Hydrobiologia
DOI 10.1007/s10750-011-0738-9
WETLAND RESTORATION
Plants used in constructed wetlands with horizontal
subsurface flow: a review
Jan Vymazal
Ó Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011
Abstract The presence of macrophytes is one of the
most conspicuous features of wetlands and their
presence distinguishes constructed wetlands from
unplanted soil filters or lagoons. The macrophytes
growing in constructed wetlands have several prop-
erties in relation to the treatment process that make
them an essential component of the design. However,
only several roles of macrophytes apply to con-
structed wetlands with horizontal subsurface flow
(HF CWs). The plants used in HF CWs designed for
wastewater treatment should therefore: (1) be tolerant
of high organic and nutrient loadings, (2) have rich
belowground organs (i.e. roots and rhizomes) in order
to provide substrate for attached bacteria and oxy-
genation (even very limited) of areas adjacent to roots
and rhizomes and (3) have high aboveground biomass
for winter insulation in cold and temperate regions
and for nutrient removal via harvesting. The com-
parison of treatment efficiency of vegetated HF CWs
Guest editors: Dominik Zak, Robert McInnes, Jörg Gelbrecht /
Restoration, biogeochemistry and ecological services of
wetlands
J. Vymazal (&)
Department of Landscape Ecology, Faculty of
Environmental Sciences, Czech University of Life
Sciences in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
e-mail: vymazal@yahoo.com
J. Vymazal
ENKI, o.p.s, Třeboň, Czech Republic
Review Paper
and unplanted filters is not unanimous but most
studies have shown that systems with plants achieve
higher treatment efficiency. The vegetation has
mostly a positive effect, i.e. supports higher treatment
efficiency, for organics and nutrients like nitrogen
and phosphorus. By far the most frequently used
plant around the globe is Phragmites australis
(Common reed). Species of the genera Typha (lati-
folia, angustifolia, domingensis, orientalis and glau-
ca) and Scirpus (e.g. lacustris, validus, californicus
and acutus) spp. are other commonly used species. In
many countries, and especially in the tropics and
subtropics, local plants including ornamental species
are used for HF CWs.
Keywords Constructed wetlands
Horizontal flow

Macrophytes
Phragmites australis
Role of plants in constructed wetlands
The presence of macrophytes is one of the most
conspicuous features of wetlands and their presence
distinguishes constructed wetlands from unplanted
soil filters or lagoons. The macrophytes growing in
constructed wetlands have several properties in
relation to the treatment process that make them an
essential component of the design (Brix, 1997).
However, only several roles of macrophytes apply
to constructed wetlands with horizontal subsurface
flow (HF CWs) (Table 1). The plants used in
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 Hydrobiologia

Table 1 Summary of the major roles of macropyhtes in constructed treatment wetlands (modified from Brix, 1997)
Macrophyte property Role in treatment process

Aerial plant tissue Light attenuation—reduced growth of photosynthesis

Plant tissue in water
Roots and rhizomes in the sediment
Roles important in HF CWs in italics
Influence of microclimate—insulation during winter
Reduced wind velocity—reduced risk of resuspension
Aesthetic pleasing appearance of the system
Storage of nutrients
Filtering effect—filter out large debris
Reduced current velocity—increased rate of sedimentation, reduced risk of resuspension
Excretion of photosynthesis oxygen—increased aerobic degradation
Uptake of nutrients
Provision of surface for periphyton attachment
Stabilizing the sediment surface—less erosion
Prevention of the medium clogging in vertical flow systems
Provision of surface for bacterial growth
Release of oxygen increases degradation (and nitrification)
Uptake of nutrients
Release of antibiotics, phytometallophores and phytochelatins

constructed wetlands designed for wastewater treat-
ment should therefore: (1) be tolerant of high organic
and nutrient loadings, (2) have rich belowground
organs (i.e. roots and rhizomes) in order to provide
substrate for attached bacteria and oxygenation (even
very limited) of areas adjacent to roots and rhizomes
and (3) have high aboveground biomass for winter
insulation in cold and temperate regions and nutrient
removal via harvesting (Čı́žková-Končalová et al.,
1996; Květ et al., 1999).
Insulation of the filtration beds
freezing conditions during winter. As a consequence,
the processes responsible for pollutant removal do not
slow down substantially, and the treatment perfor-
mance is steady during the year. The steady treatment
performance of HF CWs, with the partial exception
of ammonia and total nitrogen removal, was reported
from Switzerland (Züst & Schönborn, 2003), Norway
(Giæver, 2003; Mæhlum & Jenssen, 2003), Germany
(Kern, 2003; Steinmann et al., 2003), Czech Republic
(Vymazal, 2001, 2009; Vymazal et al., 2003), USA
(Dahab & Surampalli, 2001; Hill et al., 2003), Italy
(Gorra et al., 2007) or Korea (Ham et al., 2004).

Insulation that the plant cover provides during winter,
especially in temperate and cold climatic regions, is
very important for a steady performance of the
system (Smith et al., 1996; Mander & Jenssen, 2003;
Vymazal & Kröpfelová, 2008a). When the standing
litter is covered by snow, it provides a perfect
insulation and helps keep the substrate free of frost
(Brix, 1998). The litter layer helps in protecting the
soil from freezing during winter, but on the other
hand, it also keeps the soil cooler during spring
(Haslam, 1971a, b; Brix, 1994).
Insulation of filtration beds is relevant only under
temperate and cold climatic conditions, i.e. under
Belowground parts as substrate for bacterial
growth
The rhizosphere is known to harbour a great diversity
of bacterial forms (Paul & Clark, 1996) and it is
generally assumed that planted wetlands outperform
unplanted controls mainly because the plant rhizo-
sphere stimulates the microbial community (Gagnon
et al., 2006). It has been suggested that plant
rhizosphere enhances microbial density and activity
by providing root surface for microbial growth, a
source of carbon compounds through root exudates
and a micro-aerobic environment via root oxygen

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release (Gersberg et al., 1986; Brix, 1997). Higher
microbial densities in planted systems were reported,
for example, by Hatano et al. (1993) and Münch et al.
(2005). Several authors have shown plants to differ in
root surface area available for bacterial growth
(Hatano et al., 1993; Vymazal et al., 2003, Kyamb-
adde et al., 2004; Gagnon et al., 2006) and Paul &
Clark (1996) pointed out that the plants influence the
specific rhizosphere population. This phenomenon
was observed in constructed wetlands by Collins
et al. (2004) or Li et al. (2008). Plants can also affect
microbial species composition and diversity by
releasing exudates and oxygen into the rhizosphere
that in turn indirectly affects enzyme activity (Singh
& Kumar, 2008).
Oxygen release to the rhizosphere of wetland
plants
The primary difference between water-saturated and
well-drained soils is the availability of oxygen for root
respiration, microbial respiration and chemical oxida-
tion processes (Brix, 1993). In well-drained soils, the
pore spaces are filled with air showing a relatively
high-oxygen content. Microorganisms living in the
soil and roots of plants growing in the soil are therefore
able to obtain oxygen directly from their surroundings.
As the soil pore spaces are connected with the
atmosphere above the soil, the oxygen in the pore
spaces is replenished by rapid diffusion and convec-
tion from the atmosphere (Brix, 1993). In a water-
saturated soil, the pore spaces are filled with water.
The rate of diffusion of oxygen through water is some
104–106 times slower as it is through air, principally
due to the smaller diffusion coefficient in water, but
also because of low solubility of oxygen in water
(Greenwood, 1961; Drew, 1979). Consequently,
water-saturated soils become anaerobic (oxygen-free
or anoxic) except for a few millimetres at the surface
(Jackson & Drew, 1984). Due to absence of oxygen in
waterlogged soils, the roots and rhizomes of plants
growing in water-saturated substrates must obtain
oxygen from their aerial organs internally through the
air spaces in the plants (e.g. Laing, 1940; Coult, 1964;
Teal & Kanwisher, 1966; Armstrong, 1978, 1979;
Dacey, 1980; Studer & Brändle, 1984; Brix, 1993).
The main anatomical feature of wetland plants is the
presence or development of air spaces in different
parts of the leaves, stems, rhizomes and roots (Gopal &
Masing, 1990; Brix, 1998; Tiner, 1999). The presence
of aerenchyma (air-filled) tissue in many wetlands
plants enables these plants to grow in anaerobic or
anoxic soils. The extensive lacunal systems which
normally contain constrictions at intervals to maintain
structural integrity and to restrict water invasion into
damaged tissues may occupy up to 60% of the total
tissue volume (Studer & Brändle, 1984). Many studies
have demonstrated an increase in aerenchyma in plants
subjected to flooding and to stronger anaerobiosis
(Seliskar, 1988; Burdick & Mendelssohn, 1990;
Kludze & DeLaune, 1996). Various gas transport
mechanisms in wetland plants have been reviewed, for
example, by Brix (1993).
Wetland plants tend to minimize their oxygen losses
to the rhizosphere but they do, nevertheless, leak
oxygen from their roots (Armstrong & Armstrong,
1988; Brix, 1989). Oxygen release rates from roots
depend on the internal oxygen concentration, the
oxygen demand of the surrounding medium and the
permeability of the root-walls (Sorrell & Armstrong,
1994). Rates of oxygen leakage are generally highest in
the sub-apical region of roots and decrease with
distance from the root apex (Armstrong, 1979). The
oxygen leakage at the root-tips serves to: (1) oxidize and
detoxify potentially harmful reducing substances in the
rhizosphere, (2) support nitrification (ammonia oxida-
tion) and aerobic decomposition of organic substances
and (3) support formation of precipitates of iron and
manganese hydroxides and oxyhydroxides which addi-
tionally may co-precipitate heavy metals (Vymazal,
2005; Vymazal et al., 2007; Vymazal & Kröpfelová,
2008a).
In the literature, a wide range of possible oxygen
flux rates has been reported (Lawson, 1985; Arm-
strong & Armstrong, 1990; Brix & Schierup, 1990;
Gries et al., 1990). This wide range is caused by
species determined differences, by the seasonal
variation in oxygen release rates and by the different
experimental techniques used in the studies (Brix,
2003). However, the oxidized zone is restricted to a
very thin soil layer adjacent to the roots. Therefore,
aerobic processes are limited in the HF CWs
(Vymazal & Kröpfelová, 2008b).
Nutrient uptake and storage
Wetland plants require nutrients for growth and
reproduction, and the rooted macrophytes take up
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nutrients primarily through their root systems. As
wetland plants are very productive, considerable
amounts of nutrients can be bound in their biomass
(Dykyjová, 1978; Dykyjová & Květ, 1982; Květ &
Ostrý, 1988; Dykyjová & Úlehlová, 1998; Květ et al.,
1996; Brix, 2003). Total storage of a substance in a
particular compartment is called ‘‘standing stock.’’
Nutrient standing stocks in vegetation are calculated
by multiplying nutrient concentrations in the plant
tissue by plant biomass per unit area and are expressed
as mass per unit area (usually g m-2 or kg ha-1). In
HF CWs, only aboveground standing stock is avail-
able for harvesting and thus nutrient removal. The
nutrient standing stocks are similar in natural and
constructed wetlands. For emergent species in natural
wetlands, Vymazal (1995) reported aboveground N
standing stock in the range of 22–88 g N m-2 for 29
species, Johnston (1991) gave the range of nitrogen
standing stock between 0.6 and 72 g N m-2 with an
arithmetic mean of 20.7 g N m-2 and Vymazal et al.
(1999) reported nitrogen standing stock in above-
ground biomass of Phragmites australis and Phalaris
arundinacea growing in natural stands in the range of
0.04–63.4 g N m-2 and 2.0–15.5 g N m-2, respec-
tively. For HF CWs, Vymazal & Kröpfelová (2008a)
reported aboveground N standing stock in the range of
5.3–58.7 g N m-2 for various macrophytes. A similar
trend is valid also for phosphorus. While aboveground
P standing stock in natural stands of emergent
macropyhtes has been reported to be within the range
of 0.1–11 g P m-2 (Johnston, 1991; Vymazal, 1995,
2004), the aboveground P standing stock has been
reported to be within the range of 0.2–10.5 g P m-2
(Vymazal, 2004) for various types of constructed
wetlands and within the range of 0.7–5.5 g P m-2 in
HF CWs (Vymazal & Kröpfelová, 2008a). However,
even the highest nutrient aboveground standing stocks
are very low as compared to annual inflow loading to
HF CWs thus the amount of nutrients sequestered in
the biomass usually represents less than 5% of the
inflow load. Vymazal & Kröpfelová (2008a) reported
the mean values of N and P inflow loadings for HF
CWs of 1158 g N m-2 year-1 (n = 455) and 262 g P
m-2 year-1 (n = 572). Of course, in tropical and
subtropical regions where harvest is possible several
times during the year, the amount of nutrients
removed via harvesting could remove a substantial
part of the inflow load (e.g. Okurut, 2001). If the
wetlands are not harvested, most of the nutrients from
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Hydrobiologia
the biomass are returned to the water during the
decomposition process. Organic compounds released
during the decomposition of aboveground biomass
may serve as a source of carbon for denitrification.
This carbon could be important especially in lightly
loaded systems.
Root exudates
Root systems also release other substances besides
oxygen. These substances are usually organic com-
pounds such as anaerobic metabolites, organic acids,
phytometallophores, peptides (e.g. phytochelatins),
alkaloids, phenolics, terpenoids or steroids (Rovira,
1969; Barber & Martin, 1976; Neori et al., 2000). The
magnitude of this release is still unclear, but reported
values are generally in the range of 5–25% of the
photosynthetically fixed carbon. This organic carbon
exuded by the roots may act as a carbon source for
denitrifiers and thus increase nitrate removal (Platzer,
1996).
Functions of the root exudates are manifold, but
for the treatment process in HF CWs the release of
antimicrobial compounds and phytometallophores
and phytochelatins is probably the most important.
One of the first studies reporting on the excretion of
anti-bacterial substances by macrophytes was pub-
lished by Droboťko et al. (1958). Their results showed
an anti-microbial activity by alkaloids extracted from
Nuphar lutea. However, there is not much informa-
tion on other macrophytes releasing alkaloids (Neori
et al., 2000). Other compounds which are released to
the rhizosphere and could be poisonous to microor-
ganism are phenolics (Dickinson, 1983; Nishizawa
et al., 1990).
Seidel (1976) showed that Scirpus (=Schoenoplec-
tus) lacustris (Bulrush) releases antibiotics from its
roots and a range of bacteria obviously disappeared
from polluted water by passing through a vegetation
of bulrushes. Vincent et al. (1994) showed the
antimicrobial properties of exudates of Mentha
aquatica, Phragmites australis and also of Scirpus
lacustris. According to Gopal & Goel (1993), the
substances excreted by the roots of many wetland
plant species responsible for antimicrobial activity
are tannic and gallic acids but other compounds may
probably be involved as well.
Phytometallophores and phytochelatins are impor-
tant in heavy metals cycling and removal in
Hydrobiologia
constructed wetlands. Phytometallophores (formerly
called phytosiderophores) are non-proteinogenic
amino-acid root exudates that chelate and mobilize
Fe, Cu, Zn and Mn (Römheld, 1991; Marschner &
Römheld, 1996). Chelated metals can then be taken
up by roots and subsequently transported to above-
ground plant parts and become available for removal
(Vymazal & Krása, 2003; Vymazal et al., 2007,
2009). Phytochelatins may be the principal heavy-
metal complexing peptides of higher plants, they are
metallothionein-like in function but differ in their
chemical structure and composition. By excreting
phytochelatins, plants can limit and/or avoid heavy
metal toxicity. The synthesis of these peptides can be
induced by copper, cadmium, mercury, lead and zinc
(Neori et al., 2000).
Allelopathy, i.e. inhibition of one plant species
through chemical means by other plants (Szczepański,
1977; Rice, 1984) has been well documented
in wetlands (Gopal & Goel, 1993; Hootsmans &
Blindow, 1994). However, it is unclear how allelop-
athy may affect plants in constructed wetlands.
Influence of plants on treatment performance
of HF CWs
The comparison of treatment efficiency of vegetated
HF CWs and unplanted filters is not unanimous, but
most studies have shown that systems with plants
achieve higher treatment efficiency (Table 2). The
vegetation has mostly a positive effect, i.e. supports
higher treatment efficiency, for organics (determined
by biochemical oxygen demand and chemical oxygen
demand) and nutrients such as total Kjeldahl nitrogen
(TKN), ammonia nitrogen (NH4-N), total nitrogen
(TN) and total phosphorus (TP). This could be
explained by increased oxygen supply to the rhizo-
sphere through plant roots as compared to unplanted
filters. On the other hand, plants have usually no
effect on removal of suspended solids indicating that
retention of suspended solids is mainly through
abiotic processes. The results shown in Table 2
concerning the removal of bacteria reveal that in
some systems the removal was affected by the
presence of plants but in some systems not. The
presence of plants may have a negative effect on
the removal of substances which are transformed
under anoxic and/or anaerobic conditions such as
nitrate and sulphate (Table 2).
Several studies have also tried to compare
various macrophyte species in their ability to
support removal of pollutants. Gersberg et al.
(1986) found in HF CW at Santee, CA, that the
Scirpus validus and Phragmites australis beds were
superior at removing ammonia, and both produced
effluent values significantly lower than the Typha
latifolia bed did. Finlayson & Chick (1983) found
exactly the same order of efficiency for NH4?-N
(and TKN) removal from abattoir effluent in
Australia. The removal effect was 54% (56%) for
Scirpus validus, 12% (26%) for Phragmites aus-
tralis and 3% (14%) for a mixture of Typha
domingensis ? T. orientalis. For total P removal,
the order was slightly different but the wetland
with Scirpus showed the highest removal effect
(61%). In this case, removal in the Typha bed
(53%) was superior to that with Phragmites (37%).
Fraser et al. (2004) tested four macrophyte species
(Scirpus validus, Carex lacustris, Phalaris arundin-
acea and Typha latifolia) and their mixture to
compare effectiveness of nutrient removal in sub-
surface wetlands. S. validus was the most effective
species, and P. arundinacea was generally the least
effective at reducing N and P in monocultures. The
four-species mixture was generally highly effective
at nutrient removal, but the results were not
significantly different from the monocultures.
Coleman et al. (2001) found that Typha latifolia
significantly outperformed Juncus effusus and Scirpus
cyperinus in improving effluent quality in experimen-
tal units. In addition, species mixtures outperformed
species monocultures. T. latifolia was the superior
competitor in mixtures. Karathanasis et al. (2003)
studied the effect of Typha latifolia, Festuca arun-
dinacea and polyculture consisting mainly of Iris
pseudacorus, Canna x. generalis, Hemerocallis fulva,
Hibiscus moscheutos, Scirpus validus and Mentha
spicata. Overall, the polyculture systems seemed to
provide the best and most consistent treatment for all
wastewater parameters, while being the least suscep-
tible to seasonal variation.
Burgoon et al. (1989) reported that TKN removal
was highest in a gravel-based mesocosms planted
with Sagittaria latifolia (92%), followed by Typha
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Table 2 Comparison of treatment efficiency planted HF CWs and unplanted filters

Location Vegetation Parameters Effect Reference

Brazil Typha latifolia COD, BOD5, TSS, TN, NH4-N, TP, FC Positive effect Dornelas et al. (2008)
Canada Phragmites australis BOD5, COD, TKN, NH4-N Positive effect Naylor et al. (2003)
Typha latifolia TSS, TP, PO4-P, NO3-N No effect
Canada Phragmites australis TN Positive effect Maltais-Landry et al. (2009)
Typha angustifolia
China Phragmites australis TN Positive effect Zhou et al. (2004)
Zizania caduciflora
Costa Rica Coix lacryma-jobi BOD5, FC Positive effect Dallas & Ho (2005)
Germany Phragmites australis FC No effect Vacca et al. (2005)
Greece Typha latifolia TKN, TP Positive effect Akratos & Tsihrintzis (2007)
COD No effect
Mexico Phragmites australis FC Positive effect Rivera et al. (1995)
Typha sp.
Morocco Arundo donax COD, TSS, NH4-N, TP Positive effect El Hafiane & El Hamouri (2004)
Nepal Phragmites karka BOD5, COD, TKN, TP Positive effect Pandey et al. (2006)
TSS, NH4-N No effect
New Zealand Scirpus validus BOD5, TSS, FC No effect Tanner et al. (1995)
Spain Typha latifolia BOD5, NH4-N, FC Positive effect Ciria et al. (2005)
TSS, COD No effect
NO3-N Negative effect
Spain Scirpus lacustris FC Positive effect Soto et al. (1999)
Spain Phragmites australis TN, TP Positive effect De Lucas et al. (2006)
Lythrum salicria SO42- Negative effect
Tanzania Phragmites NH4-N, TKN Positive effect Haule et al. (2002)
mauritianus
Typha domingensis
Typha capensis
Cyperus grandis
Cyperus dubius
Kylinga erecta
Tanzania Phragmites COD, NH4-N Positive effect Kaseva (2004)
mauritianus
Tanzania Typha latifolia COD, NH4-N, PO4-P, SO42- Positive effect Mbuligwe (2004)
Colocasia esculenta NO3-N No effect
USA Scirpus validus Positive effect Gersberg et al. (1986)
Phragmites australis
Typha latifolia
USA Typha latifolia Positive effect Karathanasis et al. (2003)
Festuca arundinaceae BOD5, TSS
Polyculture FC No effect
USA Sagaittaria latifolia TKN Positive effect Burgoon et al. (1989)
Typha latifolia BOD5 No effect
Scirpus pungens
Phragmites australis

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Table 2 continued
Location Vegetation Parameters
USA Carex lacustris TP. TN
Scirpus validus
Phalaris arundinacea
Typha latifolia
USA Juncus effuses TP, TKN, NH4-N
Scirpus cyperinus TSS, FC
Typha latifolia BOD5
Mixture of the three
COD chemical oxygen demand, BOD biological oxygen demand, TSS total suspended solids, TN total nitrogen, TKN total Kjeldahl
nitrogen, TP total phosphorus, FC faecal coliforms
* For Typha and mixture
latifolia (86%), Scirpus pungens (76%) and Phrag-
mites australis (68%). Tanner (1996) evaluated eight
emergent species in a subsurface flow constructed
wetland treatment system in New Zealand according
to their ability to sequester nutrients, taking into
account their aboveground biomass, production of
harvestable biomass, seasonality of aboveground
growth, tissue nutrient level and potential for root-
zone aeration. The highest potential was achieved by
Zizania latifolia, followed by Glyceria maxima and
Phragmites australis. On the other hand, the lowest
potential was found for Juncus effusus and Bolbo-
schoenus fluviatilis. Other species in the study were
Baumea articulata, Cyperus involucratus and
Schoenoplectus (Scirpus) validus.
The results reported in the literature indicate that
mixed vegetation is more effective in pollutant
removal as compared to stands of single species
(Karathanasis et al., 2003; Fraser et al., 2004).
However, most of the studies were relatively short
and it is a question whether all the species in a
mixture would survive in a long-term run. It is well
known from constructed wetlands (e.g. Vymazal,
2006) as well as from natural habitats (e.g. Vymazal
et al., 2008) that competition among plant species
may be a slow process which can take 5–10 years
before any noticeable change in plant species com-
position is observed.
A comprehensive literature survey on the effect of
plants on pollutant removal in constructed wetlands
with subsurface flow and differences in performance
between plants has recently been published by
Brisson & Chazarenc (2009).
Effect Reference
Positive effect Fraser et al. (2004)
Positive effect Coleman et al. (2001)
No effect
Positive effect*
Plants used for HF CWs
From a theoretical point of view, many emergent
species could be used for HF constructed wetlands.
However, in reality, only a limited number of species
has been used so far.
Phragmites spp.
By far, the most commonly used plant for HF
constructed wetlands is Phragmites australis (Cav.)
Trin. ex Steudel (Poaceae) (Common reed) (Cooper
et al., 1996; Kadlec & Knight, 1996; Vymazal et al.,
1998; Kadlec & Wallace, 2008; Vymazal & Kröpfe-
lová, 2008a) P. australis (=Phragmites communis
Trin.) is a perennial and flood-tolerant grass with an
extensive rhizome system which usually penetrates to
depths of about 0.6–1.0 m. Stems are rigid with
hollow internodes with the range in shoot height from
less than 0.5 m to giant forms about 8 m tall from the
marshes of the Danube delta (Haslam 1971a, b) and
Tigris and Euphrates Rivers (Maxwell, 1957). Com-
mon reed is a cosmopolitan grass occurring as a
dominant component in the freshwater, brackish and
in some cases also marine littoral communities
almost all over the world (Haslam, 1972, 1973;
Rodewald-Rudescu, 1974; Dykyjová & Hradecká,
1976; Hocking et al., 1983; Soetaert et al., 2004). Its
distribution is widespread throughout Europe, Africa,
Asia, Australia and North America between 10° and
70° latitude (Hawke & José, 1996).
Maximum aboveground biomass of P. australis is
highly variable depending on latitude, climate,
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salinity, water depth, eutrophication and interactions
between these factors. Vymazal & Kröpfelová (2005)
in their review reported the range between 413 and
9,890 g dry matter (DM) m-2 for 12 natural stands
from Europe, Asia and Australia. However, the most
common values for maximum aboveground biomass
found in natural stands are between 1,000 and
2,000 g DM m-2. The biomass of Phragmites
australis is similar in HF CWs; Vymazal & Kröpfe-
lová (2005) reported the values between 788 and
5,070 g DM m-2. The R/S (root/shoot) ratio in
natural stands is usually high (2–5, but up to 20),
indicating high underground biomass (Čı́žková,
1999), but in HF CWs it is commonly less than 1.0
(Vymazal & Kröpfelová, 2008a). With little external
loss, the maximum aboveground mass is generally
assumed to be within 85–100% of net annual
aboveground production (Mason & Bryant, 1975;
Gessner et al., 1996).
Phragmites australis is used throughout Europe
Canada, Australia, most parts of Asia (with the
exception of India and Nepal) and Africa (with the
exception of its central part). Phragmites karka is
used in HF CWs in India and Nepal (e.g. Billore
et al., 2001, 2008; Bista et al., 2004; Bista &
Khatiwada, 2008; Singh et al., 2009) and Phragmites
mauritianus Kunth is used in central Africa (e.g.
Byekwaso et al., 2002). In the United States,
Common reed is considered an exotic and invasive
plant species by natural resource and wildlife agen-
cies. As a result, the use of this species has been
limited in the United States (Wallace & Knight,
2006). A similar situation applies to New Zealand.
Common reed is used for the treatment of municipal
and domestic wastewater but has also been success-
fully used for HF CWs treating various types of
wastewater (Table 3).
Typha spp.
Typha spp. (Cattails) (Typhaceae) are erect rhizoma-
tous perennial plants with jointless stems. The plants
are up to 3 m tall with an extensive branching
horizontal rhizome system. Leaves are flat or slightly
rounded on the back, in their basal parts spongy
(Sainty & Jacobs, 2003). Cattail species are commonly
found inhabiting shallow bays, irrigation ditches,
lakes, ponds, rivers and both brackish and fresh water
marshes. The most important Typha species found in
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Hydrobiologia
wetlands are T. latifolia L. (Common cattail, Broad-
leaved cattail), T. angustifolia L. (Narrow-leaved
cattail), T. domingensis Pers. (Southern cattail, Santo
Domingo cattail), T. glauca Godr. (Blue cattail) and
T. orientalis C. Presl (Broadleaf cumbungi, Raupo).
T. latifolia is a cosmopolitan species but not being
found in central and South Africa. T. angustifolia is
also considered to be a cosmopolitan species by some
authors but some authors consider it to be an alien
species in North America. Neither does it occur in the
tropics, where it is replaced by T. domingensis.
T. glauca, a hybrid of T. latifolia and T. angustifolia,
is most common in North America, T. domingesis is
found in subtropical and tropical parts of the Americas,
Australia and Africa, and T. orientalis is found in
the region between East Asia (China, Japan) and
Australia.
Typha is a very productive species with maximum
aboveground biomass values in both natural stands
and constructed wetlands exceeding 5,000 g DM m-2
(e.g. Maddison et al., 2003; Obarska-Pempkowiak &
Ozimek, 2003; Maine et al., 2006). Cattail is very
often used in constructed wetlands with free water
surface (Kadlec & Wallace, 2008) but it is probably
the second most commonly used plant for HF CWs
for various types of wastewater around the world
(Table 4). Cattail is very common in HF CWs for
municipal and domestic sewage in the United States
(Wallace & Knight, 2006; Kadlec & Wallace, 2008)
neither is it uncommon in sewage treating systems in
other countries (Table 4).
Scirpus (Schoenoplectus) spp.
Species belonging to the genus Scirpus (Cyperaceae)
are annual or perennial herbs which grow in tufts or
large colonies. Stems are sharply triangular or
slightly rounded and softly angled, up to 3 m tall
or even taller in some species. Roots penetrate down
to 70–80 cm resulting in greater root-zone aeration
and concomitant microbial nitrification. However, in
constructed wetlands S. validus roots penetrate
sometimes only to 10–30 cm (Pullin & Hammer,
1991; Tanner, 1994).
Scirpus lacustris L. (syn. Schoenoplectus lacustris
(L.) Palla) (Common clubrush) was used by Seidel at
early stages of the development of constructed
wetlands for wastewater treatment (e.g. Seidel,
1965, 1976). However, at present, Scirpus is mostly
Hydrobiologia

Table 3 The use of

Type of wastewater Location Reference
Phragmites australis
(* mauritianus, ** karka) Petrochemical industry USA Wallace (2002)
in HF CWs for various
types of wastewaters UK Chapple et al. (2002)
Taiwan Yang & Hu (2005)
China Ji et al. (2002)
South Africa Wood & Hensman (1989)
Chemical industry UK Sands et al. (2000)
Portugal Dias et al. (2006)
China Wang et al. (1994)
Pulp and paper industry Kenya Abira et al. (2005)*
Tannery industry Portugal Calheiros et al. (2007)
Turkey Küçük et al. (2003)
Textile industry Australia Davies & Cottingham (1992)
Slovenia Bulc et al. (2006)
Germany Winter and Kickuth (1989)
Abattoir Mexico Poggi-Varaldo et al. (2002)
Food processing industry Slovenia Vrhovšek et al. (1996)
France Khalil et al. (2005)
Italy Gorra et al. (2007)
Italy Mantovi et al. (2007)
Italy Pucci et al. (2000)
Lithuania Gasiunas et al. (2005)
The Netherlands De Zeeuw et al. (1990)
Distillery and winery India Billore et al. (2001)**
Italy Masi et al. (2002)
Coke plant effluent France Jardinier et al. (2001)
Mining waters Germany Gerth et al. (2005)
Cobalt recovery processing Uganda Byekwaso et al. (2002)*
Pig farm effluent UK Gray et al. (1990)
Lithuania Strusevičius & Strusevičiene (2003)
Taiwan Lee et al. (2004)
Fish farm effluent Canada Comeau et al. (2001), Naylor et al. (2003)
Germany Schulz et al. (2003)
Taiwan Lin et al. (2002)
Shrimp culture effluent Taiwan Lin et al. (2003)
Dairy effluents Italy Mantovi et al. (2003)
Lithuania Gasiunas et al. (2005)
Germany Kern & Brettar (2002)
Japan Kato et al. (2006)
Highway runoff UK Shutes et al. (2001)
Stormwater runoff Taiwan Kao et al. (2001)
Airport runoff UK Worrall et al. (2002)
Switzerland Röthlisberger (1996)
Nursery runoff Australia Headley et al. (2001)
Agricultural runoff China Zhou et al. (2004)

123

Table 3 continued
Type of wastewater
Landfill leachate
Polluted river
used in North America, Australia and New Zealand
(Table 5) (e.g. Behrends et al., 1994; Tanner, 1994;
Wallace & Knight, 2006; Kadlec & Wallace, 2008).
Other species used in HF constructed wetlands are
Scirpus validus Vahl. (syn. Schoenoplectus validus
(Vahl.) A. Löwe and D. Löwe), Scirpus tabernae-
montani C.C. Gmel. (syn. Schoenoplectus tabernae-
montani (C.C.Gmel.) Palla) (Softstem bulrush),
Scirpus californicus (C.A. Meyer) Steud. (syn.
Schoenoplectus californicus (C.A. Mey.) Palla)
(Giant bulrush), Scirpus acutus Muhl. ex Bigelow
(syn. Schoenoplectus acutus (Muhl. ex Bigelow) A.
Löwe and D. Löwe var. acutus) (Hardstem bulrush),
Scirpus cyperinus (L.) Kunth (Woolgrass).
Phalaris arundinacea
Phalaris arundinacea L. (Poaceae) (Reed canary-
grass) is a 1–3 m tall long-lived perennial grass
(Kephart & Buxton, 1993; Lewandowski et al.,
2003). It produces a dense stands and prominent
networks of vigorous roots and rhizomes, penetrating
to a depth of about 30–40 cm, allowing for aggres-
sive vegetative spread (Kätterer & Andrén, 1999).
Reed canarygrass grows best under cool and moist
conditions in a large array of wetland habitats such as
wet meadows or river banks (Jakrlová, 1975; Coops
et al., 1996; Galatowitsch et al., 2000; Lavergne &
Molofsky, 2004). Reed canarygrass is native to the
temperate zones of the Northern Hemisphere and is
widely distributed throughout Eurasia (Lavergne &
Molofsky, 2004). It was originally introduced from
Europe to the United States shortly after 1850 and has
since spread throughout North America (Merigliano
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Hydrobiologia
Location Reference
USA Sanford (1999)
Norway Mæhlum et al. (1999)
UK Robinson et al. (1999)
USA Eckhardt et al. (1999)
USA Surface et al. (1993)
Poland Wojciechowska & Obarska-Pempkowiak (2008)
Slovenia Urbanc-Berčič et al. (1998), Bulc et al. (2006)
Zupančič Justin et al. (2007)
Canada Kinsley et al. (2006)
México Durán-de-Bazúa et al. (2000)
Taiwan Jing et al. (2001)
& Lesica, 1998; Galatowitsch et al., 1999) and is
considered as an invasive species especially in
anthropogenically disturbed areas (Lavergne &
Molofsky, 2004).
Studies have shown that Phalaris increases its above-
ground biomass as a result of higher nutrient supply
(Kätterer & Andrén, 1999; Green & Galatowitsch,
2001). The same phenomenon has been reported
from HF CWs where aboveground biomass is substan-
tially higher than belowground biomass (Behrends
et al., 1994; Bernard & Lauve, 1995; Vymazal &
Kröpfelová, 2005, 2008a).
Phalaris arundinacea has commonly been used for
HF constructed wetlands in the Czech Republic either
as single species or in combination with Phragmites
australis because of its easy planting and good
insulation properties during the winter (Vymazal &
Kröpfelová, 2005; Vymazal, 2006). The use of reed
canarygrass was also reported from the United States
(e.g. Behrends et al., 1994; Bernard & Lauve, 1995)
and Wallace & Knight (2006) included Phalaris in
the list of suitable species for HC CWs. Mæhlum
et al. (1999) reported the use of Phalaris in a HF
CWs for landfill leachate in Norway and Platzer et al.
(2002) reported Phalaris in a HF CWs in Nicaragua.
Iris spp.
Iris pseudacorus (L.) (Iridaceae) (Yellow flag) is a
decorative perennial herb up to 1.5 m tall with a
robust rhizome. Stem is upright, rounded to flat and
branched. It is found across the whole of Europe, in
the Middle East and North Africa along the ponds,
lakes, slowly flowing streams and rivers and in wet
Hydrobiologia

Table 4 The use of Typha in HF CWs for various types of wastewaters

Type of wastewater Location Species Reference

Sewage Estonia latifolia Mander et al. (2001)

France latifolia Merlin et al. (2002)
Portugal latifolia Dias & Pacheco (2001)
Mexico latifolia Belmont et al. (2004)
Colombia angustifolia Williams et al. (1999)
Central America domingensis Platzer et al. (2002)
Australia orientalis Davison et al. (2005)
domingensis Greenway (1996)
Czech Republic latifolia Vymazal (2006)
Tanzania latifolia Kaseva (2004)
Tunisia latifolia M’hiri et al. (2005)
India latifolia Juwarkar et al. (1994)
Mexico latifolia Rivas (2008)
Hospital India latifolia Diwan et al. (2008)
Petrochemical industry South Africa sp. Wood & Hensman (1989)
Taiwan orientalis Yang & Hu (2005)
Pulp and paper industry Keny domingensis Abira et al. (2005)
USA latifolia Hammer et al. (1993)
Tannery industry Portugal latifolia Calheiros et al. (2007)
Abbatoir Australia orientalis Finlayson & Chick (1983)
Mexico latifolia Poggi-Varaldo et al. (2002)
Uruguay domingensis Vymazal & Kröpfelová (2008a)
Food processing industry Italy latifolia Mantovi et al. (2007)
Distillery and winery India latifolia Billore et al. (2001)
Murphy et al. (2008)
Soft drink industry Uruguay domingensis Vymazal & Kröpfelová (2008a)
Mining waters USA latifolia Pantano et al. (2000)
Laundry Australia orientalis Davison et al. (2005)
Thailand angustifolia Kantawanichkul & Wara-Aswapati (2005)
Pig farm Australia domingensis Finlayson et al. (1987)
Highway runoff UK latifolia Shutes et al. (2001)
Greenhouse runoff Canada latifolia Prystay & Lo (1998)
Landfill leachate Norway australis Mæhlum et al. (1999)
Slovenia latifolia Urbanc-Berčič et al. (1998)
Bulc et al. (2006)
Canada latifolia Birkbeck et al. (1990)

meadows. In North America, Iris versicolor (North-
ern blue flag) and, in Europe, Iris sibirica (Siberian
iris) are also used for HF constructed wetlands.
Calheiros et al. (2007) reported the use Iris
pseudacorus for experimental HF CWs treating waste-
waters from tannery industry in Portugal. Mander et al.
(2001) described the use of I. pseudacorus in a HF CW
designed to treat wastewaters from a hospital in
Estonia. Dias & Pacheco (2001) reported in their
summary on the constructed wetland status in
Portugal that I. pseudacorus is very often used
for HF CWs. I. pseudacorus is also used in the
Czech Republic for small on-site treatment HF CWs
(Vymazal, 2006).

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Table 5 The use of Scirpus in HF CWs for various types of wastewaters

Type of wastewater Location Species Reference

Abbatoir Australia validus Finlayson & Chick (1983)

Pig farm Australia validus Finlayson et al. (1987)
Fish farm effluent New Mexico, USA californicus Zachritz & Jacquez (1993)
Sewage France maritimus Merlin et al. (2002)
Australia validus Davison et al. (2005)
New Zealand validus Duncan (1992)
Minnesota, USA acutus Nivala & Rousseau (2008)
Minnesota, USA fluviatilis Nivala & Rousseau (2008)
Kentucky, USA cyperinus Watson et al. (1990)
Kentucky, USA validus Watson et al. (1990)
Mexico validus Rivas (2008)
Meat processing New Zealand validus Van Oostrom & Cooper (1990)
Dairy farm New Zealand validus Tanner (1992)
Cheese production Minnesota, USA fluviatilis Wallace (pers. comm.)

Locally used plants benefits besides wastewater treatment. For example,

Besides the macrophyte species mentioned in previ-
ous sections, many other plants are used in HF CWs
(Table 6). Those plants are usually local species
which are easily available and grow well under local
climatic conditions. Among those plants, many
ornamental species have been used, especially for
on-site treatment where aesthetic and pleasing look is
often a part of the design. The list of species in
Table 6 indicates that over the years a wide variety of
species has been used.
Final remarks
Macrophytes are definitely an essential part of HF
CWs. Over the years of development of this
technology, many plant species have been used but
only several species have been used frequently.
Despite the fact that HF CWs have been used for
wastewater treatment for more than four decades,
attempts to use the plant biomass for further utiliza-
tion are still very scarce. The main reasons for this
situation are several: (a) the production is usually
seasonal and (b) the amount of biomass is too small
to support year-round production.
In general, more attempts to use plants from
constructed wetlands have been made in developing
countries where designers are looking for further
Zurita et al. (2009) reported on the use of commercially
valuable ornamental species in a pilot scale HF CW in
Mexico. These plants were Zantedeschia aethiopica
(Giant white arum lily), Strelitzia reginae (Crane flower,
Bird of paradise), Anthurium andraenum (Flamingo
flower) and Agapanthus africanus (Agapanthus). The
authors concluded that it was possible to produce these
plants in constructed wetlands without reducing the
efficiency of the treatment system.
Nelson et al. (2008) reported on the use of so-
called Wastewater GardensÒ, i.e. HF CWs planted
with a wide variety of native tropical fruit trees,
flowering shrubs, wetland ferns and macrophytes in
order to add values to the wastewater treatment
through production of valuable plants and fruits and
subsequent subsoil irrigation.
Wetland macrophytes are very productive and this
fact has been taken into consideration when bioen-
ergy crops are evaluated (e.g. Hadders & Olsson,
1997; Nilsson & Hansson, 2001; Lewandowski et al.,
2003; Maddison et al., 2009). In addition, Maddison
et al. (2009) reported on the use of cattail for
construction materials. Cattail chips mixed with clay
are used in the production of safe and cost-efficient
building blocks. The material is light and has good
thermal insulation properties. Fibre material from
cattail spadices is used as clay reinforcement. The
fibre is an ideal material to avoid cracks in clay
plaster. Ready-made dry fibre and clay mixtures and

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Hydrobiologia

Table 6 Examples of ornamental and locally used plants in HF CWs

Scientific name Common name Location Reference

Acorus calamus Sweet flag Ohio, USA Steer et al. (2002)

Kentucky, USA Watson et al. (1990)
Acrostichum danaefolium Giant leather fern Mexico Hernández & Sánchez-Navarro (2008)
Arundo donax Giant reed Morocco El Hafiane & El Hamouri (2004)
Asclepias incarnata Swamp milkweed Ohio, USA Steer et al. (2002)
Baumea articulata Jointed twigrush Australia Davison et al. (2005)
New Zealand Adcock & Ganf (1994)
Vymazal & Kröpfelová (2008a)
Bolboschoenus fluviatilis River bulrush Australia Davison et al. (2005)
Vermont, USA Drizo et al. (2006)
Brachiaria mutica Para grass El Salvador Katsenovich et al. (2009)
Canna glauca Canna lily Central America Platzer et al. (2002)
Canna sp. Canna lily Mayotte near Esser et al. (2006)
Mozambique Paulo et al. (2008)
Brazil
Canna x. generalis Common garden canna Kentucky, USA Karathanasis et al. (2003)
Canna indica Indian shot Portugal Calheiros et al. (2007)
Carex acutiformis Lesser pond sedge Denmark Brix & Schierup (1989)
Germany Kern & Brettar (2002)
Slovenia Zupančič Justin et al. (2009)
Canna latifolia Canna lily Nepal Singh et al. (2009)
Carex gracilis Slender sedge Slovenia Urbanc-Berčič et al. (1998)
Vrhovšek et al. (1996)
Coix lacryma-jobi Job’s tears Costa Rica Dallas et al. (2004)
Colocasia esculenta Wild taro, Elephant ear Tanzania Mbuligwe (2004)
Mexico Hernández & Sánchez-Navarro (2008)
India Bindu et al. (2008)
Cyperus articulatus Jointed flatsedge Nicaragua Platzer et al. (2002)
Cyperus flabelliformis Umbrella plant Thailand Kantawanichkul et al. (2008)
Cyperus immensus Fula fulfulde Kenya Abira et al. (2005)
Cyperus involucratus Umbrella sedge New Zealand Tanner (1996)
Fiji Vymazal & Kröpfelová (2008a)
Cyperus isocladus Dwarf papyrus Brazil Paulo et al. (2008)
Cyperus malcacensis Shichito matgrass China Yang et al. (1994)
Eleocharis sphacelata Giant spikerush Australia Finlayson & Chick (1983)
New Zealand Duncan (1992)
Echinochloa polystachia Caribgrass Ecuador Lavigne & Jankiewicz (2000)
Epilobium hirsutum Hairy willow-herb Czech Republic Vymazal (2006)
Festuca arundinacea Fescue Kentucky, USA Karathanasis et al. (2003)
Filipendula ulmaria Queen of the meadow Czech Republic Vymazal (2006)
Glyceria maxima Sweet mannagrass New Zealand Van Oostrom & Cooper (1990)
Czech Republic Vymazal (2006)
Gynerium sagittatum Wild cane Jamaica Stewart (2005)
Heliconia psittacorum Andromeda Brazil Paulo et al. (2008)
Colombia Ascuntar Rios et al. (2009)

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 Hydrobiologia

Table 6 continued
Scientific name Common name Location Reference

Heliconia rostrata Heliconia Mexico Hernández & Sánchez-Navarro (2008)

Hemerocallis fulva Day lilies Kentucky, USA Karathanasis et al. (2003)
Hibiscus moscheutos Hibiscus Kentucky, USA Karathanasis et al. (2003)
Hymenocallis littoralis Spider lily Mexico Hernández & Sánchez-Navarro (2008)
Iris versicolor Blue flag Kentucky, USA Watson et al. (1990)
Juncus effusus Soft rush Portugal Dias & Pacheco (2001)
Slovenia Urbanc-Berčič et al. (1998)
Canada Birkbeck et al. (1990)
Juncus inflexus Meadow rush Slovenia Urbanc-Berčič et al. (1998)
Juncus sp. Rush Spain Serrano et al. (2008)
Kyllinga erecta Greater kyllinga Tanzania Haule et al. (2002)
Lepironia articulata Blue rush China Yang et al. (1994)
Liatris pychnostachya Blazing star Minnesota, USA Wallace (pers. comm.)
Lobelia cardinalis Cardinal flower Ohio, USA Steer et al. (2002)
Mentha spicata Spearmint Kentucky, USA Karathanasis et al. (2003)
Monochoria vaginalis Heartshape false pickerelweed China Junsan et al. (2000)
Panicum maximum Saboya Ecuador Lavigne & Jankiewicz (2000)
Panicum repens Torpedo grass Washington, USA Thut (1993)
Pennisetum purpureum Napier grass Central America Platzer et al. (2002)
Pontederia cordata Pickerelweed Ohio, USA Steer et al. (2002)
Phylidrum lanuginosum Frogsmouth Australia Browning & Greenway (2003)
Rudbeckia hirta Black-eyed Susan Minnesota, USA Wallace (pers. comm.)
Sagittaria latifolia Broadleaf arrowhead Minnesota, USA Nivala & Rousseau (2008)
Minnesota, USA Wallace (pers. comm.)
Kentucky, USA Watson et al. (1990)
Scirpus sylvaticus Wood clubrush Estonia Mander et al. (2005)
Silphium perfoliatum Cup plant Minnesota, USA Wallace (pers. comm.)
Sorghum halapense Johnson grass Jordan Al Omari & Fayyad (2003)
Spartina alterniflora Saltmarsh cordgrass Alabama, USA White (1994)
Spartina pectinata Prairie cordgrass Germany Kern & Brettar (2002)
Stenotaphrum secundatum Buffalo grass Portugal Calheiros et al. (2007)
Thalia geniculata Alligator flag El Salvador Katsenovich et al. (2009)
Thrinax radiata Chit palm Mexico Hernández & Sánchez-Navarro (2008)
Thysanolaena maxima Tiger grass Mayotte near Mozambique Esser et al. (2006)
Triglochin procerum Water ribbons Australia Adcock & Ganf (1994)
Zizania caduciflora Manchurian wildrice China Zhou et al. (2004)
Zizaniopsis bonariensis Espadańa Brazil Philippi et al. (2006)

cattail chips and clay blocks are produced and sold on Elements during Wastewater Treatment in Constructed
the market (Mauring, 2003). Wetlands’’ from the Czech Science Foundation and No.
2B06023 ‘‘Development of Mass and Energy Flows
Evaluation in Selected Ecosystems’’ from the Ministry of
Acknowledgments The study was supported by grants No. Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic.
206/06/0058 ‘‘Monitoring of Heavy Metals and Selected Risk

123
Hydrobiologia
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