SUSPENSION SYSTEM Types of front See Figures 1 thru 7 suspensions

The most common front suspensions used on vehicles today are the independent (2 unequal length control arms) and McPherson strut suspension systems (used on front wheel drive and some rear wheel drive vehicles).

Figure 1 The two most common front suspension types used on vehicles today.

Figure 2 On this design, the coil spring is mounted on top of

the upper control arm with the shock absorber in the center of the coil spring. Only the upper control arm is of the A-arm design.

Figure 3 Typical unequal length A-arm suspension used on rearwheel drive sedans. In this design, the shock absorber and coil spring are positioned between the upper and lower control arms. Note that the control arms (A-arms) are not the same length.

Figure 4 This independent front truck suspension is very similar to the unequal length A-arm suspension used on rearwheel drive sedans. It functions in the same manner, but the components are of a heavier duty construction to handle the added stress.

Figure 5 This straight I-beam front suspension, used mostly in heavy-duty trucks, is uncomplicated and meant to handle heavy loads, rather than give a comfortable ride.

Figure 6 This four-wheel-drive suspension is basically the

same as an I-beam suspension, except that a front drive axle takes the place of the I-beam.

Figure 7 The twin I-beam front suspension is used almost exclusively by Ford trucks. The coil spring is mounted between the frame and an I-beam that carries each wheel. The I-beam is pivoted at the other end, and a radius rod serves to locate the fore-and-aft position of each I-beam.

Independent front See Figures 2 and 3

suspension

This is also called an unequal length A-arm or control arm type, because the upper and lower control arms attached to the frame are of different lengths. This design is typical of American sedans and is designed this way to reduce tire scuffing. Ball joints are used to attach the outer ends of the control arms to the spindle. This type of front suspension most often uses coil springs between the control arms, though they can be positioned between the control arm and frame or even on top of the upper control arm. Shock absorbers are used to dampen vibrations. McPherson See Figure 8 strut

McPherson strut front suspension differs considerably from unequal length A-arm suspension. McPherson strut suspension is found most frequently on compact and subcompact cars, both domestic and imported. With this type of suspension, the shock absorber, strut and spindle are a combined unit, which is supported by the coil spring at the upper end and the lower control arm (sometimes called track control arm or transverse link) at the bottom. Another type of front strut suspension is referred to as a modified McPherson strut suspension, which is the same as the regular McPherson strut unit except the coil spring is mounted separately from the strut, between the lower control arm and the frame. There is only one ball joint in this design, and it is attached to the lower part of the spindle. Generally, this ball joint is not a load carrying ball joint, but a follower ball joint, which means it is isolated from vehicle weight. The shock absorber is built into the strut outer casing and, except for the modified McPherson strut, a coil spring sits on a seat welded to this casing. The upper mount of the shock

absorber bolts to the vehicle body. On some models, the strut cartridge may be replaced, while on others the entire strut must be replaced. Due to the design of this type of suspension, the only front-end alignment procedure possible is toe-in adjustment, since caster and camber are fixed. Figure 8 McPherson strut type front suspensions are used on most of today's passenger vehicles.

Spring types At the core of every suspension system are the springs. Suspension systems utilize three types of springs-coil, leaf (both mono and multi-leaf) and torsion bar. This is the component that maintains proper riding height while absorbing all levels of shock force. If worn out or damaged, other elements of the suspension will shift out of their correct positions, subjecting them to increased wear which they are not designed for. This will severely affect the vehicle's ride and handling. Larger, heavier vehicles require stiffer springs than a lightweight vehicle. Spring rate is classified as the amount of deflection displayed under a specific load. In reference to the

law of physics, a weight or force applied to a spring will compress it proportionally to the force applied. The spring will return to its original position once the force is removed, if not overloaded. Coil springs See Figure 9 The most common springs used today on independent suspensions are the coil springs. The coil spring is nothing more than a steel bar that has been bent into a flexible coil. The spring absorbs shock forces by compressing in and recoiling back to its original spring height. Coil springs can be located between control arms, frame and control arms and in most strut assemblies. Figure 9 The coil spring is the most common spring used on vehicles today.

Most coil springs fail due to constant overloading, excessive up and down movement or just a general breakdown due to metal fatigue. Leaf springs See Figure 10

Leaf springs are the first type of spring used on vehicle suspensions and are still in use today, however, they are more commonly found on light duty trucks, SUVs, vans and on some passenger vehicles (on the rear only). Two basic types of leaf spring are, mono-leaf and multi-leaf. Mono-leaf, or single-leaf, springs are thick in the center and taper off at each end, which provides a variable spring rate for good load carrying capability as well as a good ride. Mono-leaf springs are also less noisy while producing less static friction of multi-leaf springs. Figure 10 Leaf springs are made up of several flat, steel leaves.

Multi-leaf springs are made up of several flat steel leaves bound together and retained with a bolt or clips. The main leaf is the one leaf that is the full length of the spring from the front mounting bushing to the rear mounting shackle. Each leaf bound to the main leaf is gradually shorter which gives the spring a tapered profile. Each leaf added to the spring assembly contributes to its stiffening ability. Because of the curved construction of the leaf spring, it is also referred to as a semi-elliptical spring.

Leaf eye at the rear of the spring leaf is secured to the vehicle frame using a shackle. The spring shackles allow some movement fore and aft in response to the physical forces on acceleration, deceleration and braking.

Torsion bar See Figure 11 The torsion bar is a coil spring stretched out straight, and used instead of a coil spring to control wheel action. The torsion bars are attached to the chassis at one end and to the upper or lower control arm at the other end. As the control arm moves up or down in response to the road surface, it twists the torsion bar, which resists the twisting force and returns the control arm to the normal position. The outer ends of the control arms are kept an equal distance apart by spindles, sometimes called steering knuckles which are held, in place by ball joints at the top and bottom. Ball joints permit upward and downward motion of the steering knuckle, and the turning motion required for turning corners, while keeping the steering knuckles vertical.

Figure 11 Unequal length A-arms used on a torsion bar front suspension.

Manual steering There are two types of manual steering in general use today. The first is called worm and sector steering, also known as re-circulating ball, while the second is called rack and pinion steering. Recirculating ball steering. See Figures 12 and 13 In this type of steering, the end of the steering input shaft, called the worm shaft, is machined with a continuous spiral groove holding ball bearings. These ball bearings move a ball nut assembly up or down the worm shaft when the steering wheel is turned. Since the worm shaft is coupled directly to the steering column shaft, turning the steering wheel causes the worm shaft to turn in the same direction. This action moves the ball nut assembly along its length. The balls circulate in one

direction for a right-hand turn and in the other direction for a left-hand turn. Teeth on the ball nut assembly then engage teeth on the sector shaft (also called the Pitman shaft since it is connected to the Pitman arm) causing the Pitman or sector shaft to move the Pitman arm, thereby converting the rotating force of the steering wheel into the slower, higher torque rotation of the Pitman arm. The Pitman arm in turn transmits the desired directional movement to the front wheels through the steering linkage. Tubes connect the locknut/sleeve unit and allow the balls to constantly re-circulate, distributing wear evenly among them. Figure 12 Typical recirculating ball steering system.

Figure 13 Steering linkage of a recirculating ball system.

Rack and pinion See Figure 14

steering

This steering design uses a steering gear connected to the steering column shaft by a flexible coupling. This gear, similar in design to the pinion gear used in a differential, is cut on an angle and meshed on one side with a steel bar or rack that also has teeth cut in it. This rack is contained in the steering gearbox, which is positioned between the tie rods in the steering linkage. When the steering wheel is turned, the pinion gear operates directly on the rack, causing it to move from side to side and transmitting motion to the front wheels. This type of steering gear avoids the use of a Pitman arm and is a more direct and precise type of steering, although drivers accustomed to re-circulating ball steering occasionally find its directness disconcerting. Figure 14 Typical rack and pinion steering gear, used on

most

of

today's

passenger

vehicles.

Power steering See Figure 15 Power steering units are mechanical steering gear units incorporating a power assist. Power steering for the recirculating ball type steering system consists of a pump, fluid reservoir, pressure and return hoses and steering gear. The pump, which is driven by an accessory drive belt, consists of an impeller, pressure valve, and fluid reservoir. Pump pressure builds only when the engine is running. The pump impeller turns, picking up hydraulic fluid from the reservoir and feeding it to the steering gear under pressure through the pressure line. The fluid is then returned to the fluid reservoir through the nonpressurized return line. The power assisted rack and pinion steering system is very similar to that of the recirculating ball system in that its power cylinder and control valve are in the same housing.

The power piston is part of the rack while the rack housing is the cylinder. The pinion housing contains the control valve. Rotating the steering wheel moves the control valve, directing pressure to both ends of the steering rack piston. The rack and pinion system uses a pressure hose from the power steering pump to the control valve housing, and a return line to the fluid reservoir. Figure 15 Operation of a power steering system.

Steering geometry Front wheel alignment (also known as front-end geometry) is the position of the front wheels relative to each other and to the vehicle. Correct alignment must be maintained to provide safe, accurate steering, vehicle stability and minimum tire wear. The factors that determine wheel alignment are interdependent. Therefore, when one of the factors is adjusted, the others must be adjusted to compensate. Front-end alignment is best checked with sophisticated equipment, such as an alignment rack.

Caster angle See Figure 16 Caster angle is the number of degrees that a line, drawn through the center of the upper and lower ball joints (or strut and lower ball joint) and viewed from the side, can be tilted forward or backward. Positive caster means that the top of the upper ball joint (or strut) is tilted toward the rear of the vehicle, and negative caster means that it is tilted toward the front. A vehicle with a slightly positive caster setting will have its lower ball joint pivot slightly ahead of the tire's center. This will assist the directional stability of the vehicle by causing a drag at the bottom center of the wheel when it turns, thereby resisting the turn and tending to hold the wheel steady in whatever direction the vehicle is pointed. A vehicle with too much (positive) caster will be hard to steer and shimmy at low speeds. A vehicle with insufficient (negative) caster may tend to be unstable at high speeds and may respond erratically when the brakes are applied. Figure 16 A positive caster angle will have the lower ball joint pivot slightly ahead of the center of the tire and the strut or upper ball joint tilted toward the rear of the vehicle.

Camber angle See Figure 17 Camber angle is the number of degrees that the wheel itself is tilted from a vertical line, when viewed from the front. Positive camber means that the top of the wheel is slanted away from the vehicle, while negative camber means that it is tilted toward the vehicle. Ordinarily, a vehicle will have a slight positive camber when unloaded. Then, when the vehicle is loaded and rolling down the road, the wheels will just about be vertical. If you started with no camber at all, then loading the vehicle would produce a negative camber. Excessive camber (either positive or negative) will produce rapid tire wear, since one side of the tire will be more heavily loaded than the other side. Figure 17 A positive caster angle means that the top of the wheel is slanted slightly away from the vehicle so that when loaded, the wheels will be approximately vertical, producing even tire wear.

Steering axis inclination See Figure 18 Steering axis inclination is the number of degrees that a line drawn through the upper and lower ball joints (or strut and lower ball joint) and viewed from the front is tilted to the left or the right. This, in combination with caster, is responsible for the directional stability and self-centering of the steering. As the steering knuckle swings from lock to lock, the spindle generates an arc, causing the vehicle to be raised when it is turned from the straight-ahead position. The reason the body of the vehicle must rise is straightforward: since the wheel is in contact with the ground, it cannot move down. However, when it is swung away from the straight-ahead position, it must move either up or down (due to the arc generated by the steering knuckle). Not being able to move down, it must move up. Then, the weight of the vehicle acts against this lift, and attempts to return the spindle to the straight-ahead position when the steering wheel is released. Figure 18 Steering axis inclination, in combination with caster, is responsible for the directional stability and selfcentering of the steering.

Toe-in See Figure 19 Toe-in is the difference (in inches) between the front and the rear of the front tires. On a vehicle with toe-in, the distance between the front wheels is less at the front than at the rear. Toe-in is normally only a few fractions of an inch, and is necessary to ensure parallel rolling of the front wheels and to prevent excessive tire wear. As the vehicle is driven at increasingly faster speeds, the steering linkage has a tendency to expand slightly, thereby allowing the front wheels to turn out and away from each other. Therefore, initially setting the front wheels so that they are pointing slightly inward (toe-in) allows them to turn straight ahead when the vehicle is underway. Figure 19 Toe-in.

Rear suspensions See Figures 23, 24, 25, 26 and 27 There are three basic types of rear suspension: independent, semi-independent and live axle. Each of these suspension

systems has their own distinctive variations, but the general principles and component types are relatively similar to that of front suspension systems described earlier in this chapter. Independent rear suspension systems may be found on both rear, front, and 4-wheel drive vehicles. They utilize control arms which allow one wheel to move separately from the other wheel. Semi-independent rear suspension systems are often found on front wheel drive vehicles. These systems utilize a cross member, which connects to two trailing arms. Despite the fact that there is a solid connection with the cross member and the trailing arms, the cross member will twist with each up and down movement of the wheels. This twisting action provides not only semi-independent movement, but also a stabilizer effect.

Live axle rear suspension systems are usually found on rear and four wheel drive vehicles. These systems consist of leaf or coil springs utilized in conjunction with the live axle, which is the differential axle, wheel bearings, and brakes operating as a unit.

Rear suspensions, in general, can be much simpler than front suspensions since all they have to do is support the rear of the vehicle and provide some sort of suspension control. However, some rear suspensions, especially those found on sports cars, are quite complex.

Figure 23 The semi-independent axle used on many of today's front-wheel-drive vehicles.

Figure 24 This is a strut suspension with coil spring, shock absorber and strut combined in one assembly. This assembly attaches to the body and wheel spindle. In this type of suspension the lower control arm, strut and rear axle usually mount on some sort of sub-frame, which is attached to the body of the vehicle.

Figure 25 This is an independent rear suspension used on many sportier vehicles. Coil springs are used between the control arm and the vehicle body, and the control arms pivot on a cross-member and are attached at the other end to a spindle. A shock absorber attached to the spindle or control arm absorbs vibrations.

Figure 26 This is a non-independent rear suspension. It differs

from other similar designs in that coil springs replace leaf springs, and strut rods and control arms serve to position the rear axle.

Figure 27 This is a basic leaf spring rear suspension with shock absorbers to control vibration as well as up and down axle movement.

Steering and suspension See Figure 28

maintenance.

Figure 28 You should check for these possible problems whenever the front suspension or rear suspension is serviced.

Suspension and steering system maintenance intervals

Checking and See Figure 29

adding

power

steering

fluid

Many power steering fluid dipsticks or fluid reservoirs utilize two ranges for checking the fluid level: "FULL HOT" and "FULL COLD" or some other hot and cold level markings.

If the system isn't leaking, you shouldn't need to add fluid very often at all. Nonetheless, it's a good idea to periodically check the fluid. Most manufacturers recommend checking the fluid with the engine at operating temperature (hot) and the wheels pointed straight ahead. To check the fluid, turn the engine off, then check to see that the fluid level is at the "full hot" mark. Use power steering fluid to top up the reservoir. If the reservoir fluid level is being checked before starting the engine, first thing in the morning for example, the level is checked to the "full cold" mark. Regardless of what temperature the engine is at, if the fluid level is down to the "add" mark, power steering fluid must be added to the system. While you're adding fluid, check the power steering hoses for wear or chafing. Ordinarily, there should be no problem, but it's always a good idea to check.

Figure 29 Remove the pump dipstick and check the fluid level. Depending on if the vehicle was running or not, keep the fluid level at the "full hot" or the "full cold" level.

Steering system service Power steering belt replacement

For more information on checking, adjusting and replacing V-belts and serpentine belts please refer to the belt section in the section on "The Cooling System." Shock absorber testing The purpose of the shock absorber is simply to limit the motion of the spring during compression and rebound cycles. If the vehicle is not equipped with these motion dampers, the up and down motion would multiply until the vehicle was alternately trying to leap off the ground and pound itself into the pavement. Contrary to popular myth, shock absorbers do not affect the ride height of the vehicle, unless they are pneumatic or air adjustable shocks. However, ride height is mostly controlled by other suspension components such as springs and tires. Worn shock absorbers can affect handling; if the front of the vehicle is rising or falling excessively, the "footprint" of the tires changes on the pavement and steering is affected. The simplest test of the shock absorber is to simply push down on one corner of the unladen vehicle and release it. Observe the motion of the body as it is released. In most cases, it will come up beyond its original resting position, dip back below it, and settle quickly to rest. This shows that the damper is controlling the spring action. Any tendency toward excessive pitch (up-and-down) motion or failure to return to rest within 1-2 cycles is a sign of poor function within the shock absorber. Oil-filled shocks may have a light film of oil around the seal, resulting from normal breathing and air exchange. This should NOT be taken as a sign of failure, but any sign of thick or running oil definitely indicates failure. Gas filled shocks may also show some film at the shaft, if the gas has leaked out, and the shock will have almost no resistance to motion. While each shock absorber can be physically replaced individually, it is recommended that they be changed as a

pair (both front or both rear) to maintain equal response on both sides of the vehicle. Failure to replace shock absorbers in pairs could result in dangerous vehicle handling situations. Chances are quite good that if one has failed, its mate is also weak. TROUBLESHOOTING BASIC STEERING AND SUSPENSION PROBLEMS Most problems in the front end and steering are caused by improperly maintained tires which you can correct yourself, or by incorrect wheel alignment, which requires the services of a professional mechanic. Get in the habit of checking tires frequently; this is usually the first place that problems in the front end or steering will show up. The Condition Is Caused By What to Do Hard Steering (steering wheel Low or uneven tire Inflate tires to correct is hard to turn) pressure pressure Loose power steering Adjust belt pump drive belt Low or incorrect Add fluid as necessary power steering fluid Incorrect front end Have front end alignment alignment checked /adjusted Defective power Have pump checked steering pump /repaired Bent or poorly Lubricate and/or have lubricated front end defective parts parts replaced Loose Steering (too much play Loose wheel Adjust wheel bearings in the steering wheel bearings Loose or worn Have worn parts steering linkage serviced Faulty shocks Replace shocks Worn ball joints Have ball joints checked /serviced Car Veers or Wanders (car Incorrect tire Inflate tires to correct pulls to one side with hands off pressure pressure

the steering wheel) Improper front end., Have front end alignment alignment checked /adjusted Loose wheel Adjust wheel bearings bearings Loose or bent front Have worn end components components checked /serviced Faulty shocks Replace shocks Wheel oscillation or vibration Improper tire Inflate tires to correct transmitted through steering pressures pressure wheel Tires out of balance Have tires balanced Loose wheel Adjust wheel bearings bearings Improper front end Have front end alignment alignment checked /adjusted Worn or bent front Have front end end components checked /serviced Uneven tire wear (see Section Incorrect tire Inflate tires to correct 26-Tires) pressure pressure Front end out of Have front end alignment alignment checked /adjusted Tires out of balance Have tires balanced The Condition Is Caused By What to Do