1. Mitosis a. DNA i.

Chromatin: Chromosomal material of eukaryotic cells found in the nucleus that is made up of DNA and proteins (histones) ii. Chromosomes: Thread-like structures that carry the genes of a cell iii. Chromatids: One part of a chromosome pair (sister chromatids: the whole pair) iv. Centromere: Connects the pair of chromatids together b. Why do cells divide? Cells divide because smaller cells are more efficient thus, they will be able to go through the membrane i. Prokaryotes: Prokaryotic cells divide using binary fission (asexual reproduction). Binary fission is when DNA is duplicated and then the cell divides into two identical cells (each receiving one copy of DNA). ii. Eukaryotes and Somatic cells: Undergo Mitosis (go to Mitosis) unlike Germ cells that undergo Meiosis c. Phases of the Cell Cycle (Interphase and Mitosis) i. Interphase: The longest of the two phases; cellular components are copied; make sure the cell is ready for mitosis; cell growth 1. G1 Phase: Intermediate phase between the end of mitosis and beginning of replication in the S Phase. Makes sure everything is ready for DNA replication 2. S Phase: Phase where chromosomes are replicated to where, at the end of replication, the cell has twice as many chromosomes. 3. G2 Phase: This is also an intermediate phase that serves as a double check to make sure the cell has everything needed is replicated. ii. Mitosis: 4 step process where a cell separates the duplicated chromosomes before cytokinesis creates two identical daughter cells from one original cell 1. Prophase: Dark, condensed chromosomes become visible and the nuclear envelope dissolves; spindle fibres and centrioles appear 2. Metaphase: When the sister chromatids align along the metaphase plate at the centre of the cell 3. Anaphase: When sister chromosomes are pulled to opposite ends of the cell by the spindle fibres of the centrioles 4. Telophase: Where the nuclear envelope reforms around the sister chromatids and the centrioles disappear iii. Cytokinesis: Where the cell finally splits into two identical cells by pinching the cytoplasm d. Plant Cytokinesis: Where instead of splitting the cytoplasm, a cell plate in placed in the cytoplasm and new cell wall forms between the daughter cells and then splits off

2. Meiosis a. Gametes: (created from Germ Cells; SPERM AND EGG) Cells with the haploid number of chromosomes b. Diploid vs. Haploid: Diploid is twice the number of haploid (2n) and diploid is that has the original, one set of chromosomes (n) c. Homologous chromosomes: 2 similar chromosomes; one is from the father and the other from the mother d. Meiosis 1 vs. Meiosis 2: In Meiosis 1, chromosome number is reduced and it goes from diploid to haploid (1 cell to 2 cells) and in Meiosis 2, chromatids separate and it goes from haploid to haploid (2 cells to 4 cells) e. Genetic Recombination: The exchange of genetic material either between chromosomes or chromatids i. Random fertilization: Random event with many possible outcomes; the random mating of sperm and egg and all the different variations ii. Crossing Over: When two homologous pairs exchange genetic material; when two matching chromosomes break and then reconnect with another chromosome iii. Independent Assortment: the random assortment of chromosomes during Meiosis resulting in two individual gametes f. Spermatogenesis vs. Oogenesis

Spermatogenesis

Oogenesis

Each daughter cell develops into sperm

One daughter cell will become the egg the others die off Period (begins before birth and happens monthly)

Cum (millions of sperm produced and begins at puberty i.

g. Mitosis vs. Meiosis

Meiosis
2 diploid daughter cells

Mitosis
undergos crossover

reproduces all cells except sex cells

4 haploid daughter cells

the cell divides into two with an equal number of chromosomes in a haploid cell

occurs with sex cells

genetically identical

number of chromosomes are reduced by half through the separation of homologous chromsomes in a diploid cell

cellular reproduction

genetically different

same number of chromosomes throughout

sexual reproduction

chromosome number cut in half

i.

OR

3. Genetics a. Mendels Experiments i. Gene vs. Allele: Genes are the genetic material on a chromosome that code for a trait (ex. Eye colour) and Alleles are a variation of a gene (ex. Brown eye colour) ii. Homozygous and Heterozygous: Homozygous is having two of the same alleles (Genotype AA or aa) and Heterozygous is having two different alleles (Genotype Aa) iii. Dominant and Recessive: In a heterozygote, dominant is when one allele appears over another (Phenotype Aa) and recessive has no affect on the phenotype but that person still possesses the allele iv. P, F1, F2 generations: P is the parent generation of which two true breeding plants undergo cross pollination that differ in alleles, F1 is the child generation of hybrid offspring, and the F2 generation is the self pollinated F1 generation plants. v. Probability: The likelihood of an occurrence of an offspring (Ex. if a heterozygous plant is selfed, the probability of finding the double recessive is 1 in 4, or 25%) vi. Punnett Squares: used to predict the outcome of a particular cross breeding experiment vii. Genotype vs. Phenotype: Genotype is the genetic makeup and the phenotype is the outward appearance viii. Monohybrid cross: a cross between two single organisms that differ in one trait 1. Law of Segregation: states that allele pairs separate during gamete formation so that offspring can get one allele from each parent ix. Dihybrid cross: a cross between F1 offspring (first generation offspring) of two organisms that differ in two traits 1. Law of Independent Assortment: states that that during gamete formation in an F2 cross, a particular allele for one character can be paired with either allele of another character

b. Testcross: A cross between a homozygous recessive individual and an individual of an unknown genotype, performed for the purpose of identifying the unknown individual's genotype c. Pedigrees: show the occurrence/ appearance of a particular gene/organism and its ancestors from one generation to the next d. Variations on Mendels laws i. Incomplete dominance: when two alleles are equally dominant and the resulting phenotype is a mix between the two (Ex. Red allele + white allele = pink allele) ii. Co-dominance: when two alleles are equally dominant and the resulting phenotype is both alleles appearing (Ex. Dalmatian dogs) iii. Multiple Allele Traits: there are two different alleles for one gene iv. Pleiotropy: when one gene produces more than one phenotypic affect v. Polygenic: traits controlled by the actions of several genes e. Sex Chromosomes: chromosomes that determine the sex of an organism. Most sexual organisms have 2 sexes (X and Y) i. Sex-linked traits: A trait associated with a gene that is carried only by the male or female parent 4. Genes and Proteins a. DNA i. Structure: two strands coiled up into a double helix structure

1. Nucleotide: The basic unit of which DNA and RNA are made of. Each nucleotide is made up of a nitrogenous base: for DNA (adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine) and for RNA (adenine, uracil, guanine, and cytosine). The nucleotide is bonded to a 5 carbon sugar which in turn is bonded to a phosphate group 2. Double Helix: Two anti-parallel DNA strands wrapped around a central axis with two sugar phosphate backbones winding around the base

ii. DNA Replication: When one helix strand is duplicated into two identical daughter helices. 1. Semi-conservative: DNA replication is semi-conservative because one strand from the parental helix is always passed down onto the daughter helix. 2. DNA polymerase: An enzyme that catalyzes additional nucleotide substrates to DNA both during and after DNA replication 3. DNA Ligase: An enzyme that patches together nicks and breaks in a DNA strand 4. DNA Helicase: An enzyme that separate two strands of DNA in a helix so they can be copied during DNA replication b. RNA i. Structure: Straight or folded single strand 1. mRNA: the form of RNA that specifies the amino acid sequence of a protein a. Introns: sections of DNA between exons, removed before the translation of mRNA that doesnt function in the production of proteins b. Exons: sections of DNA that contain coding to make proteins: makes up mRNA 2. tRNA: Converts mRNA into amino acid and then transports amino acids to the ribosome so the protein can be built. It transfers a specific amino acid to a growing polypeptide chain at the ribosomal site during translation a. Anticodon: the 3 nucleotides at the end of a tRNA sequence that bonds antiparallel-y to a codon on a mRNA sequence at the acceptor site of a ribosome during translation

3. rRNA: the form of RNA that is the central component of a ribosome which provides a platform where tRNA and mRNA meet to create proteins ii. Transcription: When DNA genetic information is copied on mRNA. DNA unzips itself and pairs up mRNA bases with the exposed DNA nucleotide bases making a single mRNA 1. RNA Polymerase: The enzyme that bonds the ribose sugars to the phosphates of adjacent nucleotides and then attaches to a growing RNA chain during transcription

iii. Translation: Where protein synthesis and is the process of making protein from information encoded in mRNA 1. Codon: A group of 3 nucleotide bases in a mRNA that codes for a specific amino acid or signals the beginning or end of a message 2. Amino acid: the codons of amino acids, put in a particular sequence, are used to make proteins

iv. Mutations: An alteration in a cells genetic material. Small changes in the sequence of the bases could have a profound affect on the message and can change the protein. Codons can be added, deleted, rearranged, or substituted. 5. Evolution a. Darwins Theory:

variations within species can be passed down through generations

unequal production of babies will cause the favorable traits to accumulate in a population over generations

Darwin's Theory

organisms produce more babies that can survive because of limiting factors

organisms inherit favorable characteristics that help them survive (their babies survive)

i. Terms: 1. Evolution: a change in a species over time 2. Species: a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring 3. Population: all organisms that belong to the same species and live in the same geographical area 4. Fitness: A measure of the ability to survive and ability to produce fertile offspring relative to others in a population in a given environment 5. Adaptations: a feature that allows an organism to survive better in its environment

ii. Lamarck: 1. Acquired Characteristics: Lamarcks theory was that acquired characteristics could be passed on to offspring and the environment can cause an organism to physically change. Acquired characteristics are physiological changes acquired over the life of an organism that may be given to the offspring. iii. Darwin 1. HMS Beagle/ Galapagos Islands: Darwin took a 5-year trip to places around the world, including the Galapagos Islands, and took samples to study. In his findings, the theory of evolution by natural selection was discovered. 2. Descent with modification: Offspring are different from their parent whether it be from mutations or adaptations 3. Natural selection: The theory that competition exist within species which determines who gets to survive and reproduce fertile offspring with their traits 4. Alfred Russell Wallace: Also introduced the theory of evolution as Darwin (both are credited) b. Evidence of Evolution i. Fossils: preserved remains or markings left by organisms that lived in the past 1. Relative Age: age relative to other fossils around it (Ex. This fossil is older than this fossil) 2. Absolute Age: age that is measurable and comes up with a value (Ex. This fossil is 67 million years old) ii. Biogeography: the geographical distribution of a species iii. Comparative Anatomy 1. Homologous structures: are similarities in characteristics that from common ancestry (Ex. vertebrate forelimbs) 2. Analogous structures: are similarities in structures due to similar functions (Ex. The wings of butterflies, bats, and birds) 3. Vestigial structures: are structures reduced in size and with no apparent function but could have had a function (Ex. the human appendix and tailbone) iv. Similarities in embryology: Homologous structures are not in adult organisms but appear as embryos. Species that bear little resemblance to each other in their adult forms may have strikingly similar embryonic stages. v. DNA and RNA sequences: Comparison in DNA and RNA sequences allow for organisms to be grouped by sequence similarity c. Patterns of evolution i. Coevolution: the change of two or more species in close association with one another ii. Convergent evolution: when an unrelated species become more similar due to adapting to similar environments

iii. Divergent evolution: a single species evolves into many different species due to adaptive radiation and artificial selection 1. Adaptive radiation: the evolution of many species from a single, ancestral population. It occurs because the single ancestral population separates into distinct populations that do not interbreed, thus allowing separate directions of evolution to occur in each. 2. Artificial selection: the evolution of a species due to human will d. Evolution of Populations i. Gene Pool: the sum total of all the alleles within a particular population ii. Genetic variation: differences in the genes between members of the same species 1. Mutation: change in DNA sequence 2. Sexual Reproduction: Genetic variation can happen in Meiosis during cross over or independent assortment iii. Allele Frequency: the frequency an occurrence of an allele in relation to other alleles of the same gene in a population iv. Genotype Frequency: the frequency of a particular genotype among individuals in a population v. Hardy Weinberg equilibrium: 1. 5 conditions
no net mutations

random mating

5 condition of Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium

no migration

no natural selection

large population

2. Hardy Weinberg equations: In order to estimate the frequency of alleles in a population a. P= the frequency of the dominant allele and q= the frequency of the recessive allele b. For genetic equilibrium: p+q=1 (the sum of both frequencies equal 100%)

c. P2= frequency of AA, 2pq= frequency of Aa, and q2= frequency of aa d. Thus, (p+q)2=1 and p2+2pq+q2=1 vi. Mechanisms of Microevolution 1. Mutations: Random changes in the composition or number of DNA molecules in a cell 2. Migration/ gene flow: Migration is the movement of organisms in and out of a population. Gene flow is the movement of genes in and out of the gene pool. The effect migration has on the gene pool depends on organisms coming in and out with different genes. 3. Genetic drift: a change in allele frequencies of a population due to chance. Genetic drift is more likely to occur in smaller populations because things like natural disasters, colonization, and new environments leave smaller populations. a. Bottleneck effect: Only a few individuals survive during a disaster b. Founder effect: Only a few individuals of a species start a new population 4. Non-random mating: Mating not done by chance but by human interference a. Sexual selection: an organisms ability to get with the opposite sex for reproduction success 5. Patterns of Natural selection: a. Stabilizing selection: selection against the extreme phenotypes b. Directional selection: favours one extreme of a trait c. Disruptive selection: favours two or more extremes within a species 6. Speciation a. Taxonomy: the science of classifying and naming living organisms b. Species Concepts i. Biological: a population or group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed in nature and produce fertile offspring ii. Morphological: species classifies organisms based on observational phenotype traits. It cant be applied to asexual organisms and fossils c. Mechanisms of speciation i. Reproductive isolation: the prevention of gene flow between members due to reproductive barriers that prevent interbreeding 1. Prezygotic isolation: mechanisms that prevent interbreeding in the first place a. Temporal: breeding at different times such as seasons, times of days, and years. This prevents mating or fertilization because not everyone is going to be horny at the same time.

b. Behavioural: little or no sexual attraction between species, due to specific behaviours. This prevents mating or fertilization because if a species is not attracted to another then, there will be no mating or fertilization c. Habitat: live in the same general area but not in the same kind of place. If they dont live in the same place, then they cant mate. Obviously. d. Mechanical: female and male sex organs are not compatible. If male and female sex organs dont match then, youre obviously not going to have sex. e. Gametic: When gametes (sperm and egg) of different species fail to attract one another 2. Postzygotic isolation: mechanisms that prevent interbreeding after the zygote (fertilized egg) has formed a. Reduced hybrid viability: Genes of the different parent species interact and impair the hybrid's development b. Reduced hybrid fertility: Even if hybrids are vigorous, they may be sterile c. Hybrid breakdown: Some first-generation hybrids are fertile, but when they mate with another species or with either parent species, offspring of the next generation are feeble or sterile ii. Geographic isolation: the separation of the same or closely related species by a physical barrier such as a mountain range or a large river d. Rates of Speciation i. Gradual evolution: the constant gradual change and the rate of change is predicted by natural selection ii. Punctuated equilibrium: periods of stability followed by periods of rapid change 7. Macroevolution: refer to changes in organisms, which are significant enough, that, over time; the newer organisms would be considered an entirely new species a. Early Earth and the origin of life: the earth was much hotter than it is now; earliest life was most likely prokaryotic; the earth got more complex over time; very simple b. Mechanisms of Macroevolution i. Continental drift: the theory that the continents have moved across the face of the earth throughout its history and continue to do so ii. Mass extinctions: many species becoming extinct at roughly the same time c. Phylogeny: the construction of evolutionary trees based on relativity between organisms i. Linnaeus system: used by biologists to classify organisms into nest little categories 1. Binomial nomenclature: 2 part scientific name

2. Seven levels of classification: a. Kingdom b. Phylum c. Class d. Order e. Family f. Genus g. Species ii. Phylogenetic trees/ cladograms: evolutionary tree amongst species/ classifying organisms into groups consisting of an ancestor organism and its descendents 8. Prokaryotes a. Shapes i. Cocci: spherical shaped bacterium ii. Bacilli: rod shaped bacterium iii. Spirilli: spiral/helically shaped bacterium b. External Structures i. Cell Wall: rigid outermost cellular layer found in plants (some algae, bacteria, and fungi) but not found in animal cells 1. Gram-positive: retains the violet stain in Grams method 2. Gram-negative: does not retain the violet stain in Grams method c. Nutrition i. Photoautotroph: use sunlight to provide energy and carbon dioxide as its source for carbon ii. Photoheterotrophs: use sunlight as a form of energy but does not use carbon dioxide as its source for carbon. They use nourishment from the environment to satisfy their carbon needs. iii. Chemoautotroph: use inorganic chemicals for energy and carbon dioxide for carbon iv. Chemoheterotrophs: gets energy and carbon by organic compounds d. Domain Archaea: bacteria that lives in extreme environment i. Extreme halophiles: archaea that live and grow in extremely salty conditions ii. Extreme thermophiles: archaea that live and grow in extremely hot conditions iii. Methanogens: anaerobic archaea that live where there is no oxygen e. Domain Bacteria: common organism that live almost anywhere i. Cyanobacteria: prokaryotic, photosynthetic organisms; even though they are bacteria, they resemble green algae ii. Pathogens: bacteria and fungi that cause diseases 1. Exotoxin: poison excreted by bacteria 2. Endotoxin: poison released within bacteria as the integral part of the cell; the poison is released when the bacteria dies iii. Bioremediation: biological process to remedy or resolve an environmental problem

9. Protists: eukaryotic; live in moist environments; categorized by their method of nutrition a. Classification i. Protozoa (animal-like): unicellular and heterotrophic 1. Ciliates: a way to move; they reproduce asexually and use its cilia in the process of digestion 2. Flagellates: used to move the cell 3. Pseudopods: in cytoplasm, especially amoebas, that helps them move 4. Sporozoans: causes diseases; produce spores; often called parasites 5. (Ex. Paramecium, Foraminiferans, and amoebas) ii. Algae (plant-like): also called algae and dont have organs like roots, stems, and leaves 1. Produce most of the oxygen in the world and are the basis for aquatic food chains 2. Autotrophic (except with Euglena) 3. (Ex. Euglena, Diatoms, red, brown, and green algae) iii. Fungus-like protists: heterotrophic and decomposers 1. Unlike fungi: they can move around and dont have chitin in their cell walls 2. (Ex. Slime Molds, Water Molds, Downy Mildews) b. Alternation of generations: the life cycle of some algae and all plants where they alternate between haploid and diploid generations (gametophyte sporophyte) 10. Fungi: differ in size, colour, and form; live in moist, warm environments; multicellular (except yeast); heterotrophic, decomposers; phylum is replaced with divisions a. Structures i. Hyphae: threadlike filaments that develop from fungal spores ii. Mycelium: they either anchor the fungus, invade the food source, or function as a reproductive structure; anchored to the soil and have cell walls iii. Chitin: UNLIKE PLANTS which have cellulose in their cell walls, fungi have chitin, which gives the cells walls strength and flexibility iv. Spores: haploid cell from which a gametophyte is produced b. Nutrition i. Saprophytes: decomposers that feed on waste or dead organic material ii. Mutualists: live in symbiotic with other organisms iii. Parasites: absorb nutrients from hosts c. Reproduction i. Fragmentation: pieces of hyphae broken off a mycelium grow into new mycelia ii. Budding: how unicellular fungi (yeast) asexually reproduce iii. Spores: specialized mycelium (sporangium) produced by fungi which protects the spores before being released and keeps them moist

1. Small and light weight that is dispersed by wind, water, and animals 2. Fungi produce 2 types of spores: mitosis (asexual phase) and meiosis (asexual phase) d. Classification i. Zygomycotes: (pin molds or sugar molds); they attack breads and fruits by using rhizoids (root-like hyphae) to penetrate bread surface 1. Create zygospores 2. Asexual 3. Harmful 4. (Ex. Rhizopus and Pibbolus) ii. Ascomycotes: have ascus (reproductive structure that has spores); SAC FUNGI; 1. Create ascopores 2. Asexual 3. Useful and harmful 4. (Ex. Cup fungi, yeast, morels, and truffles) iii. Basidiomycotes: CLUB FUNGI that have club shaped hyphae (basidia) that produces spores 1. Has dikaryion 2. Reproduces sexually and asexually 3. Useful 4. (Ex, Puffballs, shelf fungus, mushrooms) iv. Deuteromycotes: reproduce asexually; IMPERFECT FUNGI; this species cannot be assigned to other phyla 1. Useful 2. (Ex. Penicillin and blue cheese veins) e. Lichen: a symbiotic association between a fungus and a green algae 11. Plants: non-mobile; they reproduce sexually and asexually; have specialized tissues and organs a. Characteristics i. Autotrophs: they carry out photosynthesis ii. Cell walls: the outermost layer 1. Cellulose: in cell walls of plants as opposed to chitin iii. Roots: anchor plants into the ground; absorb nutrients from soil; protect the plant from bad fungi and bacteria; and transport materials to the stem iv. Stems: can be woody or herbaceous 1. Xylem: in the centre of the root; the woody tissue that transports water 2. Phloem: transports sugar and hormones v. Leaves: 1. Cuticles: waxy protection of the leaves 2. Guard cells and Stomata: regulate water loss through the underside of the leaves b. Classification i. Non-vascular (Byrophytes): live in moist areas; have roots and stems; new reproductive methods; have no vascular tissue (they do osmosis)

1. (Ex. Mosses, liverworts, and hornworts) ii. Vascular (Tracheophytes): Any of the various plants (ferns and seed-bearing plants) where phloem transports sugar and xylem transport water 1. Seedless (Pteridophytes): flowerless and seedless vascular plants that have roots, stems, and fronds and reproduce by spores 2. Seed a. Gymnosperms: (naked seed); not protected by fruit and able to reproduce by wind b. Angiosperms: flowering plants that produce a form of fruit; i. Monocot (1) vs. dicot (2): In monocots, the tissue in the stem is scattered and have parallel veins. In dicots, the tissue is in a circular pattern and the veins are netted. ii. Flower anatomy:

iii. Pollination: when pollen is deposited on stigma iv. Fertilization: when pollen grain reaches the ovary and fuses with the egg 12. Animals: Eukaryotic; do not have cell walls; have specialized cells that form tissues and organs (nerves and muscles); have evolved ways of moving in order to reproduce, feed, and protect themselves a. Characteristics i. Multicellular ii. Heterotrophic iii. Sexual reproduction and development: they reproduce mostly sexually through external fertilization (in water) and internal fertilization (on land) iv. Movement b. Coelom: fluid filled cavity that supports internal organs c. Symmetry i. Asymmetry: irregular in shape ii. Radial: can be divided through along any plane into halves from the mouth iii. Bilateral: can be divided length wise into two mirror images 1. Anterior vs. Posterior: Anterior is the head end (has sensory organs) and the posterior is the tail end (anus) 2. Dorsal vs. ventral: The dorsal the back (where the spine is located) and the ventral is the belly side 3. Transverse: the cross section straight through d. Endoskeleton vs. Exoskeleton: Endoskeleton is the internal skeleton for support that protects internal organs and serves as a brace for muscles and exoskeleton is the hard, waxy material on the exterior of the body e. Classification i. Invertebrates: animal that has no backbone but, usually has an exoskeleton ii. Vertebrates: animal with a backbone, bilateral symmetry, and exoskeleton

f. Vertebrate Comparison Chart Type of Vertebrate When they dominated the Earth Respiration Reproduction Circulation Body Heat Unique Feature Examples?

Fish

The Devonian Period

Gills

External

Ectothermic

Amphibians

The Skins and Mississipian Lungs Period Mezozoic Era Never Lungs and Skin Lungs Lungs

External

Reptiles Avians Mammals

Internal Internal

3 4

Cenozoic Era

Internal

Have a closed circulatory system Ectothermic Live in both water and land Ectothermic Have scales Endothermic Have wings and feathers Endothermic Have Hair and fur

Catfish

Anura

Crocodilia Birds

Marsupials

13. Human Body Systems a. Male Reproductive System: b. Excretory System: 14. Essay: Describe two body systems in terms of the themes of life a. Cell Theory b. Order c. Homeostasis/ Regulation d. Reproduction e. Growth and Development f. Evolution g. Relationship between Structure and function h. Ecology