You are on page 1of 11

3.

3 Use of geotechnical information systems for groundwater hydrology Two examples are presented for the application of geotechnical information systems for groundwater hydrology. Groundwater is a typical example for the geotechnical information systems to handle 4-dimensional data, i.e., geographic location, depth or elevation, and time. Application is expected to be wide; regional subsidence problems due to groundwater pumping, groundwater resource management, and groundwater contamination, to name a few. The first paper presented here introduces a publicly accessible database of wells in Japan. The paper also shows an example of estimating flow of contaminated groundwater at a site of about 12 ha with hydraulic data accumulated over time at a number of wells in and around the site. The second paper introduces a vulnerability map of groundwater rise in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. The groundwater rise is 0.4 to 0.6m per year. The map indicates severe, intermediate, and no groundwater rise.

3.3.1 Estimating groundwater flow Toru Sueoka, Taisei Construction

Groundwater-related problems that may arise during ground excavation work include those that may adversely affect the surrounding area, such as the drying of wells, ground settlement, and contamination of the groundwater. Groundwater contamination in urbanized areas is becoming more noticeable, and it is creating problems for surrounding areas. In order to evaluate these adverse effects and formulate appropriate countermeasures, we must have a firm grasp of not only the topography and geology, but also the flow of groundwater. Groundwater flows from high potential locations to low areas. As a result, we can estimate the direction of groundwater flow from the distribution of the potential in the aquifer in question. The rate of groundwater movement has been calculated using the permeability coefficients and effective pore ratios derived from pumping and soil tests. Below is one procedure for estimating groundwater flow. (1) Procedure for estimating groundwater flow (1.1) Collect topographic data Local flow of groundwater is closely related to the undulations of topography. Therefore, we can get a general idea of groundwater flow by interpreting topographic maps and aerial photographs. We can also refer to old documents and data to understand the conditions that existed before man-made changes occurred in the area. (1.2) Collect geological information It is imperative to use geological maps and boring soil column profiles to gain a thorough understanding of the structure (depth, inclination, etc.) and distribution of aquifers. (1.3) Aquifer surveys

To gain a quantitative understanding of groundwater behavior, pumping and other tests are used to investigate hydrological constants such as permeability and storage coefficients. (1.4) Groundwater level surveys After estimating general groundwater flow from topographic and geologic information, we consider the compatibility of this with local groundwater level data in order to understand the groundwater flow in the study area. Because groundwater level is not only affected by precipitation, river and stream levels, and seasonal changes, but also by pumping for industrial and other uses, it would be best to collect long-term observational data on these phenomena. The Water Environment Research Group of the Institute for Geo-Resources and Environment of AIST (National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology) is constantly developing the web-based "Ido Database" (Well Handbook) to provide geological information about wells. (http://www.groundwater.jp/ido/) (2) One example of estimated groundwater flow The study area in this example was a flood plain spreading out on both sides of a river. The geology consisted of a clay layer overlain by a sedimentary layer consisting mainly of sand and gravel. Topographic and geologic data indicated that the groundwater generally flowed along the river. To make a detailed evaluation of the effect of groundwater contamination in the study area, observation wells were set up in the area, information was gathered from other wells in the vicinity, and periodic observations were made of the groundwater level. Results of groundwater level measurements are shown in Figures 1 to 3. In this example, groundwater level observations for the surrounding area showed the level to be lower and there was a gentler hydraulic gradient in winter (December) than late summer (September). In addition, the contour maps of groundwater level provided valuable information on the groundwater flow that occurred during pumping. The results were then subjected to the convection-dispersion analysis to gain an understanding of the behavior of dissolved contaminants in the groundwater. This information is being used to evaluate the effect of groundwater contaminants in the study and to investigate various types of countermeasures. The data were arranged into well coordinates (taken from topographic maps), well structure, groundwater level, precipitation and pumping volume, which are shown in Table 1.

250

200

150

100

50

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Figure 1

Contour map of groundwater level (August)

250

200

150

100

50

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Figure 2

Contour map of groundwater level (December)

250

200

150

100

50

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Figure 3

Contour map of groundwater level (December, during pumping)

Groundwater level data arranged by type Well Groundwater level Name Coordinates specifications (meters above sea level) of well Diamete Depth EEE r (m) (m) Yr mo Yr mo W7 126.0 216.0 15 7.973 7.839 W8 166.2 129.8 12 7.760 7.708 W9 167.6 168.4 14 7.879 7.775 EEE

Table 1

3.3.2 Vulnerability Map of the Groundwater Rise in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia M. B. Alquhtani, King Abdulaziz University
W. M. Shehata, Saudi Geological Survey

(1)

Introduction

The city of Jeddah is the second major city in Saudi Arabia and is located on the Red Sea coastal plains. The old city of Jeddah was built on relatively higher grounds that rise 7 to 13 m above sea level. This natural setting protected the city from floods or groundwater rise in the past. The city increased in area during the last three decades to cover most of the low-lying areas surrounding the old city. Although the old city is served by a wastewater network, the newer districts use septic tanks as their disposal procedure. This procedure caused the groundwater to rise in these districts and caused the groundwater level now to be close to or even at the ground surface in some of these districts. Large bodies of water ponding in some areas pose both health hazards to the residents and engineering problems to the structures. The groundwater rise problem in Jeddah was first investigated by Abu Rizaizah et al. (1987) and Abu Rizaizah et al. (1987, 1990 and 1997). They predicted that the water use in the future will be around 465 liter per capita per day which will cause groundwater rise in the range of 36 to 204 cm/year depending on the location. A survey by the authors indicated that the rise in the groundwater level complies with these findings. An attempt was made to lower the groundwater level in some of these districts by the use of horizontal drains, but lowering may have caused settlement in some weak soils (Kabli, 1991). The actual lowering of groundwater by 1.50 to 4.50 m caused settlement of 5 to 34mm in some areas. Alquhtani (1998) could relate the magnitude of the groundwater level rise to four different factors namely; the amount and rate of wastewater disposal into the ground, the thickness of the subsurface soil layer above the basement rocks, the permeability of this soil and the ground surface topography. This paper presents a vulnerability map showing the combined effect of these parameters on the groundwater rise hazard in the urbanized areas and the prediction of future groundwater conditions in the undeveloped areas. The map uses the concept of green-yellow-red hazard warning levels. Green indicates no anticipated hazard; yellow indicates the need for cautionary measures and the red indicates the need for immediate remedial action. (2) Natural Settings (2.1) Geological and Geomorphological Setting The city of Jeddah is located on a flat coastal plain on the western margin of the Arabian Shield. The general geology of the city was based on the geology of Makkah Quadrangle mapped by Moore and Al-Rehaili (1989). The hills and mountains east of Jeddah consist of metamorphosed layered rocks and intrusive batholiths while the coastal plains consist of alluvial sand, sabkha soil and coralline reef rocks (Figure 1). These units vary greatly in their thickness, topographic setting, physical properties and geotechnical characteristics.

Figure 1

Geological map of the city of Jeddah.

The coralline limestone is approximately 7 km wide and may reach more than 40 m in thickness. Small occurrences of the limestone are found as small mounds in disseminated areas. The limestone was also observed close to the ground surface east of Jeddah, which is possibly because of faulting and uplifting. The coralline limestone contains cavities that are often filled with alluvial sand, shell fragments or marly material. The alluvial sand consists of brown silty sand and terraced sand. The brown silty sand is a major soil unit in Jeddah that covers most of the alluvial coastal plain. This sand is found east of the coralline limestone and locally underlies it or interfingers with it in the subsurface. This sand consists of sand, silt and a clay binder. Clay and gravel lenses are sometimes seen embedded in the silty sand unit. The terraced sand is found in the alluvial fans where the main wadis flowing from the east discharge into the alluvial plain. It is also found between wadi courses in south Jeddah. This unit consists of gravel, sand, and small percentage of fines. The sabkha soil is located in small depressions near the coastline in the low relief areas or in depressions within the coralline limestone. They are mainly of silty nature with seems and pockets of cohesive soils. These soils grade in color from dark gray to brownish gray and becoming grayish white in some locations. The subsurface geology was investigated by Alquhtani (1998) through the analysis of the ground condition information collected from the available

engineering reports and by drilling shallow boreholes in the undeveloped areas both in south and north Jeddah. Figure 2 (Sections A-A, B-B and C-C) shows three schematic cross sections across the northern, middle and southern parts of Jeddah respectively. The sections show the geomorphic setting and the associated features of these parts, and the general subsurface geology as interpreted from borehole data.

Figure 2 Schematic geological cross sections across the northern, middle and southern parts of Jeddah. (2.2) Hydrogeological Setting

The main aquifers that could be identified in the area are the alluvial sand with relatively high permeability and the coralline limestone with variable permeability. The weathered basement rocks are considered as aquiclude. The groundwater level map shows that some areas have very high groundwater level and that the main direction of flow is towards the sea. Eight basins drain into the city with different flow rates depending on the size of the catchment area. No surface flow has been observed draining these basins but the subsurface flow cannot be ignored. The area north of Jeddah is expected to receive the largest inflow, which is possibly another reason of the high groundwater rise in this area. The quality of groundwater in Jeddah is controlled both by the type of waste discharged into the aquifer and the seawater intrusion. In addition to the environmental pollutants, the concentration of the chlorides range between 1,496 and 48,507 ppm, the sulfates between 369 and 7,027 ppm, and the Total Dissolved Salts (TDS) between 3,300 and 114,368 ppm. It should be noted that the salt concentration in the groundwater decreases eastward with its minimum close to the mountains and increases in the un-urbanized sabkha soil where evaporation is high and freshwater discharge is low.

(3) Engineering Properties Both the physical and mechanical properties of the material were either measured through a drilling and sampling program or taken from the site investigation engineering reports. The uniaxial compressive strength of the coralline limestone varies greatly and ranges between 1.5 and 60.0 MPa and its Rock Quality Designation (RQD) designation value ranges between 0 and 80%. The reported SPT values for the limestone ranges between 4 and 100 blows/ft. The silty sand, the clayey lenses and the terraced sand could be classified as SP, SW, SM or SC depending on the geographic location. The SPT value ranges between 3 and 100 blows/ft but usually above 40 blows/ft below a depth of 10m, the Liquid Limit between 28 and 64% and the Plastic Limit between 5 and 35%. The infiltration rate in the silty sand layers ranges between 6 and 12 cm/hr while that in the looser terraced sand ranges between 20 and 37 cm/hr. The sabkha soil can be SP, SM, SC or CL with Liquid Limit ranging between 25 and 75% and Plastic Limit between 11 and 45%. The SPT value varies seasonally depending on the moisture content of the soil and the type of salt cementing the soil particles. It generally ranges between 1 and 100 blows/ft. The infiltration rate of the sabkha soil is low and ranges between 0.2 and 3.0 cm/hr. (4) Reasons for Groundwater Rise Under the same climatic conditions, groundwater may rise depending on several factors. These factors are: 1. The amount and rate of wastewater disposed into the ground including the infiltration from the septic tanks, the irrigation of green areas, the leakage from the water mains, in addition to subsurface flow from the wadis in the east. The losses from water mains into the ground may range from 15 to 20% of the total supply as estimated by Abu Rizaizah et al. (1987). This is a worldwide average standard. The amount and rate of disposal is also directly related to the population density and the socio-economic conditions. Areas occupied by high-class apartment buildings consume and therefore discharge more water than those occupied by lower class buildings. 2. The thickness of the subsurface soil layer above the basement rocks also affects the groundwater condition. A thick aquifer will accept larger volume of wastewater than a thinner one and hence less liability for groundwater rise than the thin aquifer under similar conditions. 3. The permeability of the unsaturated soil layer also plays an important role in the groundwater rise problem. The higher the rate of infiltration of the unsaturated zone, the faster the rate of discharge and consequently the less liable the groundwater to rise. 4. A higher topography with higher slopes will not allow the surface water to pond as gently sloping areas do. Moreover, the groundwater level, on the other hand, follows the topography and it is closer to the ground surface in low land areas than on higher lands. Therefore, the flat and low-lying depressions are more liable to groundwater rise than the higher gradient raised areas. Other factors that may locally affect the groundwater rise in Jeddah are the clustering of buildings and the deep foundation practice. Areas of concentrated multistory buildings,

although occupied by medium class residents, will have relatively higher rate of discharge and consequently lead to a higher groundwater rise. Also, structures built on coralline limestone and sabkha soils along the coast of Jeddah require the use of deep foundations such as piles and caissons. Such foundation practice may create bottlenecks for the subsurface flow giving rise to groundwater rise problem. Areas at the entrance of the wadis may also subject to subsurface inflow and local rise in the groundwater levels especially after rainy seasons. (5) Hazard Warning Levels A green-yellow-red warning level system is adopted to describe the severity of the groundwater rise hazard. A score of one to three is given to each factor depending on its influence on the groundwater condition. A score of three is chosen to represent the worst conditions of any parameter or the red hazard warning level, while a score of one represents the best conditions of the same parameter or a green hazard warning level. The score of two represents the yellow hazard warning level. The lower the permeability of the unsaturated soil zone, and consequently the less the rate of infiltration, the slower the rate of groundwater discharge. This will account for a high groundwater rise. Therefore, a score of three is given to a low permeability zone, while high permeable zone is given a score of one. Unsaturated zone of intermediate permeability is given a score of two. Table 1 shows the scores assigned to the different permeability values. The permeability values of the different soil types were calculated from the results of the infiltration tests (Alquahtani, 1998), which were performed using a double-ring infiltrometer (Johnson, 1963). The capacity of a thick aquifer to accept a larger volume of discharged water is more than a thinner one and hence less liability for groundwater rise. Therefore, a score of three is given to a thin aquifer and a score of one is given to a thick one. An aquifer with intermediate thickness is given a score of two (Table 1). The values of the aquifer thicknesses were derived from the drilling logs.

Table 1 Factors affecting groundwater rise in Jeddah Description Parameter Range of values (respective score) Permeability Low Intermediate High -4 -7 -1 -4 (cm/sec) 10 to 10 10 to 10 1 to 10-1 (3) (2) (1) Aquifer thickness Thin Intermediate Thick (m) <10 10-25 > 25 (3) (2) (1) Topography (m) Low Intermediate High <5 5-30 > 30 (3) (2) (1) Discharge Low Intermediate High (lit/day/person) <50 50 to 200 > 200 (1) (2) (3)

A higher topography with steeper slopes will not allow the surface water to pond. Therefore, the steeper the slope, the higher the runoff and the lower the infiltrated water. Flat low-level areas, on the other hand, will create temporary lakes. A score of three is given to low flat areas, while high topography areas are given a score of one. Areas of intermediate topography are given a score of two (Table 1). The judgment on the topography of the different sites were based on a topographic contour map at scale of 1:25,000 with contour intervals 2 m (in most Jeddah) prepared by the Saudi Arabian Deputy Ministry for Mineral Resources in 1983. The amount and rate of wastewater discharge into the aquifer are also directly related to the population density and the socio-economic conditions. Areas occupied by high-class apartment buildings consume more water than those occupied by lower class buildings. A score of three is given to areas of high discharge, while areas of low discharge are given a score of one (Table 1). The amount and rate of wastewater discharge were approximated during the authors surveys of the city.

(6) Groundwater Rise Evaluation The different districts of Jeddah were surveyed and each of the four parameters was evaluated with respect to the groundwater rise condition. The evaluation of these parameters in the areas of existing groundwater rise lead to the construction of a conceptual model that was applied in the newly undeveloped areas to predict the behavior of the groundwater. . Figure 3 shows the results of these evaluations in the form of a vulnerability map of the groundwater rise in the different districts of Jeddah. The red-yellow-green concept is based on the sum of the scores for the different parameters. Generally, areas having a score of 9 to12 are expected to have severe groundwater rise problems and were mapped as red zones, while areas having a score less than 8 and more than 6 will have intermediate conditions (yellow zones). Areas with score 6 to 4 do not suffer from groundwater rise problems and were identified as green zones.

Figure 3 Vulnerability map of the groundwater rise in Jeddah.

10

(7) Conclusions and Recommendations The problem of the groundwater rise in Jeddah differs from one district to another based on the thickness of the aquifer, its permeability, ground topography and the rate and amount of discharge into the aquifer. Based on the data gathered from the affected areas, a hazard warning system has been used to produce a vulnerability map of groundwater rise in Jeddah. The map shows the degree of hazard in the different districts and the predicted hazard in the undeveloped areas. Until a suitable sewage system is established, a program of frequent mapping of the city at different time intervals should be established in order to determine the rate in the hazard variation and to predict the time and magnitude of the anticipated hazards in the presently safe areas.

References Abu Rizaiza, S. O. et al. (1987). Groundwater rise problem in south Jeddah. Final Report, Water and Sewage Department of Western Region in Saudi Arabia. Abu Rizaiza, S. O. et al. (1990). Groundwater rise problem in north Jeddah. Final Report, Water and Sewage Department of Western Region in Saudi Arabia. Abu Rizaiza, S. O. et al. (1997). Groundwater rise problem in Jeddah. Final Report, Water and Sewage Department of Western Region in Saudi Arabia. Alquhtani, M. B. (1998). Engineering Geology of Greater Jeddah Metropolitan. PH. D. Thesis, Faculty of Earth Sciences, King Abdulaziz University , Saudi Arabia, 404 p. Johnson, A. I. (1963). A field method for measurement of infiltration. U. S. Geol. Surv. Water-Supply Paper 1544-F, 27 p. Kabli, M. O. (1991). Prediction of settlement due to lowering of groundwater table in some of Jeddah areas. M. Sc. Thesis. Faculty of Engineering, Civil Dept. King Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia. Moore, T.A. and Al-Rehaili, M.H. (1989). Geologic Map Of The Makkah Quadrangle, Sheet 21D, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Resources, Deputy Ministry For Mineral Resources Publication, Jeddah, S.A.

11

You might also like