1. Differentiate between Quality Control and Quality Assurance. Explain the concept of Total Quality Management (TQM).

Quality Control: Quality Control activities include inspection and testing of the products or services after they are produced and just before their delivery to the customers. The inspection and testing activities are carried out to check conformity of the product with specifications / requirements. If any of the products are not in conformance with the specifications, they are quarantined / segregated and the actions as specified (repair, re grade, scrap) are initiated. Quality Assurance: Quality Assurance refers to planned and systematic production processes that provide confidence in a product's suitability for its intended purpose. It is a set of activities intended to ensure that products (goods and/or services) satisfy customer requirements in a systematic, reliable fashion. Quality assurance covers all activities from design, development, production, installation, servicing and other associated activities. This introduces the rule Right first time. PDCA (Plan- Do- Check Act) approach is the most widely used concept in Quality Assurance. Quality Assurance is about improving and stabilizing the production and associated processes to eliminate or limit the defects from occurring, while the Quality Control is about inspection and testing and preventing the defects from getting delivered to the customers. However, QA does not necessarily eliminate the requirement for Quality control in terms of inspection and testing.

Concept of Total Quality management Total Quality management is concerned with moving the focus of control outside the individual to within, the objective being to make everyone accountable for their own performance, and to get them committed to attaining quality in a highly motivated fashion. The assumptions a director or a manager must make in order to move in this direction are simply that people do not need to be coerced to perform well, and that people want to achieve, accomplish, influence activity and challenge their abilities, If there is belief in this, the TQM effort will be successful.

Pillars of Total Quality Management Total Quality Management is user driven- it cannot be imposed from outside the organization, as perhaps can a quality management standard or statistical process control. This means that the ideas for improvement must come from those with knowledge and experience of the processes, activities and tasks; this has massive implications for training and follow up. TQM is not a cost cutting or productivity improvement device in the traditional sense and it must not be used as such. Although the effects of a successful programme will certainly reduce costs and improve productivity, TQM is concerned chiefly with changing attitudes and skills so that culture of the organization becomes one of preventing failure- doing the right things, right first time, every time.

2. Explain quality economic approach and quality environmental approach. Quality economic approach
Business conditions are changing and evolving so as the economic environment. In this competitive environment, organization requires new approaches to survive. Quality is becoming prime priority for most of the organizations and implementing a quality system requires management commitment to develop a quality assurance program. This embraces a variety of activities designed to ensure reliability in the first place, specific quality control measures to monitor quality on a routine basis. The goal of quality system should be to avoid errors rather than to detect
them. The reduction of correction costs is recognized as a benefit which can be offset against the cost of the system. The quality economical approach is to provide quality product or service at competitive prices while reducing wastage, decreasing cost, providing high customer satisfaction, gaining competitive advantage ,provide a vibrant economy that affects in terms of taxation, government spending, general demand, interest rates, exchange rates , and overall development and growth. Following are some of the quality economical aspects: Reduce Cost Cost is an important concern for organization, in fierce competitive market, organization are struggling to provide quality at lesser cost to gain competitive edge. Quality helps an organization to reduce wastage and come up with quality product or service at competitive price.

Now the question arises as how to reduce cost and get quality? The quality costs are the cost of not doing the right things right first time or the cost incurred because failure is possible Philip Crosby published in his book Quality is free, stressed upon the removal of defects which is in built cost in running any business. There are various costs associated, with the quality negligence. Crosby suggested that by eliminating all the errors and reaching zero defects, it will not only reduce the cost but also satisfy the customers. By reducing complexity and installing failure-prevention measures, there will be less spending on failure detection and correction. After initial investment made, in long term customer requirement can be meet by spending less. Low cost can result from high productivity and high capacity utilization .Improvement in quality leads to improvement in productivity, which in turn lower the costs. Lower costs is also a result of innovation in product design and process technology, as it reduces the cost of production .Many Japanese companies adopted product innovation and process technologies ,they refined the designs and manufacturing processes to produce high quality products at low cost, resulting in higher competitive advantage than before. As high defective rates lead to high cost and vice versa. Organization need to control its defectives, errors and damage rate to control its cost factor and improve its quality substantially. High defectives increase not only the cost of production bust as well as customer perception. To survive and gain competitive advantage organizations need to work on its processing structure and improve its quality

Reduce wastage The wastage increases the cost and lead to high pricing and in the competitive scenario it is difficult for organization to survive with high cost products. Quality approach provides the elimination of wastage at every process. Wastages are due to mistakes and wrong process, Like Poka yoke (mistake proofing) a method that concentrates on elimination of mistakes to avoid wastage. Gain Competitive advantage Quality has become a key issue for companies. Competitive advantage denotes a firm ability to achieve market superiority .To sustain in the competitive market an organization needs to perform above average. Organizations which are capable to satisfy the customers need and provide value to them, can gain competitive advantage over their competitors. It requires a lot of resources and utilization of them to gain maximum advantage and satisfy customers need better than others. An organization absolute goal should be gaining competitive advantage through customer satisfaction .A quality system designed on people centric approach is viable, and other important thing is the ability of an organization to win or retain customers, its image or credibility, and the staff morale. These are various tools to gain competitive advantage: Creativity and innovation Creativity is essential for continuous improvement in an organization. According to the Websters dictionary creativity means, to produce through artistic or imaginative efforts and innovation means doing something new or unusual together they mean doing or producing something new or unusual through imaginative efforts .creativity and innovation help organization to think out of box and bring out new solutions to various problems. Now a days organizations are concentrating on breakthrough thinking and encouraging bringing out quality in every dimension through new ideas and innovations. Creativity is considered as an important tool to gain competitive advantage. Poka Yoke (mistake proofing) This method helps to avoid common human errors; this is simple mistake proofing process which focuses on two aspects such as predicting and recognizing that a defect is about to occur, and then providing signals and warning or by detecting and recognizing the error after it has occurred and then stopping the process so that no

further errors can be done, with the application of Poka Yoke method mistakes can be avoided and this helps to reduce wastage and enhance quality. Just in Time: Toyota Motor Co. in Japan has developed this Just in Time (JIT) or lean concept to improve the quality and performance in production and manufacturing. The concept is based on three essential elements Optimal standardization with everything measured and under control. Workflow optimization Pull production These are some of the other tools to gain competitive advantage Kaizen Zero defects program Benchmarking Business Process Re-engineering Six sigma Face Competition: Business organizations do not want competition, though facing competition is inevitable for most of them, as the market is changing all the time, customers need and want are changing, new competitors and technologies are entering market. The competition depends on market in which the business operates ,It can be from many small or large rival business or from the rapidly changing market , or from the technology which is being developed very quickly , previously, it was considered that high quality -high price .But now, customers are accessible to high quality at low prices .Due to high competition, an organization needs to reduce its internal costs of (sorting, inspection, and rework scrap) for providing a quality product .Business could survive and gain competitive edge by providing quality, reducing price and cutting cost . Right Pricing: Price is important characteristic of product .People are attracted and price conscious. Reduction of costs and wastage leads to right pricing. Increase Market share: In a competitive business scenario gaining maximum market share is not easy .Organization performance depends upon their customer satisfaction. To gain competitive advantage and gain market shares, organization needs to concentrate on the quality. Satisfy stakeholders, expectations: The quality approach emphasis on quality, gaining competitive advantage, making profits and satisfying customer expectations. Provide overall economic growth: Quality provide a vibrant economy that affects in terms of taxation, government spending, general demand, interest rates, exchange rates and global economic factors.

Quality Environmental Approach: Industrial and economic development have led to faster depletion of natural resources, forestry, water, coal, and petroleum etc have given impetus to growth and now with the fast depletion of resources the crisis is approaching. Pollution, carbon and gaseous emission, are adding to crisis. Large scale usage of natural resources is not only causing depletion but also leading to wide spread air, water and noise pollution that is again leading to hazardous health problem and severe consequences . Emission of hazardous gases are depleting the ozone layer in the atmosphere and disturbing ecological imbalance. The consequences have alarmed the society, organization and various other institutions. Now organizations are aware of their environmental and social responsibility and are taking various measures to safeguard environment. Social responsibility of business organization is to keep check on issues pertaining to environment. To discharge the responsibility organizations need to accomplish Environmental Quality policy. Total quality management provides a model for business excellence by advocating on environment management as a key business process to create eco- friendly environment and built premises of secure environment and better working condition. Quality management concentrates on the activity that lead to environment pollution directly or indirectly and causes harm to environment and health, hygiene of people in an around the business. It checks the problem and consequences of the environmental issues and concentrates on the following areas 1. Generation and discharge of pollutants to the environment, namely air, waste or excessive noise 2. Industrial energy management 3. Management of industrial health, hygiene and safety 4. Management of ecology and forestry2 Identify environment realted issues Area need to focus to sove the issue Meausres the action to achieve the Quality management to check environmental issues

Identify environment realted issues Area need to focus to sove the issue- Meausres the action to achieve the results
Following are the steps to check the environmental issues: Identification of environmental issues Area need to focus to solve the issue Measures the action to achieve the results The outcry to save environment, leads business organizations to take serious initiative to manage environment and design mode and process to achieve eco friendly system. Tata Group of Industries is one of the examples that follows eco governance, the township of Jamshedpur and surrounding is model of eco governance .This group has marked eco governance for superior business performance. The quality environmental approach emphasis organization to take accountability to society and check environmental issues by taking various steps, such as, making employees aware of the need to control and improve environment and make them understand the management commitment ,for environment up gradation, and to feel them motivated and inspired to act. Organizations need to identify areas that require attention and monitor it to discharge, air polluting units, waste disposal operation etc. Proper planning and documentation is required to manage the environment quality in the company -such as, what is to be done, how and by whom. Facilities and capabilities is to be developed for measuring controlling and improving all environment related activities and processes by setting up effluent testing laboratories, disposal tanks and treatment plants, installation of pollution controlling equipment and instruments. People should be trained empowered and encouraged to take initiative and come up with the innovative ideas to deal with the environmental issues and improvements. Measuring, controlling the environment as per planning and reviewing for continuous improvement and dealing with the side effects of it.

Proper documentation, record keeping and data control system, are required for implementing and developing a quality environment system. Depicts the Principal Scopes of Different ISO-14000 Principal Standards on Environment Management System International Standards on Environment Management System: ISO-14000 Principal Standards 1. ISO-14000: Environment Management System General guidelines 2. ISO-14001: Environment Management System Specifications with guidance for use registration authorities and third party inspection 3. ISO-14004: Environmental Management System General guidance on principle systems and supporting techniques 4. ISO-14010: Guidelines for Environment Auditing General principles of environment auditing 5. ISO-14011: Guidelines for Environment Auditing Audit procedures 6. ISO-14012: Guidelines for Environment Auditing Qualification criteria for environment auditors 7. ISO-14013: Guidelines for Environment Auditing Management of environment auditing system 8. ISO-14014: Guidelines for environment audit review 9. ISO-14015: Guidelines for site assessments Table 2.7 Illustrative examples of TQM and environment management4 Issues 1. Control of water pollution Areas of Address Measures and Actions

Control of water contamination Control of water discharge

Checking possible sources of contamination Measuring water quality at identified points Preventing or minimizing contamination

Effluent treatment discharge water

Monitoring of water quality at different outlets

Designing and laying discharge lines Measuring water for polluting chemicals Deciding treatment plan and process Effluent treatment of discharged water Monitoring outgoing discharge water Water sample collection plan and analysis Reporting and conformance study Improvement plans and actions Identification of sources & processes Standardization of processes to minimize particulate generation Installation of equipment and facilities for preventing particular discharge to air Measuring air samples at critical points for conformance and improvement Audit of energy usage and consumption Identification of controls and improvement points Identification of methods of control Installation of control measures Measurement of data and analysis Improvement actions and monitoring Adoption of audit system Resource deployment Audit result review and corrective actions

2. Control of air pollution

Control of particulate generation

3. Energy audit & management

Source of waste: Control of waste: Energy Editing :

3. Explain the importance of customer satisfaction with an example. How do you measure customer satisfaction?
Ans:- Customer satisfaction occurs when products and services meet or exceed customer expectation. To exceed expectations, the organization must deliver ever- improving value to its customers. Customers no longer buy solely on the basis of price. They compare the total package of products and services that a company offers with the price and the competitive offerings. This total package influences the perception of quality and includes the physical product and its quality dimensions; pre-sale support such as ease of ordering, rapid on-time and accurate delivery; and post sale support such as field service, warranties, and technical support. If competitors offer better choices for similar price, the customers will rationally select the package with the highest perceived quality. If a competitor offers the same quality package of goods and services at a lower price, customers would generally choose the one having the lower price. However, lower prices require lower costs if the company is to continue to be profitable. Quality Improvements in operations reduce costs. Thus, understanding exactly what customers want and their perceptions of value is absolutely crucial to competitive success. Business must focus on both continually improving both the customer benefits package and improving the quality of their internal operations. In addition to value, satisfaction and loyalty are influenced greatly by service quality, integrity and the relationships that organizations build with customers. One study has found that customers are 5 times more likely to switch because of perceived service problems than for price concerns or product quality issues.
Example: 1 Manufacturing is a customer for Purchase. In a typical manufacturing situation, manufacturing (production) give the requirements to purchase who make necessary arrangements to make available the same for manufacturing. Example: 2 Nursing unit can be considered as a customer for the Laundry division in a hospital. Measuring Customer Satisfaction:

Customer feedback is vital to a business. Feedbacks enable the company to learn how satisfied their customers are with its products and services. Measure of customer satisfaction benefits the business through: Discover customer perceptions of how well the business is doing in meeting the customer needs and identify causes of dissatisfaction and failed expectations as well as drivers of delight. Compare the companys performance relative to competitors to support planning and better strategic initiatives. Discover areas for improvement in the design and delivery of products and services, as well as for training and coaching of employees. Track trends to determine whether changes actually result in improvements. An effective customer satisfaction measurement system results in reliable information about customer ratings of specific product and service features and about the relationship between their ratings and the customers likely future market behavior. It is important to keep in mind that customer satisfaction is a psychological attitude. It is not easy to measure and it is influenced by customer expectations and their perceptions on quality and value. Thus it is difficult to reduce these complex relationships in to a single measure. Customer satisfaction measures may include product attributes such as product quality, product performance, usability, maintainability and service attributes such as attitude, service time, on-time delivery, exception handling, accountability, technical support and image attributes like reliability and price; and overall satisfaction measures. The most important customer data includes comparisons with key competitors. Companies commission third parties to conduct blind surveys to determine who key competitors are and how their products and services compare. Competitive comparisons often clarify how improvements in quality characteristics are being overlooked. Survey Design: The purpose of the survey needs to be identified as a first step in designing surveys. Surveys should be designed in such a way that survey results provide appropriate information to the managers for decision making. Customer satisfaction should not be limited to externals customers only. Information from internal customers and supporters also constitute to the assessment of the organizations strengths and weaknesses. Analyzing and using customer feedback:

It is important to use customer feedbacks to improve a companys products and processes. By examining the trends in customer satisfaction measures and linking satisfaction data to its internal processes, a company can determine the status and areas for improvement. The company may assign the task of developing and implementing improvements identified through customer satisfaction surveys.
Determining and using customer satisfaction information should be viewed as a key business process. There are number of reasons why customer satisfaction efforts fail to produce useful results. Some of the reasons are: a) Poor measurement schemes b) Failure to identify appropriate quality dimensions. c) Failure to measure potential and former customers d) Lack of comparison with leading competitors.

4. Explain Kaizen Approach to Problem Solving, with an example. Ans:- Kaizen Approach to Problem Solving Often it was an awareness of how hard it is for people to concentrate on improvement when they keep thinking about getting their work done. To some extent it was a matter of their innate respect for the people who do the work. For all these reasons, years ago the Japanese inventors of the Lean improvement systems came up with a different improvement model they called Kaizen.

Kaizens (or blitzes, as they are sometimes called) are improvement events where people work only on improvement for a few days, up to a full week. In a traditional Kaizen project, the people from a particular work area come together with a few experts for four or five days straight and complete most or all of a DMAIC cycle on a narrowly targeted high-priority issue. ("We need to process loan applications faster.") The model has been so successful that this basic approach has been adapted to other uses such as service design sessions. Example of a Banks Use of Kaizen A major national bank started using the five-day Kaizen approach whenever it wanted to attack process speed and efficiency problems. The banks Kaizen events all share four characteristics:

The purpose is to take a cross-functional view of the process or work area. Participants are people who are directly involved in, and usually responsible for, various parts of the process. The team is cross-functional. Participants are pulled off their jobs for several days at a time. The project is well-defined going in because there is not time to redefine the purpose or scope.

A Typical Kaizen Schedule Here is a sample agenda which the bank uses for the five days: Day 1 is an afternoon spent training participants on topics that cover basic concepts related to the goals of the project. This could include teaching relevant Lean or Six Sigma concepts and reviewing relevant data. Day 2 is spent looking at the process with new eyes. Participants do a "unit walk," a tour of operations affected by the problem or situation being studied where they simulate being a work item flowing through the process. The group visits each portion of the process, where, because there is cross-functional representation, they have the opportunity to hear insights from someone who works in that area. The group creates a value stream map (a picture of the "as-is" situation) that captures the basic process steps, such as cycle times, number of steps, rework loops, queuing delays, work in progress (WIP) and transportation time. Day 3 is designed around clarifying problems and brainstorming solutions. The team re-organizes the value stream (on paper) or creates a "should" map that depicts how the process would need to function to solve the identified problems. The outcome includes developing action plans for implementing solutions or trial simulations for the next day. Day 4 is used to test the solutions, conducting a simulation within the operations if possible. The group quantifies the improvement if the proposed changes are implemented, using estimates of reductions in travel time, queuing time, work in process, number of steps, number of forms, and so on.

Day 5 is when participants prepare and present their findings to the sponsor in a formal report-out session. Making It Work and the Results The bank makes this model work by having its internal consultants (equivalent to Master Black Belts) partner with the manager/sponsor to pick problems that are extremely high priority, not only for that work area but also for the business as whole. This makes it much easier to justify taking people off their regular jobs. Also, the goal of the event is a little more modest than a traditional Kaizen. Instead of having solutions up and running fullbore after five days, teams are expected only to get through the simulation and piloting of solution ideas. The internal consultant will then assist the team with full-scale implementation.

In the many Kaizens this bank has run, it has achieved results such as: Cycle-time improvements have ranged from 30 percent faster to nearly 95 percent faster, measured sometimes in minutes and other times in days. One administrative process went from 20 minutes to 12 minutes, and a complaint resolution process dropped from 30 days to 8 days. Fiscal indicators have all been positive. One high-level project has allowed the bank to start charging for a service that previously was offered free to customers. New revenues are expected to total between $6 million to $9 million per year. Other projects have led to cost reductions or loss avoidance in the hundreds of thousands of dollars. An Alternative Kaizen Format While consecutive days of intense work is the ideal, some companies have found it impossible to pull an entire work group, or even a subset of a work group, off the job for the better part of a week. One company worked around this issue by using the following structure:

The team was brought together for a brief meeting where the problem was explained and people brainstormed what they would need to know and understand in order to find solutions. The team leader, a Black Belt, and one team member then worked offline during a period of several weeks to gather data and refine the problem definition. The team was brought together for a day to rapidly analyze the problem and come up with complete action plans not just ideas for improvement. Since the changes likely would affect the everyday work of the team members, they and others were involved in making the changes real-time on the job, and establishing a control plan.

This alternative Kaizen structure works well in this company because:

The company is still relying on the knowledge of the people who actually do the work. It is data-based decision making. The company starts with a narrowly defined problem or opportunity statement often the participants may be examining how they can implement a Lean principle to their process, such as "How can we make information flow better?" The company takes steps to verify that the target is likely to bring important, measurable results. Random or "drive by" Kaizens, chosen with little forethought, may, at best, lead to local improvements, but will not contribute to significant value stream gains.

Conclusion: Concentrating on Creativity Kaizen events are a powerful improvement tool because people are isolated from their day-to-day responsibilities and allowed to concentrate all their creativity and time on problem-solving and improvement. Companies which use Kaizens have found they generate energy among those who work in the area being improved, and produce immediate gains in productivity and quality.

5. Describe the various tasks which help to build a healthy association and partnership with the suppliers.
Quality Assurance Quality assurance (QA) developed in North America while TQM was developing in Japan. QA focused on solving quality problems, rather than living with rework and scrapping. The major difference between QA and TQM is that QA was usually performed at an engineering or management level with little executive support. Also, QA tended to gather information by auditing after the fact, which meant that it didnt bring in rapid benefits the way that methods that focus on the earliest parts of the process can. QA focused on production the ratio of 10 in the 1:10:100 rules more than on planning and requirements definition, where there is more to be gained. Nonetheless, QA does offer some distinct and useful ideas: Product re-engineering. This is where we examine failure points of the product, and then redesign it to have fewer failure points. For example, if solder joints often fail in testing or too soon after delivery to the customer, we might design the product to have fewer parts so that there are fewer solder joints, or we might use a different method for joining parts. Process re-engineering. This is where we find better ways to do the work, reducing errors. Evaluation of customer satisfaction and customer service information. QC only had information from inside the factory. QA gathered information from customers, service companies, and the companys own repairmen, and used that to identify problems. Communication across departments. QA experts saw that many quality problems happened when there was an unclear definition of requirements across departments. If your output is somebody input, but they never talk to one another, will have quality problems. Communication with vendors. Similarly, bringing internal and vendor engineers and managers together to resolve quality problems across the supply chain were a part of QA. QA offered many good ideas and added value, but did not produce the transformative results that TQM did. There were two reasons for this, which refers to too little and too late. By too little, It means that QA had too little clout. Engineers and some managers saw its value, but they were unable to convince upper management. (Deming saw this problem, but was unable to solve it in the United States) As a result, when productivity demands increased, people working on QA were told to quit talking and get back to work. QA was actively discouraged for another reason, as well. Until the difficult economic times of the 1970s, Henry Fords methods were unchallenged in North America. The assembly line focused on productivity and efficiency, not on quality. Worse, shops were run by Theory Y managers, and workers were assumed to be slackers. Disrespected workers built strong unions that were very ready to strike. In this environment of conflict, the quiet voice of the QA engineers and managers who saw a better way a way of cooperative improvement was lost. By too late, means that QA focused primarily on audits and defective products, and did not reach the realization of the implications of the 1:10:100 rules as quickly as TQM did. In spite of these limitations, QA, when supported and sustained, can add real value to an organization. These days, much of what the originators of QA developed is now included in quality planning and internal auditing. Also, teams have been consolidated and terms confused, so that knowing QA groups that do QC and QC groups that do QA. Nonetheless, we should be sure to include processes of communication, assurance that we are using best practices and the focus on quality improvement that QA brought to the world of business.

ASSIGNMENT- Set 2

1. Explain the concept of Cost of Quality with examples. Differentiate between external failure cost and internal failure cost.
Ans:- The concept of cost of Quality (COQ) has emerged in 1950s. The concept of Quality Costs is a means to quantify the total cost of Quality related efforts and deficiencies. This was first described by Armand V. Feigenbaum.

Generally, the people have the perception that higher quality involves higher costs, either for buying better raw materials or machines or by hiring expensive skills. Further more, while cost accounting had evolved to categorize the financial transactions in to revenues, expenses, overheads, it had not attempted to categorize the costs related to quality. Management is well served if the Quality related costs are segregated and reported so that the data can be evaluated to understand the impact of investments on quality related activities and focus better on the quality improvement activities to reduce the overall costs and enhance the profitability. Quality Costs in Service organizations: In manufacturing, Quality costs are primarily product oriented, where as in service industry it is personnel (labour) oriented. Personnel costs account for up to 60 to 75% of the total costs. The nature of Quality costs differs from services and manufacturing organizations. In services, the external failure costs like warranty and field support are less relevant compared to manufacturing. Process related costs like customer service and complaints handling are critical in addition to lost customers.

Internal failure costs might not be as evident in services as in manufacturing. Since there is a high level of
customer contact during service delivery, there may not be any opportunity to correct the errors before delivery. By the time error has been detected, the costs related to that had already become external failure costs. Hence, the internal failure costs in service organizations tend to be much lower for service organizations compared to manufacturing organizations. The same is the case with the appraisal costs. The service organizations must spend a lot of money in prevention activities (prevention costs) such as employee training, quality planning, work flow planning and work automation in order to be successful in reducing the external failure costs and also to achieve customer satisfaction and retention. This is because of high level of personal interactions with the customers. Work measurement and sampling techniques are extensively used to gather quality cost information in service organizations. Work measurement indicates how much of time an employee spends on various quality related activities. The quality cost for a particular activity can be calculated by multiplying the employee costs with the proportion of the time spent for that activity. In some cases, the cost of quality (poor service) can be calculated based on customer satisfaction data and customer retention / loyalty data. In this case, the cost of poor quality is the cost of lost opportunities for sales revenue. In some cases, cost of poor quality is defined with a focus on the cost of key activities or processes. In this case the cost of poor quality is computed as the difference between the actual cost and the standard cost. The standard cost is the cost incurred in an ideal situation or by following the best practice. The best practice can be either from within the organization or from an out side organization. This approach addresses the cost of inefficient processes. In general, the accounting of quality costs for services difficult because of the intangible nature of the output.
2. Write a note on Quality function Deployment.

Quality Function Deployment (QFD) is a Requirements Engineering approach that focuses on quality. It was originated in Japan in the manufacturing industry. It is a means of producing technical requirements from the customer requirements in the production and development of a product. The main focus of attention in QFD is the House of Quality (HOQ) in group sessions. QFD is made up of four different phases that depend on each other, i.e. iterations: Product Planning, Parts Deployment, Process and Control Planning, and Production Planning.

Figure 1. QFD and software development life cycle [Betts, 1989]; [Group 2, 2002] All four phases follow the same procedure; they use group sessions to build the House of Quatity. In the first phase, the customer voice is used to produce the measurable objectives. Then in the second phase, the measurable objectives are used to produce the high level design. Then in the third phase, the high level design is used to produce the methods and tools. Then in the fourth phase the methods and tools are used to produce the procedures. The group sessions need a good facilitator to complete the QFD successfully. He/she should coordinate the planning, design, process and production of a QFD study. The House Of Quality The HOQ is the kernel of QFD. It is a matrix that consists of sub matrices that are related to one another. Each section in HOQ is called room. It is a structured and systematic representation of a product or process development.

Figure 2. House Of Qualitiy. [Group 2, 2002] In the QFD class presentation [Group 2, 2002], the five sections of the House of Quality were identified and described in detail: 1. Customer requirements: As you can see from Figure 2, it is on the left side of the HOQ. This section documents the "voice of customer." It represents the "what's" of the system. Affinity diagrams and Tree diagrams are used to structure the requirements. 2. Planning Matrix: It is on the right side of the HOQ matrix. It represents the Customer Competitive Assessment. It Provides customers views on existing products. This matrix uses questionnaires to elicit information. 3. Technical requirements: This section lists how the company will meet the customer requirements. This is the "HOWS" of the system. It represents the engineering characteristics or voice of the company. This information is collected by QFD design team and structured using Affinity diagrams and Tree diagrams. This information includes:

Top-level solution-independent metrics Product/service requirements Product/service features or capabilities

4. Relationship Matrix: It occupies the middle portion of the HOQ digram which is the largest portion. It uses the prioritization matrix. It shows how well customer requirements are addressed by product features. 5. Roof: This is the Correlation matrix. It shows how the HOWs conflict with one another This section focuses on design improvement. It focuses on negative relationships in the design.

6. Targets: This the final section of House of Quality matrix. It summarizes the conclusions of the planning matrix. It includes three parts:

Technical priorities (relative importance of each technical requirement) Competitive benchmarks (relative position of the existing product) Targets (engineering target values to be met by the new product design)

3. What is meant by Quality Audit? Explain the importance of Quality Audit. List the general guidelines for carrying out a quality assurance audit. Audit
Audit, in the context of quality in higher education, is a process for checking that procedures are in place to assure quality, integrity or standards of provision and outcomes. explanatory context Audit and institutional audit tend to be used interchangeably. However, there is a distinction between an external and internal audit (the former by an external agency) and between an institutional audit and a sub-institutional audit. There are then, four possibilities, external institutional audit, internal institutional audit, external subinstitutional audit and internal sub-institutional audit. Audit tends also to be shorthand for quality audit, although it might also include, or specifically be about, auditing standards. In a sense, external examining is a standards auditing procedure. Audits might establish the existence of procedures or may attempt to audit their effectiveness. Audit may be to ensure conformance with regulations or procedures specified by an external body, such as regulations relating to examination of students. Audit may aim to ensure compliance to policy objectives or system-wide practices. For the majority of policy objectives, this is probably most effectively done at the institutional level. However, if policy is focused on specific issues such as encouraging problem-based learning, the development of employability skills, developing inclusive curricula, encouraging equal opportunities, then programme-level assessments are useful tools to see to what extent such initiatives have been taken on board. Normally, audits check whether procedures are in place, which usually requires an institution to specify its internal quality-monitoring procedures, including identification of responsibilities and intra-institutional communication and co-ordination of practices. Such processes will usually be circumscribed by established national or international protocols, codes of practice or tradition (Harvey, 2002, pp. 1314). In some cases, audit is specifically targeted at improvement plans and processes, such as the quality audits of Finnish polytechnics undertaken by the Finnish Higher Education Evaluation Council (HEEC, 1997). In Sweden, the approach to audit undertaken by the National Agency was to focus on the stated improvement agendas of institutions and explore the efficacy of improvement projects and the approach appears to have aided the development of quality awareness and quality work in the institutions (Askling, 1997; 1998). Often an audit team (usually of peers) will receive documentation and visit the institution to establish the effectiveness of the stated processes via panel discussion augmented by informal conversations and observation. Audits do not usually attempt to evaluate the institution as such, just to ensure that the institution has clearlydefined internal quality monitoring procedures linked to effective action.

Although higher education quality audit is an approach adopted, in various forms, by several countries, including New Zealand, Australia, Sweden, Finland Norway and the USA (Spanghel, 2001)1[1] it was initiated in the UK and is a term designed to focus on procedures rather than quality per se. Webb sets out the historical genesis and intent: The term audit was suggested by Professor Stewart Sutherland, Vice-Chancellor of the University of London and chairman of the CVCPs Academic Standards Group and of the Management Board of the Academic Audit Unit between 1990 and 1992, partly in order to distinguish academic audit from other kinds of peer reviews exercises, and partly to hint at the intended methodology that would characterize this form of external academic review. Academic audit would seek to borrow and adapt some techniques from financial audit, such as the scrutiny of an institutions documented procedures and practice, the extermination of these in operation through detailed inquiries and discussions with staff (and students), and the sampling of a wide range of activity and evidence, to establish and test the robustness and effectiveness of academic quality assurance. The analogy with financial audit was known to be far from perfect; it was not meant to imply that a universitys teaching and learning activities are comparable with a companys balance sheet, or that they are susceptible to similar forms of analysis. Indeed, the starting point for an academic audit was, and remains, an institutions stated aims and objectives and its stated means of assuring the quality, in particular, of its activities associated whit teaching and learning. This approach has enjoined audit teams to bring an open, non-prescriptive perspective to each institutional audit and to review arrangements for quality assurance agnostically, rather than from a conviction that a given set of procedures or an approach must be right, irrespective of the institutional context or an institutions declared aims and objectives

4. How is the human relations theory different from classical theory?

Human relations theory focuses on the value, needs and contribution of the employee; classical theory's emphasis is the good of the organisation and the work. This essay compares and contrasts the Classical and Human Relations approaches to management. It focuses on how these approaches are similar and compatible and looks at their differences and incompatibilities. It then explores how systems theory and contingency theory can reconcile the incompatibilities between the approaches. The essay is structured as follows. First, the essay shall explain the nature of the Classical and Human Relations approaches to management. Then, it will explore their similarities and dissimilarities. This section will be followed with an introduction to systems theory and contingency theory and how they can reconcile the dissimilarities and incompatibilities between the approaches. The essay shall finish with some concluding remarks. CLASSICAL V. HUMAN RELATIONS Management emerged as a field of study over 100 years ago (Holt, 1999, p.137). The 'Classical' management functions appeared at the turn of the century (Carroll and Gillan,1984). The 'Human Relations' viewpoint came about in the 1920's and 30's (Holt, 1999, p.137). Classical Management Classical management is a result of the early attempts to formalize principles for a growing number of professional managers (Jeliniek, 2005). Henri Fayol (1841 1925) and Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856 1915) are seen as two of the forefathers of classical management (Parker and Ritson, 2005; Parker and Lewis, 1995). 1

Classical management is comprised of three directions to management: scientific, administrative and bureaucratic (Bartol et al, 2006). Scientific management is the focus on the scientific study of work methods to improve worker efficiency. Taylor is viewed as one of the chief contributors to the scientific branch of classical management (Bartol et al, 2006). The scientific management school of thought reflected an engineer's ideology of work (Parker and Lewis, 1995). Taylor, while working as chief engineer for Midvale Steel

6. Write a note on the ISO 9000 series of Quality Standards and Malcolm Baldrige Criteria for Business Performance Excellence.
ISO is from the Greek word ISOS meaning "equal" ISO (International Organization for Standardisation) is the world's largest developer and publisher of International Standards. ISO is a it is a network of 156 national standards bodies, based in Geneva, Switzerland. ISO is a non-governmental organisation that forms a bridge between the public and private sectors. Many of its member institutes are part of the governmental structure of their countries, or are mandated by their government, other members have their roots uniquely in the private sector, having been set up by industry associations. ISO 9000 is a generic name given to a family of quality management standards including: ISO 9000:2005, Quality management systems Fundamentals and vocabulary. Covers the basics of what quality management systems are and also contains the core language of the ISO 9000 series of standards. A guidance document, not used for certification purposes, but important reference document to understand terms and vocabulary related to quality management systems. Note that the previous members of the ISO 9000 series, 9001, 9002 and 9003, have all been integrated into 9001. ISO 9001:2008 Quality management systems Requirements is intended for use in any organization regardless of size, type or product (including service). It provides a number of requirements which an organization needs to fulfil if it is to achieve customer satisfaction through consistent products and services which meet customer expectations. It includes a requirement for the continual improvement of the Quality Management System. (ISO 9004:2000 has further guidelines for improvement) This is the only implementation for which third-party auditors may grant certification. ISO 9001:2008, the approval standard, has 5 main sections:

Quality Management System Management Responsibility Resource Management Product Realization Measurement Analysis and Improvement

ISO 9004:2000 Quality management systems - Guidelines for performance improvements and continual improvement. This standard very specifically states that it is not intended as a guide to implementation. There are many more standards in the ISO 9001 series, see http://www.iso.org for details, many of them not even carrying "ISO 900x" numbers. Some standards in the 10,000 range are considered part of the 9000 group.

The Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award recognizes U.S. organizations in the business, health
care, education, and nonprofit sectors for performance excellence. The Baldrige Award is the only formal recognition of the performance excellence of both public and private U.S. organizations given by the President of the United States. It is administered by the Baldrige Performance Excellence Program, which is based at and managed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology, an agency of the U.S. Department of Commerce. Up to 18 awards may be given annually across six eligibility categoriesmanufacturing, service, small business, education, health care, and nonprofit. As of 2010, 91 organizations had received the award. The Baldrige National Quality Program and the associated award were established by the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Improvement Act of 1987 (Public Law 100107). The program and award were named for Malcolm Baldrige, who served as United States Secretary of Commerce during the Reagan administration, from 1981 until Baldriges 1987 death in a rodeo accident. In 2010, the program's name was changed to the Baldrige Performance Excellence Program to reflect the evolution of the field of quality from a focus on product, service, and customer quality to a broader, strategic focus on overall organizational qualitycalled performance excellence.[1] The award promotes awareness of performance excellence as an increasingly important element in competitiveness. It also promotes the sharing of successful performance strategies and the benefits derived from using these strategies. To receive a Baldrige Award, an organization must have a role-model organizational management system that ensures continuous improvement in delivering products and/or services, demonstrates efficient and effective operations, and provides a way of engaging and responding to customers and other stakeholders. The award is not given for specific products or services

Criteria for Performance Excellence

The Baldrige Criteria for Performance Excellence serve two main purposes: (1) to identify Baldrige Award recipients that will serve as role models for other organizations and (2) to help organizations assess their improvement efforts, diagnose their overall performance management system, and identify their strengths and opportunities for improvement. In addition, the Criteria help strengthen U.S. competitiveness by

improving organizational performance practices, capabilities, and results facilitating communication and sharing of information on best practices among U.S. organizations of all types serving as a tool for understanding and managing performance and for guiding planning and opportunities for learning

The Baldrige Criteria for Performance Excellence provide organizations with an integrated approach to performance management that results in

delivery of ever-improving value to customers and stakeholders, contributing to organizational sustainability improved organizational effectiveness and capabilities organizational and personal learning

The following three sector-specific versions of the Criteria, which are revised every two years, are available for free from the Baldrige Program:

Criteria for Performance Excellence Education Criteria for Performance Excellence Health Care Criteria for Performance Excellence