normal form of the inversion.

Finally, transpose this to begin on zero, just like before

6. Compare your original set with its inversion. Whichever is more compact (as per step 3)
is the PRIME FORM of your set.
Example for analysis:

• Are there convenient units of division in this short piece from which to determine and
analyze sets?

• If so, what is the harmonic relation between these sections?

• How/why does the piece’s final gesture achieve the effect of a cadence?

Broader questions

• By what criteria does one (instinctually or otherwise) decide a group of pitches should
be considered a set?

• Might sets’ mutual exclusion or inclusion of one another be a basis for understanding
larger musical structures?

• What happens when sets include all 12 pitches? Does their order of occurrence
become more important?

• Can the distribution of different possible intervals between pitch classes in a set tell us
anything about a piece of music?

• Can set theory be useful for analyzing tonal music?

• What about sets based not on pitch, but duration? Dynamics? Timbre?

Recommended sources for further consideration

Forte, Allen. The Structure of Atonal Music. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1973.

Lester, Joel. Analytic Approaches to Twentieth-Century Music. New York: W. W. Norton, 1989.

http://www.jaytomlin.com/music/settheory/
[An online set calculator with a good introduction to set theory.]