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To accurately control process temperature without extensive operator involvement, a


Buy Temperature Controllers

‡ Temperature Controller Product temperature control system relies upon a controller, which accepts a temperature
Finder sensor such as a thermocouple or RTD as input. It compares the actual temperature to
‡ Benchtop and Wallmount the desired control temperature, or setpoint, and provides an output to a control
Temperature Controllers element. The controller is one part of the entire control system, and the whole system
‡ Multi-loop Temperature should be analyzed in selecting the proper controller. The following items should be
Controllers
‡ Safety Limit Temperature
considered when selecting a controller:
Controllers
‡ Temperature Switches j Type of input sensor (thermocouple, RTD) and temperature range
‡ 1/32 and 1/16 DIN Autotune 2. Type of output required (electromechanical relay, SSR, analog output)
Temperature 

3. Control algorithm needed (on/off, proportional, PID)

‡ 1/8 DIN Autotune Controllers
‡ Autotune Controllers with
4. Number and type of outputs (heat, cool, alarm, limit)
Programmable Multicolored
Display á






 


 
á
‡ Safety Limit Controllers There are three basic types of controllers: on-off, proportional and PID. Depending upon
‡ Multi-loop Controllers the system to be controlled, the operator will be able to use one type or another to
‡ SCR's, SSR's, Contactors and control the process.
Power Controllers
  

‡ Meter and Controller

 

Accessories
‡ Temperature Switches and Low An on-off controller is the simplest form of temperature control device. The output from
Cost Controllers the device is either on or off, with no middle state. An on-off controller will switch the



output only when the temperature crosses the setpoint. For heating control, the output is
on when the temperature is below the setpoint, and off above setpoint. Since the
temperature crosses the setpoint to change the output state, the process temperature


   

 
will be cycling continually, going from below setpoint to above, and back below. In cases
where this cycling occurs rapidly, and to prevent damage to contactors and valves, an
on-off differential, or ³hysteresis,´ is added to the controller operations. This differential
requires that the temperature exceed setpoint by a certain amount before the output will


‡ Introduction to Temperature turn off or on again. On-off differential prevents the output from ³chattering´ or making
Controllers and Selection
fast, continual switches if the cycling above and below the setpoint occurs very rapidly.
Considerations (PDF file)
‡ Temperature Control: Tuning On-off control is usually used where a precise control is not necessary, in systems
a PID Controller (PDF file) which cannot handle having the energy turned on and off frequently, where the mass of
‡ Controller Operation (PDF the system is so great that temperatures change extremely slowly, or for a temperature
file) alarm. One special type of on-off control used for alarm is a limit controller. This
‡ Fuzzy Logic controller uses a latching relay, which must be manually reset, and is used to shut down
‡ SSR Thermal a process when a certain temperature is reached.
Considerations(PDF file)
‡ Solid State Relays (PDF file) 
 

‡ Frequently Asked
Temperature Questions (PDF
Proportional controls are designed to eliminate the cycling associated with on-off control.
file) A proportional controller decreases the average power supplied to the heater as the
‡ Introduction to Temperature temperature approaches setpoint. This has the effect of slowing down the heater so that
Measurement it will not overshoot the setpoint, but will approach the setpoint and maintain a stable
‡ Temperature Measurement temperature. This proportioning action can be accomplished by turning the output on
and Control Glossary and off for short time intervals. This "time proportioning" varies the ratio of ³on´ time to
‡ Practical Guidelines for "off" time to control the temperature. The proportioning action occurs within a
Temperature Measurement
  

³proportional band´ around the setpoint temperature. Outside this band, the controller
‡ Temperature Conversion functions as an on-off unit, with the output either fully on (below the band) or fully off
Chart Between C and F
‡ Temperature Conversion
(above the band). However, within the band, the output is turned on and off in the ratio
Chart Between C and F  of the measurement difference from the setpoint. At the setpoint (the midpoint of the


proportional band), the output on:off ratio is 1:1; that is, the on-time and off-time are
  
equal. if the temperature is further from the setpoint, the on- and off-times vary in
    
 
proportion to the temperature difference. If the temperature is below setpoint, the output
will be on longer; if the temperature is too high, the output will be off longer.

=

The third controller type provides proportional with integral and derivative control, or PID.
This controller combines proportional control with two additional adjustments, which
helps the unit automatically compensate for changes in the system. These adjustments,
integral and derivative, are expressed in time-based units; they are also referred to by
their reciprocals, RESET and RATE, respectively. The proportional, integral and
derivative terms must be individually adjusted or ³tuned´ to a particular system using trial


and error. It provides the most accurate and stable control of the three controller types,
and is best used in systems which have a relatively small mass, those which react
quickly to changes in the energy added to the process. It is recommended in systems
where the load changes often and the controller is expected to compensate
automatically due to frequent changes in setpoint, the amount of energy available, or the


The Miniature CN77000 is a full

mass to be controlled.
featured microprocessor-based OMEGA offers a number of controllers that automatically tune themselves. These are
temperature controller in a 1/16 known as autotune controllers.
DIN package. 

 



Since temperature controllers are generally mounted inside an instrument panel, the
panel must be cut to accommodate the temperature controller. In order to provide
interchangeability between temperature controllers, most temperature controllers are
designed to standard DIN sizes. The most common DIN sizes are shown below.


 

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Building automation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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 describes the functionality provided by the control system of a building. A building
automation system (BAS) is an example of a distributed control system. The control system is a
computerized, intelligent network of electronic devices, designed to monitor and control the mechanical
and lighting systems in a building.

BAS core functionality keeps the building climate within a specified range, provides lighting based on an
occupancy schedule, and monitors system performance and device failures and provides email and/or
text notifications to building engineering staff. The BAS functionality reduces building energy and
maintenance costs when compared to a non-controlled building. A building controlled by a BAS is often
referred to as anintelligent building system.

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[ edit]Topology
Most building automation networks consist of a ?
 and   bus which connect high-level
controllers (generally specialized for building automation, but may be generic programmable logic
controllers) with lower-level controllers, input/output devices and a user interface(also known as a
human interface device).

The primary and secondary bus can be BACnet, optical fiber, ethernet, ARCNET, RS-232, RS-
485 or a wireless network.

Most controllers are proprietary. Each company has its own controllers for specific applications. Some
are designed with limited controls: for example, a simple Packaged Roof Top Unit. Others are designed to
be flexible. Most have proprietary software that will work with ASHRAE'sBACnet or the
proprietary LonTalk.

Inputs and outputs are either analog or digital (some companies say binary).

Analog inputs are used to read a variable measurement. Examples

are temperature, humidity and pressure sensor which could be thermistor,4-20 mA, 0-
10 volt or platinum resistance thermometer (resistance temperature detector), or wireless
sensors.

A digital input indicates if a device is turned on or not. Some examples of a digital input would be a
24VDC/AC signal, an air flow switch, or a volt-free relay contact.

Analog outputs control the speed or position of a device, such as a variable frequency drive, a I-P
(current to pneumatics) transducer, or a valve or damper actuator. An example is a hot water
valve opening up 25% to maintain a setpoint.

Digital outputs are used to open and close relays and switches. An example would be to turn on the
parking lot lights when a photocellindicates it is dark outside.

[ edit]Infrastructure
[edit]


Controllers are essentially small, purpose-built computers with input and output capabilities. These
controllers come in a range of sizes and capabilities to control devices commonly found in buildings, and
to control sub-networks of controllers.

Inputs allow a controller to read temperatures, humidity, pressure, current flow, air flow, and other
essential factors. The outputs allow the controller to send command and control signals to slave devices,
and to other parts of the system. Inputs and outputs can be either digital or analog.

Controllers used for building automation can be grouped in 3 categories. Programmable Logic Controllers
(PLCs), System/Network controllers, and Terminal Unit controllers. However an additional device can also
exist in order to integrate 3rd party systems (i.e. a stand-alone AC system) into a central Building
automation system).

PLC's provide the most responsiveness and processing power, but at a unit cost typically 2 to 3 times
that of a System/Network controller intended for BAS applications. Terminal Unit controllers are usually
the least expensive and least powerful.

PLC's may be used to automate high-end applications such as clean rooms or hospitals where the cost
of the controllers is a lesser concern.

In office buildings, supermarkets, malls, and other common automated buildings the systems will use
System/Network controllers rather than PLC's. Most System controllers provide general
purpose feedback loops, as well as digital circuits, but lack the millisecond response time that PLC's
provide.
System/Network controllers may be applied to control one or more mechanical systems such as an Air
Handler Unit (AHU), boiler, chiller, etc., or they may supervise a sub-network of controllers. In the diagram
above, System/Network controllers are often used in place of PLCs.

Terminal Unit controllers usually are suited for control of lighting and/or simpler devices such as a
package rooftop unit, heat pump, VAV box, or fan coil, etc. The installer typically selects 1 of the available
pre-programmed personalities best suited to the device to be controlled, and does not have to create new
control logic.

[edit] 
Occupancy is one of 2 or more operating modes for a building automation system. Unoccupied, Morning
Warmup, and Night-time Setback are other common modes.

Occupancy is usually based on time of day schedules. In Occupancy mode, the BAS aims to provides a
comfortable climate and adequate lighting, often with zone-based control so that users on one side of a
building have a different thermostat (or a different system, or sub system) than users on the opposite
side.

A temperature sensor in the zone provides feedback to the controller, so it can deliver heating or cooling
as needed.

If enabled, Morning Warmup (MWU) mode occurs prior to Occupancy. During Morning Warmup the BAS
tries to bring the building to setpointjust in time for Occupancy. The BAS often factors in outdoor
conditions and historical experience to optimize MWU. This is also referred to as Optimised Start.

An override is a manually-initiated command to the BAS. For example, many wall-mounted temperature
sensors will have a push-button that forces the system into Occupancy mode for a set number of minutes.
Where present, web interfaces allow users to remotely initiate an override on the BAS.

Some buildings rely on occupancy sensors to activate lighting and/or climate conditioning. Given the
potential for long lead times before a space becomes sufficiently cool or warm, climate conditioning is not
often initiated directly by an occupancy sensor.

[edit] 
 
Lighting can be turned on and off with a building automation system based on time of day, or on
[1]
occupancy sensors, photosensors and timers. One typical example is to turn the lights in a space on for
a half hour since the last motion was sensed. A photocell placed outside a building can sense darkness,
and the time of day, and modulate lights in outer offices and the parking lot.

[edit] 

Most air handlers mix return and outside air so less temperature change is needed. This can save money
by using less chilled or heated water (not all AHUs use chilled/hot water circuits). Some external air is
needed to keep the building's air healthy.

Analog or digital temperature sensors may be placed in the space or room, the return and supply air
ducts, and sometimes the external air. Actuators are placed on the hot and chilled water valves, the
outside air and return air dampers. The supply fan (and return if applicable) is started and stopped based
on either time of day, temperatures, building pressures or a combination.

[edit] 

!
 "   


The less efficient type of air-handler is a "constant volume air handling unit," or CAV. The fans in CAVs do
not have variable-speed controls. Instead, CAVs open and close dampers and water-supply valves to
maintain temperatures in the building's spaces. They heat or cool the spaces by opening or closing chilled
or hot water valves that feed their internal heat exchangers. Generally one CAV serves several
spaces, but large buildings may have many CAVs.

[edit]#  $
!
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A more efficient unit is a "variable air volume (VAV) air-handling unit," or VAV. VAVs supply
pressurized air to VAV boxes, usually one box per room or area. A VAV air handler can change the
pressure to the VAV boxes by changing the speed of a fan or blower with a variable frequency
drive or (less efficiently) by moving inlet guide vanes to a fixed-speed fan. The amount of air is
determined by the needs of the spaces served by the VAV boxes.

Each VAV box supply air to a small space, like an office. Each box has a damper that is opened or closed
based on how much heating or cooling is required in its space. The more boxes are open, the more air is
required, and a greater amount of air is supplied by the VAV air-handling unit.

Some VAV boxes also have hot water valves and an internal heat exchanger. The valves for hot and cold
water are opened or closed based on the heat demand for the spaces it is supplying. These heated VAV
boxes are sometimes used on the perimeter only and the interior zones are cooling only.

A minimum and maximum CFM must be set on VAV boxes to assure adequate ventilation and proper air
balance.

[edit]## $



Another variation is a hybrid between VAV and CAV systems. In this system, the interior zones operate
as in a VAV system. The outer zones differ in that the heating is supplied by a heating fan in a central
location usually with a heating coil fed by the building boiler. The heated air is ducted to the exterior dual
duct mixing boxes and dampers controlled by the zone thermostat calling for either cooled or heated air
as needed.

[edit]

 

A central plant is needed to supply the air-handling units with water. It may supply a chilled water
system, hot water system and a condenser water system, as well
as transformers and auxiliary power unit for emergency power. If well managed, these can often
help each other. For example, some plants generate electric power at periods with peak demand, using a
gas turbine, and then use the turbine's hot exhaust to heat water or power an absorptive chiller.

[edit] 






Chilled water is often used to cool a building's air and equipment. The chilled water system will
have chiller(s) and pumps. Analog temperature sensors measure the chilled water supply and return
lines. The chiller(s) are sequenced on and off to chill the chilled water supply.

[edit] 







Cooling tower(s) and pumps are used to supply cool condenser water to the chillers. The
condenser water supply to the chillers has to be constant so, speed drives are commonly used on the
cooling tower fans to control temperature. Proper cooling tower temperature assures the proper
refrigerant head pressure in the chiller. The cooling tower set point used depends upon the refrigerant
being used. Analog temperature sensors measure the condenser water supply and return lines.

[edit]






The hot water system supplies heat to the building's air-handling unit or VAV box heating coils, along
with the domestic hot water heating coils (Calorifier). The hot water system will have a boiler(s) and
pumps. Analog temperature sensors are placed in the hot water supply and return lines. Some type of
mixing valve is usually used to control the heating water loop temperature. The boiler(s) and pumps are
sequenced on and off to maintain supply.

[edit]  


Many building automation systems have alarm capabilities. If an alarm is detected, it can be programmed
to notify someone. Notification can be through a computer, pager, cellular phone, or audible alarm.

m Common temperature alarms are: space, supply air, chilled water supply and hot water supply.
m Differential pressure switches can be placed on the filter to determine if it is dirty.
m Status alarms are common. If a mechanical device like a pump is requested to start, and the status
input indicates it is off. This can indicate a mechanical failure.
m Some valve actuators have end switches to indicate if the valve has opened or not.
m Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide sensors can be used to alarm if levels are too high.
m Refrigerant sensors can be used to indicate a possible refrigerant leak.
m Current sensors can be used to detect low current conditions caused by slipping fan belts, or clogging
strainers at pumps.

At sites with several buildings, momentary power failures can cause hundreds or thousands of alarms
from equipment that has shut down. Some sites are programmed so that critical alarms are automatically
re-sent at varying intervals. For example, a repeating critical alarm (of auninterruptible power
supply in 'by pass') might resound at 10 minutes, 30 minutes, and every 2 to 4 hours there after until the
alarms are resolved.

Security systems can be interlocked to a building automation system. If occupancy sensors are present,
they can also be used as burglar alarms.

Fire and smoke alarm systems can be hard-wired to override building automation. For example: if the
smoke alarm is activated, all the outside air dampers close to prevent air coming into the building, and an
exhaust system can isolate the alarmed area and activate an exhaust fan to move smoke out of the area.
Life safety applications are normally hard-wired to a mechanical device to override building automation
control.

[ edit]Room automation
þ 

 is a subset of Building automation and like it, is the consolidation of one or systems
under centralised control but in this case in just one room .

The most common example of   
 is corporate boardroom, presentation suites, and lecture
halls, where the operation of the large number of devices that define the room function (such
as Videoconferencing equipment, Video projectors, lighting control systems, Public
address systems etc.) would make manual operation of the room very complex. It is common for room
automation systems to employ atouchscreen as the primary way of controlling each operation.

[edit]R  



m [Alerton] Technologies
m AMX, LLC
m ASI Controls
m Automated Logic Corporation
m Beckhoff Automation
m Carrier Corporation
m Cisco Systems
m Citect
m Computrols, Inc.
m Crestron Electronics, Inc.
m Dynalite Intelligent Light Pty Ltd
m e-Home Automation
m EnOcean

 



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At Siemens Corporate Technology in Munich, Germany, when physicist Rainer Strzoda enters his work area and wants to
find out if the climate control system is working properly, all he needs to do is take a look at a small device on the wall.
Today, the prototype laser-optic sensor developed by Siemens scientists reads 400 ppm CO2. "That¶s a good value when
you consider that our atmosphere currently contains 380 ppm CO2," says Strzoda. "This means the room contains only a
little more carbon dioxide than the outside environment." As the day progresses, and Strzoda and his colleagues work on
their inventions and discuss their results, the CO2 reading slowly climbs to 600±700 ppm²solely because the scientists are
breathing.
Strzoda and his colleagues actually have it good. The air in most of the world¶s offices and conference rooms has a
CO2 content in excess of 1,000 ppm, the level at which people begin to feel uncomfortable and become tired and unfocused.
Most buildings still don¶t have CO2sensors²but this will soon change, according to Dr. Maximilian Fleischer, who heads
Strzoda¶s research group. His team has produced many sensor-related inventions that have resulted in new products from
Siemens. With around 150 patents to his name, Fleischer is one of Siemens¶ most productive inventors (see Pictures of the
Future, Fall 2004, Gas Sensorsand Fall 2006, Innovators ± Gombert).
Sensors for measuring light and temperature are widely used today. Gas sensors²micro electrical-mechanical systems
(MEMS) made of silicon chips and an oxidizing layer²are a relatively new development, however. These laser-optic
sensors are still in the early stages of their development, and it will be some time before they hit the market.
In contrast, the gallium oxide sensor²Fleischer¶s career breakthrough invention²has been measuring the CO content of
exhaust gas in thousands of small firing systems for years, thereby making it possible to optimize their energy output and
emissions.
In a completely different area of development, a new sensor from Siemens¶ research labs that measures alcohol content in a
person¶s breath may soon go into production, and Sweden has announced that it plans to become the first country to
combine it with a vehicle immobilizer to prevent intoxicated people from driving. This technology, which has been licensed
from Siemens, can also be used in trains, streetcars, and in connection with potentially dangerous machinery.
Until now, sensors were rarely used in buildings because they were too expensive and too difficult to install and maintain.
But recent advances in developing silicon-based sensor chips equipped with their own power source and radio module have
caught the attention of building operators. That¶s because such sensors can yield big savings. Intechno Consulting
estimates that the global annual market for gas sensor systems will be roughly ¼ 2.9 billion in 2010.
Sensors play a key role in all scenarios involving the future of building system technologies. "Houses will no longer be empty
shells; they will be intelligent systems that communicate with their occupants," says Dr. Osman Ahmed, who heads an
innovation team at Siemens Building Technology in Buffalo Grove, Illinois.
As soon as wireless-capable sensor chips can be produced cheaply, it will become feasible to link thousands of them in a
finely woven infrastructure in buildings. "We will eventually be able to use sensors to imitate nature," predicts Ahmed. Just
as our senses and nerves constantly supply our brains with information that allows us to make decisions, processors in
building management systems will be used to receive and process data from thousands of sensors, and then issue
appropriate commands to a variety of subsystems.
Combined with user information, building management systems will be able to perform many new services. Building users
will be able to inform such systems about when they will be arriving, which security mechanisms have to be used, and which
rooms to ventilate. A variety of sensors will ensure that management systems always know when a toilet is in need of repair,
where a corrosive substance has been released, or where people have gathered.
In their labs, Fleischer and his team are already developing sensors that can monitor air quality in buildings. "To accomplish
this, we need a chip that can measure at least four parameters: temperature, humidity, gases like CO2, and odors," says
Fleischer. To this end, he and his coworkers are studying detector materials to determine which reacts best with the gases
to be detected. In a cathode sputtering facility characterized by a mysterious blue-glowing plasma, the researchers are
producing sensor surfaces only a few millionths of a meter thick. And next door, in a related experiment, a small device that
uses a type of screen printing technique to detect gases is being studied. Which procedure is more suitable for gas detection
depends on the materials in question. The researchers place the desired combinations of the tiny oxidation surfaces they
produce side-by-side on field effect transistors (FETs) in a chip. Examples include a barium titanate-copper oxide-mixed
oxide combination for detecting CO2, and a gallium oxide with finely distributed platinum for detecting odors.
The substances being investigated in Fleischer¶s lab don¶t dock directly on a chip¶s surface, but flow as if through a tunnel
between a molecular capturing layer and the actual FET structure, causing a change in electrical resistance that the chip
can read and convert into signals. If the chip is equipped with a radio module, it can wirelessly send the data to a building
management system¶s control units.
Although Ahmed¶s vision of tomorrow¶s buildings may still seem like a stretch, initial steps in that direction have already been
taken. "Comfort demands are increasing," says Andreas Haas of Siemens Building Technologies in Switzer land. He
believes trends in building technologies will parallel those in cars, for which sophisticated climate control systems are now
standard.
However, building operators are most interested in the savings potential that sensor systems offer. After all, sensor cost a lot
less than renovating a building and, when combined with state-of-the-art optimized building automation, can produce even
greater savings. Haas estimates that precise room climate sensors, and air quality and presence sensors can reduce the
energy used for heating, ventilation, air conditioning, and lighting by 30 % compared to a building with conventional
automation technology.
Comfort is also affected by odors. "Rooms are often aired out only because they smell unpleasant," says Fleischer. This
needn¶t be the case, since ambient air can be cleaned using ozone, which bonds to odor-producing molecules and
neutralizes them by splitting them. This is why Siemens researchers are developing gas sensors that can recognize typical
room odors. The researchers have used 18 different gases, such as ethane, propene, and acetone to produce model odors.
Hexanal, for example, is used for tests of sensors designed to detect odors in carpets. The scientists are also working on
developing long-lasting odor sensors. "This kind of sensor needs to function for at least ten years if it¶s going to attract
interest on the market," says Fleischer. If such a sensor reports a bad odor in the air to the control system, the latter will
issue a command to release ozone. The sub sequent concentration of ozone can in turn be monitored by another type of
sensor in order to prevent negative side effects, such as respiratory tract irritation.
One of the main challenges in the development of gas sensors is the question of cross-sensitivities. That¶s because, if false
alarms are to be avoided, the detecting material on a chip must respond only to the substance being searched for.
This requirement also applies to fire alarms, of course, most of which still react optically to the presence of smoke. "But that
might be too late for people near the source of a fire who have already inhaled a toxic gas," says Fleischer. This is why
building operators are interested in acquiring devices that detect the specific gases typically associated with flames. Such
devices would be activated long before enough smoke could be produced to set off a conventional alarm. Such detectors ²
especially if combined with sensors for automated climate control ² are at the top of building operators¶ wish lists.
Siemens engineers are also working on non-chip sensors such as laser-optic devices that can remotely determine where
most of a gas in a room is concentrated. Just down the hall from the laser-optic sensor lab, doctoral student Rebekka
Kubisch is working with petri dishes full of a red fluid. The dishes are being used to grow cell cultures for "living" sensors that
can do things such as measure water quality. "We mount these cells on chips, expose them to toxins, and then observe the
types of reactions that result," she explains. At present she¶s examining how the skeletal muscle cells of rats react to various
waste water samples. Such living sensors offer tremendous advantages over chemical-based sensors because, while living
cells react to all toxins, with chemical sensors you have to know in advance which harmful substance you want to test for.
More importantly, living sensors could be used in green buildings that save energy by setting up as many closed cycles as
possible, for water and air, for example. "Highly sensitive early warning systems are critical here," says Fleischer. Looking
further ahead, Ahmed adds, "One day we¶re going to have buildings that don¶t require any energy from outside. We¶re going
to need a lot of intelligent products to get there, and multifunctional sensors are an important piece of this puzzle." Whatever
the future has in store, Siemens scientists have already done a lot to take us a step closer to this vision.
Katrin Nikolaus
 




  , also known as micro electrical-mechanical systems (MEMS, left), can detect chemical
substances, for example, in combustion gases or industrial processes. One way in which MEMS operate uses
semiconducting metal oxides laid down as a thin film on a chip. Any gas that docks with the sensor changes the electrical
resistance of the semiconductor material, and the resulting signal is then read out by the chip¶s processor. Siemens
scientists have now succeeded in placing different gas-sensitive receptors on one chip in order to be able to detect more
than one gas simultaneously.

"
 
 send a laser beam through a space in which a certain type of gas is to be detected. This could be
inside a boiler, or a gas line suspected of having a leak. Each gas has a corresponding type of laser diode that is particularly
suited to detecting it because the diode covers the spectral region in which the gas in question absorbs light. When the laser
beam hits a surface, it is reflected and the resulting light is registered by a photodiode. Here, the light of the laser that
passes through any gas present is absorbed more intensely than light that does not pass through the gas. The laser
sensor¶s photodiode can measure this difference. The least expensive laser diodes are those for detecting oxygen, which is
why laser-based oxygen sensors are the most commonly used laser-optic sensors in industry. Laser-optic gas analyzers
from Siemens are also used for monitoring waste gases from power plants. Scientists are also working on a laser-optic gas
sensor for fire alarm systems. Using a laser diode developed by Munich¶s Technical University that detects carbon monoxide
(an indicator of fire), Siemens scientist Rainer Strzoda recently built a prototype that is now undergoing initial testing.
! 
 use living cells to detect harmful substances. Skeletal muscle cells from rats and human liver cells have
proved to be particularly suitable here. The cells are cultivated in an incubator and then placed with a nutrient solution onto a
silicon chip, where they adhere to the surface. This chip is then placed in device from start-up Bionas, where it is exposed to
a stream of water that contains pollutants. The processor continuously measures several cell parameters and transmits the
data to a computer. The measured values are cell respiration (i.e. the cells¶ oxygen content), the acidification of the nutrient
solution due to cell metabolism, the cells¶ impedance²their adherence to the chip, the number of cells, and their form.
Pollutants change one or more of these parameters. The researchers¶ current objective is to increase the life span of such
sensors from a few days to several months.

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Redpine Signals, Inc. has announced a wireless sensor module that provides all the control and
wireless functionality required to build and deploy wireless sensor nodes.
The SenSiFi module, designated as RS9110-N-11-31, is based on the company's ultra low-power
Lite-Fi802.11n technology to provide the benefits of ultra low-power wireless connectivity and the
network capacity advantage of 802.11n to sensor networks in the industrial and enterprise arena.
The wireless sensor module offers a complete foundation for building sensor applications utilising its
onboard ultra low-power microcontroller and wireless sub-system. It is able to collect a full range of
telemetry information²including temperature, humidity, motion, light, pressure, location, and battery
level ± through standard analogue and digital sensor interfaces, says Redpine.

The microcontroller implements a small, embedded operating system on which multiple applications
can be built. The fully self-contained module includes standards-compliant WLAN functionality with
WPA2 security, a network stack that terminates TCP/IP and UDP connections with IPv6 capability,
and configuration capability through UART or wireless.

The module also includes a built-in antenna, frequency reference, power management, and flashed-
in firmware. The module is available in an easy-to-assemble 31mm x 44mm QFN package.

"Conventional sensor solutions have used a number of wireless transmission methods including
Zigbee, Bluetooth, and proprietary methods, while some use legacy 802.11b/g Wi-Fi, but as
enterprise networks embrace the 802.11n standard, designers need a solution such as ours that
supports the requirement for all clients, irrespective of bandwidth needs, to use the 802.11n
protocol," said Venkat Mattela, CEO of Redpine Signals.

The SenSiFi module is built for extremely low power consumption using system-level and profile-
driven fine-grained power control, a microcontroller with an ultra low-power mode working off a low-
frequency clock source, and a WLAN sub-system with multiple power modes.

With a single 3V, 2000mAh battery, and uploading sensor data every two minutes over an IPv6
framework, the wireless sensor module can achieve over three years of battery life. The high-
performance WLAN sub-system in the module further enhances range and effectiveness of data
transfer, at the same time providing energy savings.

The SenSiFi module is available for evaluation through a fully implemented evaluation board that
integrates temperature, humidity, and pressure sensors, an accelerometer, battery management,
full-functional firmware for WLAN protocol and device control, a configuration utility, and a web-
based tracking application that provides a graphical representation of sensor data.

Redpine also provides sample sensor management functions on the microcontroller, along with APIs
for applications development. The module is sampling now.
The SenSiFi module will be demonstrated at Redpine Signals' booth # 1606 at the Embedded
Systems Conference being held in San Jose McEnery Convention Centre from March 30 to April 3,
2009.

Home | Climate Change & You | Energy Saving Products | Energy Improvements | Home Information

Packs | Education | Contact Us

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The third and final step in becoming truly self-sufficient and eco-friendly is to produce your own energy. There are
many effective alternatives to fossil fuels that will help you to meet your energy requirements and reduce your home's
carbon dioxide emissions, and there are thousands of pounds in grants available for   household installing some
form of renewable energy. Browse the unbiased overviews below and contact us for quotes and grant assistance on
any of our guaranteed certified products.

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Solar Thermal - Back to top

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o2500 o40 300kg -Planning permission may be required, particularly if your prop
is listed or in a conservation area.
- You will need 4 square metres of southeast to southwest fac
roof receiving direct sunlight for the main part of the day with n
buildings or trees casting a shadow on the panels.
- There needs to be space for a pre-heat cylinder in or close
roof space.
 - Combination boiler will have to be of the type designed to ac
preheated water.

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þ
- Zero emissions.
- Grants available.
- Easy to install.
- Little maintenance.
- Fitting low-flow showers and taps can further reduce energy and water consumption and C
produced.
(
- Roof must be strong enough to support the weight of the system.
- May require planning permission, particularly if your house is listed or in a conservation are

Solar Photo-Voltaics (PV) - Back to top

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o13,000 o200 600kg - Planning permission may be required, particularly if your

property is listed or in a conservation area.
- You will need 16 square metres of southeast to southwes
facing roof receiving direct sunlight for the main part of the d
Alternatively, a large area of unobstructed land would enabl
panels to be fitted on A-frames.
- There must be nothing casting a shadow, however small
 the panels at any time as a drop in performance in one area
affects the whole panel.

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- Zero emissions.
- Grants available.
- Requires only daylight, not direct sunlight, although the more light it receives, the more
electricity it produces.
 - Guaranteed for 20-25 years but expected to last longer.
- Excess energy can be sold back to the grid.
- PV arrays now come in a variety of shapes and colours, ranging from grey 'solar tiles' that
like roof tiles to panels and transparent cells that you can use on conservatories and glass t
provide shading as well as generating electricity.
 
- Roof must be strong enough to support the weight of the systemMay require planning
permission, particularly if your house is listed or in a conservation area.

Wind Turbines - Back to top

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o18,000 o300 900kg -Planning permission is required.

- Your property is preferably not in a highly built up are
The turbine blades must be five meters above anything
a 30m radius.
 

 
- Zero emissions.

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- Grants available.
- Vertical axis turbines are also available. These can cope much better with turbulent air cur
found in urban/suburban areas.
 
- Obviously, if there¶s no wind, there is no power. You can expect a wind turbine to generate
about 28% of its stated peak capacity throughout the year.
- Location is essential. Some dispute over viability of urban/suburban micro wind as building
(and trees for that matter) drastically affect wind strength and direction. Many experts believ
mini house-mounted turbines to be a waste of money and effort.
- Planning permission is required.
- Noise and shadow flicker should be considered although hardly an issue.

Heat Pumps - Back to top

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o10,000 o300 3 tonnes - Property is suitably insulated.

- Underfloor heating will be incorporated.
- Sufficient space and access is available to lay g
source piping or drill bore holes.

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- COP of around 4, meaning that for every kW of energy put in, 4kW of heat energy are prod
- When combined with underfloor heating, this technology optimizes its performance and ca
save enormous amounts of energy.
- Can be combined with wind or solar power source for zero emissions.
- Most ecological and economical and ecological if replacing fossil fuels other than gas.
 
- Best fitted to new builds or properties that are in the process of being renovated to modern
building regulations and are therefore extremely well insulated. Installing in badly insulated
properties will require the pump to work harder and even be assisted by a regular gas boiler
thereby negating any ecological and economical benefits intended.
- A horizontal ground pipe system will require a large area of garden to be dug up or deep b
holes to be drilled, which will increase the costAir source heat pumps produce background n
similar to an air-conditioning unit.

Biomass - Back to top

›
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o10,000 o0 4 tonnes - Planning permission may be

(with back boiler and Fuel is similar in cost required before a flue is fitted.
auto-feed) to fossil fuels - Fuel availability and storage
should be considered.
- System can also be reversed t
provide cooling via chillers.
 



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- Carbon neutral as the carbon released in the burning process is offset by the carbon absor
and oxygen released by the growing trees
- Most economical and ecological when using locally sourced fuel
 
- Does require refuelling and cleaning. Some models come with automatic feeder and clean
still require maintenance and top up every few months.

Combined Heat And Power (CHP) - Back to top

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To be confirmed o300 6 tonnes (if run on bio- - Fuel availability must be considere
(inc. fuel) fuel) - A suitable out-building is availabl
away from main property.
- Planning permission may be requ
before a flue is fitted.
 


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- Electricity and hot water provided by a single system.
- Can supply all a property¶s energy needs even in the case of a complete grid failure.
- Already available for commercial scale installations, the only true domestic micro-CHP due
launch in 2009 is gas powered, which releases a lot less carbon than burning other fossil fue
Future developments are likely to include bio-fuelled versions.
 
"Will require maintenance and as an internal combustion engine will produce some noise an
vibration.

Hydro - Back to top

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 o20,000 o400 4 tonnes - A year-round source of running water is availabl
- Planning permission will be required.
 


- Reliable, free, quiet electricity.
 
"Few sites have the water flow and head (height) necessary.

Hybrid System - Back to top

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o30,000+ o1,000 6 tonnes See above

 


- Optimizes energy production in changeable weather conditions by combining different sou
such as wind for overcast days and solar for fine days.
  
"Depending on the system, may require planning permission.

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