PHYSICS PROJECT

Submitted to:
Veena Bhatnagar mam

Submitted by:
Kriti Verma

Introduction & Definition:

Definition: Thermodynamics is the branch of science which deals with the

study of transformation of heat energy into other forms of energy and vice-versa.
The starting point for most thermodynamic considerations are the laws of thermodynamics, which postulate that energy can be exchanged between physical systems as heat or work.[7] They also postulate the existence of a quantity named entropy, which can be defined for any isolated system that is in thermodynamic equilibrium. In thermodynamics, interactions between large ensembles of objects are studied and categorized. Central to this are the concepts of system and surroundings. A system is composed of particles, whose average motions define its properties, which in turn are related to one another through equations of state. Properties can be combined to express internal energy and thermodynamic potentials, which are useful for determining conditions for equilibrium and spontaneous processes.

With these tools, thermodynamics can be used to describe how systems respond to changes in their environment. This can be applied to a wide variety of topics in science and engineering, such as engines , phase transitions, chemical reactions, transport phenomena, and even black holes. The results of thermodynamics are essential for other fields of physics and for chemistry, chemical engineering, aerospace engineering, mechanical engineering, cell biology, biomed ical engineering, materials science, and economics, to name a few.

Some important terms used in Thermodynamics:1. Thermodynamically system: It is the name given to an extremely large number of particles (atoms or molecules). 2. Surroundings: Anything outside the thermo dynamical system which has a direct effect on the system is called surroundings of the system. 3. Thermodynamic state and Thermodynamic co-ordinates: The state of a thermodynamic system at any time can be described by the properties of the system e.g. its composition, temperature ,volume ,pressure etc..These are called thermodynamic parameters or co-ordinates. 4. Equation of state: The state of a homogeneous system at any time is described in terms of three thermodynamic parameters viz. pressure(P),volume(V),temperature(T).The mathematical relation between these parameters is called equation of state of thermodynamic system .i.e. PV= n R T

Where R is universal gas constant.

Laws of Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics defines four laws which do not depend on the details of the systems under study or how they interact. Hence these laws are generally valid, can be applied to systems about which one knows nothing other than the balance of energy and matter transfer. Examples of such systems include Einstein's prediction of spontaneous emission, and ongoing research into the Thermodynamics of black holes.

These four laws are:y y y y

Zeroth law of thermodynamics: First law of thermodynamics: Second law of thermodynamics: Third law of thermodynamics:

y Zeroth law of thermodynamics:

If two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
Systems are said to be in equilibrium if the small, random exchanges (due to Brownian motion, for example) between them do not lead to a net change in the total energy summed over all systems. This law is tacitly assumed in every measurement of temperature. Thus, if we want to know if two bodies are at the same temperature, it is not necessary to bring them into contact and to watch whether their observable properties change with time. This law was considered so obvious that it was added as a virtual afterthought, hence the designation Zeroth, rather than Fourth. In short, if the temperature of material A is equal to the temperature of material B, and B is equal to the temperature of material C, then A and C must also be equal. This implies that thermal equilibrium is an equivalence relation on the set of thermodynamic systems. The physical quantity that determines whether or not given system A is in thermal equilibrium with another system B, is called Temperature.

The zeroth law of thermodynamics may also be stated as under:

There exists a scalar quantity, called temperature, which is a property of all thermodynamic systems, such that equality of temperatures is the only condition for thermodynamic systems to be in thermal equilibrium.
Zeroth law came to light only in 1930,much later than the first and second laws of thermodynamics. But as the concept of temperature is fundamental to both, the first and the second laws, therefore, the law that establishes temperature as a valid concept should rightly be placed before first and second laws.

y First law of thermodynamics:

The internal energy of an isolated system is constant. Or When some quantity of heat (dQ) is supplied to a system capable of doing external work, then the quantity of heat absorbed by the system (dQ) is equal to the sum of increase in the internal energy of the system (dU) due to rise in temperature and the external work done by the system (dW) in expansion i.e., dQ=dQ+dW The first law of thermodynamics, an expression of the
principle of conservation of energy, states that energy can be transformed (changed from one form to another), but cannot be created or destroyed. It is usually formulated by saying that the change in the internal energy of a closed thermodynamic system is equal to the amount of heat supplied to the system, minus surroundings. Work and heat are due to processes which add or subtract energy, while internal energy is a particular form of energy associated with the system. Internal energy is a property of the system whereas work done and heat supplied are not. A significant result of this distinction is that a given internal energy change can be achieved by many combinations of heat and work.

y Second law of thermodynamics:

Heat can flow spontaneously from a higher temperature body to a lower temperature body, but never from a lower temperature body to a higher temperature body.
Clausius statement:
No process is possible whose sole result is the transfer of heat from a cooler to a hotter body Kelvin statement: No process is possible whose sole result is the absorption of heat from a reservoir and the conversion of this heat into work.

Plancks statement:
It is impossible to construct a heat engine, operating in a cycle, that will extract heat from a reservoir and perform an equivalent amount of work.

The second law of thermodynamics is an expression of the universal principle of decay observable in nature. The second law is an observation of the fact that over time, differences in temperature, pressure, and chemical potential tend to even out in a physical system that is isolated from the outside world. Entropy is a measure of how much this evening-out process has progressed. Entropy may be considered the quality of heat. An object at a higher temperature has the potential to do more work than an object containing an equal amount of heat at a lower temperature (we are only considering heat and not chemical, kinetic or potential energy). The entropy of an isolated system which is not in equilibrium will tend to increase over time, approaching a maximum value at equilibrium. In classical thermodynamics, the second law is a basic postulate applicable to any system involving heat energy transfer; in statistical thermodynamics, the second law is a consequence of the assumed randomness of molecular chaos. There are many versions of the second law, but they all have the same effect, which is to explain the phenomenon of irreversibility in nature.

y Third law of thermodynamics:

As a system approaches absolute zero, all processes cease and the entropy of the system approaches a minimum value.

The third law of thermodynamics is a statistical law of nature regarding entropy and the impossibility of reaching absolute zero of temperature. This law provides an absolute reference point for the determination of entropy. The entropy determined relative to this point is the absolute entropy. Alternate definitions are, "the entropy of all systems and of all states of a system is smallest at absolute zero," or equivalently "it is impossible to reach the absolute zero of temperature by any finite number of processes". Absolute zero, at which all activity would stop if it were possible to happen, is 273.15 C (degrees Celsius), or 459.67 F (degrees Fahrenheit) or 0 K (kelvin) The Third Law of Thermodynamics can be visualized by thinking about water. Water in gas form has molecules that can move around very freely. Water vapor has very high entropy (randomness). As the gas cools, it becomes

liquid. The liquid water molecules can still move around, but not as freely. They have lost some entropy. When the water cools further, it becomes solid ice. The solid water molecules can no longer move freely, but can only vibrate within the ice crystals. The entropy is now very low. As the water is cooled more, closer and closer to absolute zero, the vibration of the molecules diminishes. If the solid water reached absolute zero, all molecular motion would stop completely. At this point, the water would have no entropy (randomness) at all.

Example and use of this law: Most of the direct use of the Third Law of Thermodynamics occurs in ultra-low temperature chemistry and physics. The applications of this law have been used to predict the response of various materials to temperature changes. These relationships have become core to many science disciplines, even though the Third Law of Thermodynamics is not used directly nearly as much as the other two.