Biology Exam Review

By Sagar Arenja!
The BIGGEST package you ve ever seen *wink*

Contents
Unit 1: Diversity ....................................................................................................................................... 3 Microscope Drawings (and Calculations) .............................................................................................. 3 6 Kingdoms .......................................................................................................................................... 3 Eubacteria........................................................................................................................................ 3 Archaebacteria................................................................................................................................. 3 Protista ............................................................................................................................................ 4 Fungi ................................................................................................................................................ 4 Plantae ............................................................................................................................................ 4 Anamalia.......................................................................................................................................... 4 Latin Naming/ Linnaean Groupings ...................................................................................................... 4 Dichotomous Keys ............................................................................................................................... 5 Phylogeny ............................................................................................................................................ 5 Embryological Development ............................................................................................................ 5 Anatomical Structures ...................................................................................................................... 5 Genetics........................................................................................................................................... 5 Viruses................................................................................................................................................. 5 Reproduction ................................................................................................................................... 6 Structure .......................................................................................................................................... 6 Prevention ....................................................................................................................................... 6 Bacteriophages ................................................................................................................................ 6 Structure .......................................................................................................................................... 6 Reproduction ................................................................................................................................... 6 Unit 2: Plants ........................................................................................................................................... 7 Classification........................................................................................................................................ 7 Roots ................................................................................................................................................... 7 Structure .......................................................................................................................................... 8 Function........................................................................................................................................... 8 Stems .................................................................................................................................................. 8 Structure .......................................................................................................................................... 8 Function........................................................................................................................................... 9 Leaves.................................................................................................................................................. 9

Structure .......................................................................................................................................... 9 Function......................................................................................................................................... 10 Flowers .............................................................................................................................................. 10 Structure ........................................................................................................................................ 10 Stomata ............................................................................................................................................. 11 Plant Reproduction ........................................................................................................................ 11 Gravitropism/ Phototropism .............................................................................................................. 12 Unit 3: Body Systems ............................................................................................................................. 13 Circulatory System ............................................................................................................................. 13 Digestive System................................................................................................................................ 14 Respiratory System ............................................................................................................................ 17 Unit 4 : Genetics .................................................................................................................................... 19 Mitosis............................................................................................................................................... 19 Reproduction (Asexual/Sexual) .......................................................................................................... 19 Meiosis .............................................................................................................................................. 19 Formation of Gametes ....................................................................................................................... 20 Spermatogenesis ........................................................................................................................... 20 Oogenesis ...................................................................................................................................... 20 Nondisjunction/ Errors ....................................................................................................................... 20 Genetic Crosses ................................................................................................................................. 21 Single-Trait Inheritance .................................................................................................................. 21 Unit 5: Evolution .................................................................................................................................... 22

Unit 1: Diversity
Microscope Drawings (and Calculations)
1. Calculate the diameter of the FOV (field of view) on low power 2. Use a ruler focused under the microscope and actually measure the distance Note: F.O.V on low power is 4mm 3. Determine the magnification for each lens (Magnification = Occular Lens x Objective Lens) a. For example: Low Power = (10x)*(4x) = 40x 4. Calculate the FOV (Field of view) of the other two powers a. FOV of medium power = FOV of low power x Magnification of Low Power/ (divided by) Medium Power i. For example: Medium power = 2mm x 40x/100x = 0.8 5. Use a Pencil and draw the diagram a. Include an underlined title, the magnification on the bottom right, the actual size, a scale and labels. 6. Determine the actual size of the specimen a. Estimate how many of that specimen would fit across the field of view b. Take the value of the FOV and divided by the # of times the specimen will fit i. For Example: FOV on medium power = 0.08mm ii. Actual size of the specimen = 0.8/3 =0.27mm

6 Kingdoms
Eubacteria It is often called the true bacteria Found everywhere in the world Prokaryotic (doesn t have a nucleus or other membrane bound organelles) Heterotrophic or autotrophic Cell wall is often present Examples are: bacteria and cyanobacteria

y y y y y y

Archaebacteria y Ancient bacteria that live in harsh habitats such as: o Extreme saltiness o Low Oxygen Concentration o High Temperature o Extreme Acidity y Prokaryotes (doesn t have a nucleus or other membrane bound organelles) y Heterotrophs(must obtain food from another source) y Have a cell wall y Examples are: methanogens and extreme thermophiles

Protista y Mostly single-celled y Eukaryotes (have a nucleus/membrane bound organelles) y Some have chloroplasts y Evolved from prokaryotic cells y Either autotrophs/heterotrophs or both y Aquatic for most habitats y Some Sexual Reproduction y No Cell Wall y Examples are: algae and protozoa Fungi y y y y y y y

Eukaryotic Cell Walls (not made of cellulose) Heterotrophs Most are terrestrial Most are Multi-cellular Sexual and Asexual Reproduction Examples are: Mushrooms, yeasts, and Moulds

Plantae y Multicellular y Autotrophs y Reproduce Sexually and Asexually y Most are terrestrial y Have Chloroplasts (evolved from engulfing a cyanobacteria) y Cell wall made from cellulose y Examples are: mosses, ferns, flowers, and trees Anamalia y Multicellular y Heterotrophic y Most reproduce sexually y Teresstrial and Aquatic y No Cell wall (just a cell membrane) y Grouped into vertebrate and invertebrates (with/without an internal structure) y Examples are: sponges, insects, birds, and mammals

Latin Naming/ Linnaean Groupings

Binomial Nomenclature 1 part is the genus of the organism (a relatively small group that share similar traits)
st

2nd part is the species of the organism (usually describes an important characteristic of the organism) Escherichia Coli The genus is written in italics and Captialized while the species is often abbreviated Linnaeus Classification: Taxa (pl.): the groups to which organisms are assigned (taxon sing.) Taxonomy: the science of naming organisms and assigning them to groups The grouping starts out general with the Kingdoms becoming more specific ending in species

Dichotomous Keys
They are used to place organisms into appropriate classifications that determine the name of the organisms. It uncludes two choices for each characteristic

Phylogeny
Ancestor- Descendant relationships Embryological Development Organisms share common ancestry if they show similar stages of embryological development For example, vertebrate embryos all go through a stage where they have gills similar to fish providing direct evidence that they are descendant from a fish-like common ancestor Anatomical Structures Organisms share common ancestry if they have similar anatomical structions Homologous structures are structures of different organisms that are similar in form For example, the wing of a bat and a whale s flipper are homologous structures because their skeletal structures are similar. It does not matter that they look different and function differently. Genetics Organisms share common ancestry if they are genetically similar. The molecules of an organism are inherited and show evolving changes over time. For example, organisms that are closely related will have areas of similar DNA.

Viruses
They are excluded from the 6 kingdoms because they are not considered living. They do not metabolize energy to perform cellular respiration and survive as parasites within cells of the host organism depending on the host for respiration, nutrition, and all other life functions. Viruses take over the host cell by altering the host s genetic material allowing it to perform viral replication of itself.

y y y

Reproduction Binary fission (DNA material copied and each set ends up in a different cell) Reproduction once every 20 minutes under ideal conditions Endospore (second, duplicated chromosomes DNA is coated by protein and carbohydrate becoming dormant. o Can withstand harsh conditions. Comes back to life after conditions become good again Conjugation (chromosome exchanged through connection of pilus. Protein bridge)

Structure Come in many shapes and sizes ranging from 20-300 nm and all contain genetic material and a capsid (protein covering) Viruses have a specific host-pathogen relationship and usually have a very restricted host range that they can infect. Prevention Viral infections are difficult to treat as antibodies and sulpha drugs do not harm them. Some viral diseases can be prevented with vaccines which cause the body to produce antibodies for the vaccine that protect from the actual disease. These antibodies stay with us creating immunity. Bacteriophages Structure They are a category of viruses that infect bacteria often referred to as phages. They are tadpole shaped with a distinct head and tail There are two types of phages: Virulent (which cause lysis or breakage of the host cell and replicate actively) or Temperate (which stay dormant for varying periods of time and do not cause lysis Reproduction Lyctic Cycle: 1. The Bacteriophage attatches to the cell wall surface. Proteins on the viral tail and structures on the bacterium ensure a specific host match 2. Bacteriophage tail releases an enzyme to dissolve the wall of the bacterium (Viral DNA is injected into the cell) 3. Inside the host cell the viral DNA takes over the host cell activity destroying the host cell s DNA. Once the cell is under viral control, it begins to replicate viral DNA. 4. Copies of viral DNA and capsid are assembled into new viruses. The cytoplasm of the host cell releases a digestive enzyme that breaks down the outer shell of the bacterium releasing hundreds of new viruses 5. New viruses infect other cells and the process continues Lysogenic Cycle:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Viral DNA combines with the host DNA Virus doesn t not harm the host cell Viral DNA reproduces alongside host DNA Eventually, due to stimulous, the viral DNA becomes active again and uses the lyctic cycle.

Unit 2: Plants
Classification
1. Monocots a. Ex. Orchids, wheat, ice 2. Dicots a. Ex. Oak Trees, Cacti, Sunflowers Feature Number of Seed Leaves Vascular Bundles (transport vessels in plants) Flower Parts Mature Leaves Roots Monocot 1 Scattered throughout the stem Multiples of 3 Narrow leaves Parallel Veins Fibrous Root Dicot 2 Arranged in a ring Multiples of 4/5 Broad Leaves Branching Veins Taproot

Plants are organized in two systems: 1. Root System a. Anchors to hold plants in place b. Absorbs water and minerals c. Transport water and minerals to stem d. Sometimes Used for Food Storage 2. Shoot System a. Stem supports plant and transport water and minerals to leaves and sugar from leaves b. Leaves make sugars through photosynthesis

Roots
Root System has the main root and then the lateral root The two types of roots are: 1. Fibrous Roots a. Found in monocots b. Many roots all of equal size extend laterally over a large area 2. Taproots a. Found in dicots

b. One think, long, primary root extends straight down c. Secondary branch roots can extend from primary root Structure Epidermis o Outermost layer of root o One cell thick o Protects inner cells and absorbs water/minerals from soil o Specialized root hair increase surface area Cortex o Cell layer inside the epidermis o Stores starch and other molecules o Water and minerals move through this layer towards the center by osmosis Endodermis o Wax coated layer that separates the cortex from the inner vascular cylinder Vascular Cylinder o Contains the plants conducting tissues  Xylem (transports water and minerals upwards  Phloem (transports sugars downwards)

y y

Function y Anchorage y Absorbtion (water and nutrients from soil) y Storage y Propagation (aids in creating more plants

Stems
Structure There are two types of stems: 1. Herbaceous a. Green and Soft b. Do not survive winter (regrown each year) i. Contain Vascular Bundles (collections of xylem and phloem) 1. They are scattered in the monocot 2. Arranged in a ring in the dicot 2. Woody a. Tough and hard (wood) b. Remain year-round i. More complex with Multiple layers 1. Bark a. Outer protective tissue containing the phloem and cork tissue

b. Outer cork cells are dead and contain fats, oils and waxes to prevent water loss 2. Vascular cambium a. Makes new xylem and phloem each year (tree rings) 3. Sapwood a. Younger Xylem 4. Heartwood a. Older Xylem, filled with resins and oils Note: Each year a new layer of sapwood is formed (A.K.A the annual ring). Scientists count up these annual rings and determine the age of the plant Function Support (trunk branches and stems of all plant parts) Transport (materials through phloem and xylem) Food Storage Protection Propagation (for creating new plants) Photosynthesis

y y y y y y

Leaves
Make sugars for the plant through photosynthesis Structure Cuticle and Epidermis o The upper layer of the leaf is covered by a waxy substance (cuticle) o Acts as a protective barrier o Prevents water loss from upper surface Stomata (stoma sing.) o O2 abd CO2 enter and exit the leaf through this opening o Located on the underside of the leaf Guard Cells o Specialized cells that surround stomata o Open during daylight so gas can exchange for photosynthesis o Close at night to prevent water loss Palisade Cells o A layer of closely-packed, elongated cells located just beneath the upper epidermis of a leaf  Contain chloroplasts and are the main sites of photosynthesis Spongy Cells o A layer of loosely packed cells located beneath the palisade cells of a leaf. The spaces between the cells allow for the exchange of gases (necessary for photosynthesis)

Veins o o o

Vascular bundles containing xylem and phloem Carry water and minerals to mesophyll for photosynthesis Carry sugar products to other cells in plant

y y y y

Function Photosynthesis Regulate (water loss by opening and closing guard cells Storage Support

Flowers
The flower contains both male and female parts unless they are imperfect flowers containing only male parts, or only female parts. Structure Xylem conducts water and dissolved materials (together called xylem saps) from the root to all parts of the plants There are two types of xylem cells: vessels and tracheids Vessles are only found in angiosperms and consists of many vessel elements connected from end to end and allows xylem sap to pass from one element to the next as it travels upwards There are often packed side by side and are connected by pits This permits lateral flow of xylem sap The tracheaa is much narrower than vessel elements and their ends are sharply angled. Trachea are found in all vascular plants The substances cellulos and lignin are used to form rigid cell walls on xylem cells When these walls are complete, the cytoplasm dies leaving dead hollow xylem This becomes plugged with oil, gum, tannins, and resins that results in the formation of heartwood only in woody dicots. Phloem transports water and dissolved carbohydrates (primarily sugars) from the leaves to other parts of the plants (primarily the leaves) Phloem cells care called sieve tube cells or (members) because they have sieve plates at each end They are like vessel elements but smaller These cells remain alive and at maturity they have no nuclei, instead it is cytoplasm The cytoplasm is connected by pores to a small nucleated companion cell If this companion cells die, the sieve cells stop functioning

y y y y y y y y y y y y y y y y

Stomata
The Stomata are open during the day only because they allow carbon dioxide to enter and water vapour and oxygen to leave the leaf during photosynthesis. Since there is no photosynthesis at night, no carbon dioxide is needed, so the stomata close which also prevents too much water loss. Exceptions could be when in extreme hot weather conditions, the stomata close to prevent too much water loss (transpiration). Plant Reproduction y Asexual o reproduce through stems, roots, or leaves o offspring is identical (genetics) to the parent o fast form of reproduction Sexual o use of flowers o most flowers are hermaphrodite o they can reproduce on their own within the same flower (self pollination) o they can reproduce with another species (cross pollination) o both methods produce variations in genes, cross pollination produces more variation

Flowers are designed for reproduction: y petals o o o o

function to attract pollinators colours attract pollinators shape attract pollinators nectar on petals attract pollinators

y y y y y

the pistil is the female part of the plant is located in the middle of all the petals o the top part is the stigma it is sticky to catch all the pollen o middle is the style o base is the ovary stamen is the male there are more than one stamen o the top part (anther) contains the pollen o the base is the filament when the stigma and the stamen are the same size they are designed for self pollination when the flower is all male or all female then they must rely on cross pollination with fertilization the pollen combines with the egg (found inside the ovule) and produces an embryo plant the seed has the embryo plant and food source o food source is needed because seeds cannot undergo photosynthesis in water the fruit is an ovary o protects the seed and provides food for it

y y y

positive tropism is that it is growing near the source of the stimulus negative tropism is that the plant is growing away from the source of the stimulus oxins are the hormones which determine which cells elongate in order to grow more towards or farther from the stimulus

Gravitropism/ Phototropism
Gravitropism is the growth response to gravity. Stems show negative gravitropism and roots show positive gravitropism in response to the force of the gravity. The direction of gravitational forces is senced by specialized cells found in root caps along the length of the stems. Phototropism is the direction of growth a plant proceeds to grow according to where the light source is coming from. The growth can either be a positive reaction (growing towards stimulus) or a negative reaction (growing away from stimulus)

Unit 3: Body Systems

Circulatory System
Blood vessels y Arteries carry blood away from the heart o Thick muscular walls o Arteries stretch to accommodate rush of blood after each heart beat Blood from arteries passes into small arteries (arterioles) Vasoconstriction o Nerve impulse causes smooth muscle of arteriole to contract which decreases the diameter o Decreases blood flow to tissues Vasodilation o Relaxation of smooth muscle of arteriole causes the diameter to increase o Increases blood flow to tissues Capillaries o Single layers of cells o Site of fluid and gas exchange between blood and body cells o Very fragile (bruise is when they break) Oxygenated blood entering the capillary is red in colour, it leaves a purple-blue colour as it has given up all of its oxygen to nearby cells Veins o The small portion leaving the capillary is known as a venule o Veins follow and are much larger (and get even large in diameter the closer to the heart they get) o Blood pressure is low as the diameter continues to increase  Valves in the veins (which open only in one direction) ensures that the blood does not flow backwards)  In arteries the diameter continually narrows which maintains a high pressure to pump the blood along Blood  Erythrocytes red blood cell  Leukocytes white blood cell

y y

y y

Heart y y Two parallel pumps Right side (of your body) receives deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs (so that it can oxygenated again)

Left side receives the oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it around to the rest of the body

Digestive System
From Mouth to Stomach 4 components of digestion y Ingestion taking in of nutrients o Physical digestion food is chewed and formed into a bolus (ball) o Voluntary process the only time the process is in our control is when we chew and swallow, the rest will happen involuntarily Digestion breakdown of molecules by enzymes Absorption transport of nutrients into the body Egestion removal of waste food from the body

y y y

Saliva y y y y Watery fluid gathered by the salivary glands Contains amylase to break down starches into simpler carbohydrates Lubricates the food so that It can be swallowed Dissolves food so we can taste it

Oesophagus Transports food from mouth to stomach The bolus of food stretches the muscles of the tube activating the smooth muscles to contract in waves of rhythmic contraction o Peristalsis y Food storage and intiatial protein digestion y Movements of food regulated by sphincters Stomachs y y y y y Contains numerous ridges o Allows stomachs expansion to 1.5L 500ml of fluid are produced after a large meal Fluids include o Mucus provides a protective coating o Pepsinogens  Inactive precursor to pepsin (an enzyme) o Hydrochloric acids  Kills harmful substances  Converts pepsinogens into the active form of pepsin o Pepsin is the able to break down proteins

Stomach Ulcers Occur when the mucous lining of the stomach breakdown The cell membrane of the stomach lining are the exposed to the HCL (very acidic) and pepsin (digest proteins) and begin to be digested/destroyed y Linked to bacteria Heliobacter pylori o Can be killed with powerful antibodies y Stress, diet and other factors ( once thought to cause ulcers) may still play a part in developing ulcers y Lasers can be used to surgically treat ulcers o Beam is thinner than a scalpel o Seals blood vessels y Endoscopes o Light emitting glass fibre used to view things inside the body (without surgery) o Tiny forceps on the end can even take a biopsy Digestion y y Absorption small intestine & pancreas y y y Partially digested food moves from stomach to the small intestine soaked in stomach acid Partnered with the pancreas o Secretes enzymes into small intestines The small intestine needs to be protected from the stomach acid o When acid enters the small intestine a chemical (prosecretin) is converted to secretin o The secretin travels in the blood to the pancreas and signals the release of bicarbonate ions o Bicarbonate ions are carried to the small intestine and neutralize the acid Pancreatic secretions contain enzymes to break down three major components of food o Proteins o Carbohydrates o Lipids When food is passed from the stomach it is only partially digested the job is finished in the small intestine Long chains have been broken into shorted chains but not completely divided in the smallest subunits needed for absorption Breaking down proteins o Tripsinogen secreted from pancreas (inactive) o Converted into trypsin (active) by the enzyme enterokinase Breaking down carbohydrates o Amylase secreted from pancreas breaks down carbs down into disaccharides (2 unit sugar)

y y y

Disaccharidases from small intestine break sugar into monosaccharides (single unites that can be absorbed) Breaking down lipids (fats) o Lipases are released from the pancreas o Pancreatic lipase breaks fats into fatty acids and glycerol o Phospholipases breaks down phospholipids o

Small intestine y y Named small because it I narrow and longer than the large intestine The length of the small intestine is related to diet o Meats are easier to digest so carnivores have shorted small intestines o Plants are harder to digest so herbivores have longer small intestines o Omnivores are in the middle so thy have intermediate length small intestines Digestion mostly occurs in the 1st 30cm of the small intestine (duodenum)

Liver and Gallbladder y y y Liver produces bile contain bile salts which speed up fat digestion Gallbladder stores extra bile i.e. if the stomach is empty When the bile is required a message is sent to the gallbladder from the small intestine (cholecystokinin a.k.a CCK)

Bile small intestine y Bile salts in the bile emulsify (break down) large fat globules into smaller droplets o Physical digestion which increases the surface area of the fat to speed up the chemical digestion process (lipases)

Absorption small intestine y y y Most absorption takes place in the small intestine Long finger-like tubes called villa (pl) (villus sing.) o Villi increase the surface area available for absorption The cells that make up the villus have threadlike extensions (microvilli)

Small intestine villi A capillary network supplies each villus and is intertwined with lymph vessels which transport the products of fat digestion y Nutrients are absorbed into the capillary of the villus y Diffusion requires no energy o Particles move from a high concentration (intestine) to a low concentration (blood) y Active transport requires energy (pumped) Large Intestine y

Once food enters the large intestine chemical digestion is complete The colon (largest part of the large intestine) stores wastes while the body reabsorbs water Houses bacteria i.eE.coli which are able to synthesize vitamins B and K from waste products Cellulose which we are unable to digest provides bulk o As wastes build up receptors in the wall of the large intestine send a signal and a bowel movement is prompted Food energy y y y y y y y y Energy is measured in joules (J) or kilojoules (kJ) In USA energy is measured in calories o One Calorie is 4.18 J Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)is the minimum amount of energy that a resting animal requires to maintain life processes The energy output must always equal energy input o If the energy input exceeds energy input the excess energy will be stored as energystorage compound of fat o Energy is never lost, it only changes forms

Respiratory System
Importance y y Inhale y Airs enters the body (nose/mouth) o Nasal hairs filter out foreign particles o Nasal cavities warm and moisten air Air travels into the pharynx o Both the trachea (windpipe) and esophagus (food passage branch from here) Need oxygen in body for cells to function Respiration is the way of getting oxygen in and carbon dioxide out

Trachea y y y y y y Lined by mucus-producing cells o Mucus traps any debris that has not been filtered Some cells ciliated o Sweeps debris back up into pharynx Walls supported by cartilage rings Epiglottis is a flap that overs the opening to the trachea o When food is swallowed it does not end up in the lungs Larynx is located in the upper trachea Voice box

o Into the lungs y

Contains two thin sheets of elastic ligaments (vocal cords)

Air travels into two bronchi (sing. Bronchus) o Carry air to the right and left lungs o Have cartilage rings Each bronchus branches into smaller airways (bronchioles) o No cartilage rings, smooth muscle

The exchange zone y Air ends in a bind ending sac alveolus (pl. alveoli) o Surrounded by capillaries o Gases diffuse in and out of the alveolus into the blood in the capillary. (just as nutrients did in the digestive system) o Single layer of cells (as is the capillary) for rapid exchange o Millions of alveoli in the lungs (increase surface area)

Gas exchange y y Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the capillaries Carbon dioxide diffuses from the capillaries into the alveoli, up through the respiratory system and eventually it is exhaled out

bronchi

O2

alveoli

CO2 Breathing y y

capillary

Lungs expand and contract in response to the pressure changes in the chest cavity Diaphragm is a muscle that separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity o Diaphragm moves down, lung volume increases, pressure drops, lungs fill with air o Diaphragm moves up, lung volume decreases, pressure increases, air is expelled o Assisted by the intercostal muscles (between the rips)

Unit 4 : Genetics
Mitosis
Mitosis is the process of cell division that ensures genetic continuity. Phases: refer to the handout

Reproduction (Asexual/Sexual)
Asexual reproduction: Type Binary Fission Budding

Fragmentation Spore Formation

Vegetative Reproduction

Regeneration

Parent cell splits in half producing two identical cells Once a copy of the genetic material is made, a bud begins to form outside the body of the yeast cell. It continues to grow longer until eventually; it breaks away to form a new individual cell When a piece breaks off and grows into a new individual Involves the production of spores that contain the DNA and develop into a new organism after dispersal Runners (buds) develop into above ground stems and leaves, forming on roots near the ground surface and on damaged cells A piece of the parent is detached and it grows and develops into a completely new individual

Sexual Reproduction: y y y Requires the combination of gametes (egg and sperm) It is the process by which the end is a UNIQUE individual different from both parents This leads to genetic variation and diversity

Meiosis
Human Somatic cells (body cells) contain 46 chromosomes, divided into 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes. Specific traits (alleles) are coded for in these genes. y y Meiosis is the division process that prevents the doubling of genetic material from occurring It creates gametes with half the number of chromosomes (haploid cells)

Fertilization is the fusion of 2 gametes (male and female) to get back to a diploid number

Phases Refer to Handout

Formation of Gametes
Spermatogenesis in males, meiosis produces 4 functional haploid cells called spermatids Spermatids undergo differentiation to become sperm cells o Head (contains nucleus o Body (contains mitochondria to provide energy for flagellum) o Tail (flagellum for movement) Oogenesis In the female o Division of cytoplasm in meiosis 1 is unequal o Result is one large cell (secondary oocyte)and one small cell (polar body) o In humans (and most vertebrates) the polar body deteriorates and does not divide again o Unequal cytoplasm division occurs again in meiosis 2, resulting in one large ovum (egg) and another polar body o End result is one functional cell Why this unequal division of cytoplasm? o Ensures that the ovum has enough nutrients to support later development of the zygote after fertilization

y y

Nondisjunction/ Errors
The two types of errors that can occur in meiosis are: 1. Errors during chromosome division which result in an abnormal chromosomal number a. For Example, non-disjunction i. It can occur in Meiosis I when homologous pairs fail to separate resulting in two gametes with an extra chromosome and two gametes with a mistake chromosome ii. It can occur in Meiosis II when sister chromatids fail to separate resulting in two normal gametes, one gamete with an extra chromosome and one gamete with a missing chromosome iii. Errors can be classified as 1. Monosomy : one missing chromosome 2. Trisomy: One extra chromosome 3. Polysomy: One or more extra chromosome 2. Errors during recombination which result in an abnormal chromosome shape a. Duplication i. A chromosome fragment attaches to a complete homolog

ii. This results in an extra copy of the gene iii. The gene ends up being expressed more often (not very serious) b. Deletion i. A chromosome fragment fails to reattach to a homolog ii. The Fragment is lost resulting in a loss of genetic that can be extremely serious c. Inversion i. A chromosome fragment attaches to a homoloh in the reverse order ii. Gene may not separate properly (can t be found for protein sysnthesis) d. Translocation i. Chromosome fragment attaches to a non-homologous chromosome ii. Gene may not be expressed properly (protein synthesis occurs at the wrong time)

Genetic Crosses
Single-Trait Inheritance Punnet Square o Possible Genotypes of both parents and uses a matrix(grid) to determine the possible offspring Monohybrid Cross o Deals with only one trait Genotype o The alles that the individual has o 2 of the same alleles Heterozygous o 2 different alleles Phenotype : the observable traits o The eyes are brown

y y y y y

Alleles y y Dominant: expressed always o Written as capital letter Recessive: will only be expressed if there is no dominant allele

Example of eye colour Genotype Homozygous dominant Heterozygous Homozygous recessive Phenotype Brown eyes Brown eyes Blue eyes

BB Bb bb

Example 1: 2 parents are heterozygous for brown eye colour. What is the genotypic ratio and phenotype ratio of their possible offspring? Parent 1:Bb parent 2: Bb B BB Bb b Bb bb parent 1

B b ^parent 2

Genotypic Ratio: 1BB : 2Bb : 1bb 25% BB, 50% Bb, 25% bb Phenotypic Ratio: 3 Brown eyes: 1 blue eyes

Unit 5: Evolution
Evolution is the compelling theory that explains the origin of species and the history of life on earth. It is the process in which significant changes in the inheritable traits (genetic make-up) of a species occur over time. Time frame y Evolution is a long gradual process o Millions hundreds of thousands of years y Gradual theory y Punctuated theory (period of faster change) o Rapid here is still a very long time tens of thousands of years at least One Common Debate y This length of time required for the theory of evolution is one area that causes a lot of debate as not everyone agrees with the age of the earth being about 3.5 billion years o Suggested using radiometric dating) Why Do We See Evolution y Organisms are seen to gain adaptations to support themselves in a specific niche (role in the ecosystems

Natural Selection y organisms that reproduce are not selected by the breeder but by the environment (Darwin) y individuals with characteristics well suited in some way to environment conditions would survive longer and have the best chances of finding a mate, and producing offspring that also have their well suited characteristics y natural selection is a random process. It doesn t look and see what organisms needs a random change occurs, if it benefits the organisms and is hereditary it tends to get passed along in greater frequency in future generations Survival of the Fittest y organisms that are better suited to a particular environment/nicht will have a higher survival rate (considered to be fit ) Simple to Complex y the fossil record can be used to research and theorize above the early (simple) life forms eventually evolved into later (higher) life forms The Changing Earth y don t forget that the earth is continually changing and time can be divided into many different time periods or eras based on the condition of the earth and atmoshphere o these changes in conditions are what help to shape types of changes that may occur  the organisms are trying to adapt to be able to survive in their current environment How do these traits arise y one widely accepted belief is that random genetic mutations occur and sometime those mutations prove to be beneficial Problems with the Fossil Record y prior to the discovery of genetics and genetic technologies scientists grouped organisms in phylogenetic trees based on features such as their skeletal and body system y scientists have now found many organisms were misplaced on the tree, they may look like they evolved from something or are related but share limited DNA Homologous Structures y share a common origin but may serve different functions in modern species Analogous Structure y similar in function but not in origin (produced through a different evolutionary pathway) One of Darwin s Conclusion y organisms with homologous features likely shared a more recent common y humans, chickens and Fish all have a stage with a tail but for humans that tail disappears usually before birth

anteaters go through a stage where they have rudimentary teeth (which they lose as anteaters are actually toothless)

Vestigial Features y Structures that serve no useful functions in a living organisms o Digits on dogs, pigs y Humans have muscles for moving their ears like dogs do while with practice some can move their ears slightly we do not use these muscles to hear sound Problems with fossils, skeletal remains y Sometimes the bones were not put together in the correct manner, leading scientists astray as to the actual anatomy of the organism o In the past competing scientists even sabotaged enact other sites Microevolution y Evolutionary agents are forces that change the allele and gene frequencies in a population y These changes in the gene-pool of a population result in small evolutionary changes ( micro ) Mutation y Appear to be random with respect to adaptive needs y Most tend to be neutral or harmful Gene Flow y Migration of individuals followed by breeding in their new location y Immigration into the new population may bring new allele and/or after the allele frequency Random Genetic Drift y Chance events that after allele frequencies y May cause a bottle-neck effect

Natural Selection y Individuals vary in heritable traits that determine the success of their reproductive efforts y Stabilizing (reduces variation) y Directional (one extreme has an advantage) o Can reach and optimum and halt o Can be reversed if the environmental conditions change y Disruptive (both extremes have advantage) o Rare Sexual Selection y Differential reproductive success that results from variation in the ability to obtain mates; results in sexual dimorphism and mating and courtship behaviours o The males usually compete for females (they want to pass on the genes) The Evolution of Mimicry y Adaptation of prey to predation y An evoked resemblance to some inedible or unpalatable item Speciation y The process by which one species splits into two species evolving into distinct lineages o Not all evolutionary changes will result in a new species, a single lineage may itself change over time y Gene pool becomes separated into two o Overtime allele and gene frequencies change o If enough change occurs the two populations may no longer be able to exchange genes again (interbreed) Allopatric Specilization y Gene pool divides without geographic barrier y Usually due to polyploidy in the daughter species Parapatric Speciation y Reproduction isolation develops between adjacent populations y Prezygotic barriers o Live in different places of the environment o Mating periods don t overlap o Differences in size and shape of reproductive organs o Sperm and egg are not attracts or doesn t penetrate y Postzygote barriers o Hybrids, zygotes don`t mature, are infertile, low survival rate, abscene or sterility of one sex

Evolution y Leads to increased diversity of life on earth y Leads to changes often thought if improvements to systems o (in plants and animals) y There is evidence to support that random genetic mutations may be the underlying cause of evolution y A scientific theory