RESEARCH METHODS

Lecturer : Dr. Samuel C.K. Buame,

Lecturers Message
As human beings, we are always struggling to provide for our needs by putting in place structures, systems, institutions that will help in harnessing resources towards the satisfaction of our needs.

Thus, it is necessary to investigate, analyze and provide information about ourselves, our organizations, our way of doing things so that we can take good decisions about the various things that affect our life.

Thus, to me as the author of this material, research, essentially, is about trying to understand things, factors, events, issues and causes that affect our life, either positively or negatively.

Read on!!!

PROLOGUE

Facts do not simply lie around waiting to be picked up. Facts must be carved out of the continuous web of ongoing reality, must be observed within a specified frame of
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reference, must be measured with precision, must be observed where they can be related to other relevant facts. All of this involves methods.

One of the most frustrating things for students is writing thesis and research reports. Students often have problems understanding the importance of theory and methodology in writing good reports. This frustration is more due to the absence of a suitable text that they can use as a guide to methodology issues in their project work is. The message of this book is that scientific methods are a question of consciousness and awareness, and should not be seen as difficult, strange or unnecessary.

Purpose Students need to understand the basic methodological approaches to their area of study and project work, assuring them of confidence and purpose. The idea in this book is to let students understand that there is no best method for research and that the choice of method depends upon the research problem, the research design and the purpose for the research. To help students get rid of the myth that research is too scientific and unnecessary in their areas of study. It is also intended to help them understand the language and approach of science and research. It will assist them in understanding how properly structured and argued reports can be more convincing and valid than reports based on a practical approach or common sense. Somehow, a scientific approach and common sense have much in common. The scientific approach, however, is a more systematic and controlled treatment of common sense. A layperson uses theories and concepts but in a loose manner.

Students are to understand that a conscious (scientific) approach is the most appropriate for research and problem-solving projects. This means making students understand that before beginning research on a project, they must be aware of what they are doing: they have to clarify for themselves and for the reader the perspective they have chosen. They must identify who should benefit from the study. In other words, they must learn how to formulate a problem, how to choose a particular method and how to argue and motivate. They must also learn how to write a valid and reliable report, which is used for the purpose of research (in the academia) and for
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managers (as practitioners) or decision-makers (as policy-makers): So this write up is about:

j Explaining how to cope with research problems, j Explaining different types of research, the role of the researcher and the

importance of methods and models,

j The practicalities of research, such as problem formulation, relating the research

to previous studies, choosing a suitable methodology, presenting results, and finding and drawing conclusions,
j A discussion of different methods of data collection and analysis, qualitative as

well as quantitative, and their advantages and disadvantages.

j How to test the assumptions necessary for the method and technique being used,

and whether these assumptions are valid: in other words, validation of methods and models and not only validation of hypotheses.
j The practical issues around research in various disciplines, providing some

practical guidelines for questionnaire development, interviewing and report writing.

Suggestions are warmly welcome!!!

1.

WHY STUDY RESEARCH METHODS? Most schools and universities require their graduates as well as undergraduate students to write a thesis, a long essay or present a term paper.

j Wherever your research project lies on this continuum, you should undertake your

research with rigour. To do this you will need to pay careful attention to the entire research process.
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Topics

1. Introduction :Thesis/Long Essay as a requirement for graduation; Choosing a research topic and Proposal Writing

2. Epistemology: Research and Scientific Method: The Philosophical and scientific bases of research

3. Basic Elements of Research: Research problems, hypothesis, models and concepts

4. The Research Design: Methodological Consideration

5. Sampling Methods, Questinnaire Design & Admin.

6. The nature and sources of data: Primary and Secondary, Data Collection

7. Interviewing; planning and administration

8. Results: Analysis of Data, Editing, Missing Values, Coding, Interpretation, Discussions

9. Report Writing : The Mechanics thereof

PART II: Quantitative Methods and Analysis: Suggested Topics

j j j j

Basic Statistics Sampling Graphic Representation of Statistics Measures of Central Tendency

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Distributions of Samples of Sample Means

j j

Shape of Distribution Means Confidence Intervals for single mean

j j

Measures of Dispersion Probability: Deduction about

and means of two population etc

Sample from a known Population

Methodology and Method defined

Methodology is understood to be the general principles behind research, whereas methods are the practical techniques used to undertake research. The methodology of any research underpins the values and assumptions that form the rationale for the research. It also directs the criteria that the researcher chooses to use for collecting and interpreting data. Methodology therefore provides the link between technique and theory (Buraway 1991:271).

THE RESEARCH PROCESS

The Research Question/Topic or Issue Research topics come from 3 main areas of concern; 1. 2. 3. Theoretical concerns Practical problems General Enquiry or exploration

Theoretical concerns has to do with a practical theory which seeks to explain some aspect of social phenomenon or behaviour.

Practical problems have to do with a situation where your organisation

find it

difficult in a particular area e.g. managerial time consciousness etc. Explore why there is such a problem, what are the possible solutions.

1.

It is important the topic chosen to be clear and specific. A common mistake students make is that they want to investigate everything including researchers.

2.

The topic statement is an encapsulation of the dependent and independent variable or mediating factors you want to capture or capture Dependent variable changes as a result of something. So the thing that is influencing this dependent variable is the independent variables eg. the exchange rate is a dependent variable and it changes as a result of the demand for foreign

currency by Ghanaians businessmen.

A Propositional Statement is a: 1. 2. 3. Broad statement of possibilities It establishes range of relationships or causative factors Testable i.e. what was found. Whether findings acceptable?

Whether you see HYPO or propo depends on the topic and the variables within it (inherent variables)

Choice of Research topics: Relevance

Two main relevancies to take into account or consider: 1. Relevant to your area of specialisation and management at large 2. Relevant to Ghana NB: There could some cross-over topics: E.g. Marketing of Banking Services. Your background description will tell what your focus is.
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i. Identify a broad area of interest which should be narrowed down to a manageable topic (full of excitement to you). ii. Select a topic thereof iii. Sources: Classroom lectures, Seminars, library, Journals, Newspapers, from senior researchers and friends
j Always start from your own personal interest and

prejudice
j Topic related to your area of studies and relevant to your

country
j Dont reject a suggested topic that is interesting

iv. Decide on the approach v. Formulate a plan vi. Collect information vii. Analyse data viii. Present findings

RESEARCH PROPOSAL
(Read the illustration below) Very often every research process begins with a RESEARCH PROPOSAL (i.e. a plan of action). This is to be submitted to your SUPERVISOR for further advice etc.
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FORMAT FOR PRESENTATION

Formulating the Topic: The topics must be crisply and pithily stated. Avoid words such as: implication of ; the impact of; the effect of. Avoid Long running titles. Seek advice from your lecturers or supervisors

Examples -

Democracy and Economic Development in Ghana

Name of Student Lotta/Kwasi Ghanason

Level or Programme MBA/MPA Year

Supervisor Name of Supervisor

The Main Outlines of the Proposal Itself

The proposal must have the following headings

1. Background Description: Issues and Problems relating the pre-conceptions of the area of research, including justification for the area of study. 2. Statement of the Problem or Problem Definition: the focus of the study
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3. Objectives/Aims of the study 4. Hypothesis or Research Questions?

j Hypothesis (propositions, postulations, assertions, verifiable statements (hypo

= Greek word meaning, beneath, underlying

j Research Questions: Interrogatives (except asking why)

In research, an object, event, situation, concept or idea becomes an object of ENQUIRY or study. Learn to ask questions about your object of study: What search for clarifications Who identification of agents, or affected people How request for description of a process: demand for an explanation When aspects of time Why causal or purposive explanations Which for identity and for decisions, compare and contrast, evaluative How far, to what extent, how significant, how much?

5.

Significance (Importance) of the study: To the academia, practitioners, general public, assignors

6. Scope and Limitations: Time, space and context 7. Methodology

j Sources of data Primary and secondary j Data Collection instruments: questionnaire, face to face, observation,

population, sampling
j Choice of organisations, key informants j Secondary sources: all kinds of relevant publications journal, annual reports,

newsletters, newspapers etc with proper references

j Data analysis methods qualitative/ quantitative, interpretive, statistical

factor analysis, SPSS (Stat. Package for Social Studies) 8. Literature Review: Towards the positioning of your study, Theoretical framework - conceptual framework - theories and models to be used as analytical tools
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9. Chapter disposition: Organisation of the work Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 etc. up to say 7 (if necessary). Into how many chapters are you going to organise the study; and what is the focus of the various chapters? 10. Timetable: Schedule of activities: Gantt Chart Budget: Equipments needed

Thesis or dissertation
A dissertation or thesis is a document submitted in support of candidature for a degree or professional qualification presenting the author's research and findings. In some countries/universities, the word thesis or a cognate is used as part of a bachelor's or master's course, while dissertation is normally applied to a doctorate. The term "dissertation" can also mean, more in general, a treatise on some subject, without relation to obtaining an academic degree. The term "thesis" can also mean the central claim of an essay or similar work. The word "thesis" comes from a Greek word, meaning "position", and refers to an intellection proposition. "Dissertation" comes from the Latin dissert ti , meaning "discourse."

Presentation style and structure

A typical thesis has a table of contents a body, comprising the various chapters, and a bibliography or (more usually) a references section.

Long Essay Evaluation (Examination of the thesis)

j Relevance of the topic MBA/MPA admin. Programme

5marks
j Organisation, structure and layout of study 5marks
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j Evidence of familiarity with relevant literature, concepts, terms, theories or background of the study 10marks j Methodology, sampling, data gathering etc. 10marks j Data management and analysis of findings 20marks j Acknowledgement of sources of information, appropriate referencing 5marks j Language clarity of expression, correct usage, punctuation, spelling, etc 10marks j Evidence of originality in thinking 10marks j Main findings and contribution to knowledge 15marks j Conclusions and recommendations - 10marks

3.

NEED TO REVIEW EXISTING BUT RELEVANT LITERATURE

1. Needed for deriving your conceptual framework, 2. To familiarise oneself with the existing body of knowledge (models, theories and controversies) in the area 3. To position your own studies 4. To find out what contribution one can make to the existing body of knowledge 5. Summarize all the views and state your position, if possible.

NB: Research is supposed to be cumulative

Any discussion of theories, concepts and models must be summarised and its relevance related to your area of study (research)
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j A critical review of the literature is necessary to help you develop a thorough

understanding and insight into previous research that relates to your research question(s) and objectives. Your review will set your research in context by critically discussing and referencing work that has already been undertaken, drawing out key points and presenting them in a logically argued way and highlighting those areas where you will provide fresh insights. It will lead the reader into subsequent sections of your project report.

j There is no one correct structure for a critical review, although it is helpful to

think of it as a funnel in which you start at a more general level before narrowing down to your specific research question(s) and objectives.

j Literature sources can be divided into three categories: primary, secondary and

tertiary (e.g. indexes, abstracts, catalogues, encyclopaedia, dictionaries, bibliographies, citation indexes). In reality, these categories often overlap. Your use of these resources will depend on your research question(s) and objectives. Some may use only tertiary and secondary literature. For others you may need to locate primary literature as well.

j When planning your literature search you need to:

have clearly defined research questions and objectives; define the parameters of your search; generate key words and search terms; Discuss your ideas as widely as possible.

Techniques to help you in this include brainstorming and relevance trees.

j Your literature search will be undertaken using a variety of approaches in tandem.

These will include: searching using tertiary sources and the internet; following up references in articles you have already read; Scanning and browsing secondary literature in your library. Get familiar with the various Internet Search Engines: Lycos, Google, Yahoo, Info search, Alvista etc.
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Once obtained, the literature must be evaluated for their relevance to your research question(s) and objectives. Each item must be read and noted. Bibliographic details, a brief description of the content and appropriate supplementary information should also be recorded.

THE FINAL REPORT - Sample Cover Page

UNIVERSITY OF GHANA BUSINESS SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF GHANA

ASSESSING THE IMPACT OF PROMOTIONAL INSTITUTIONS ON WOMEN ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN GHANA - THE CASE OF NBSSI AND GAWE

BY

KAFUI THOMFORD OKYERE MAHAMA

A LONG ESSAY SUBMITTED TO UNIVERSITY OF GHANA BUSINESS SCHOOL OF ADMINISTRATION, UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, IN PARTIAL

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FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF A MASTERS DEGREE IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

JUNE, 20XX

DECLARATION (separate page)

I hereby declare that this study is my original piece of research conducted between September, 2007 and May 2008 under the supervision of Dr. S.K. Buame of the School of Administration, University of Ghana, Legon.

In Places where references of other peoples work have been cited or their news adopted, full acknowledgements have been given. No part of this project work has either been presented whole or in part to any other institutions for any award.

---------------------------------------------KAFUI THOMFORD MANAHA (STUDENT)

-----------------------------DR. S.K. BUAME (SUPERVISOR)

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DEDICATION (separate page) To my parents Attah K. Thomford and Rosa Thomford, all of blessed memory, and to my Husband, George K. Mawuko for his encouragement and understanding.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT (separate page)

Thanking all who have helped you in the process of the research.

Example: The successful completion of this study would not have been accomplished without the guidance, co-operation and support of some people.

My profound gratitude goes to my lecturer and supervisor Dr. S.K. Buame of the School of Administration, for availing his expertise, suggestions, advice, comments and constructive criticisms to the completion of this write-up.

A special note of appreciation also goes to the Director and staff of NBSSI especially Mrs. Selassi Wemegah of the womens department, Mrs Irene Otoo of the Business Advisory Centre and the driver Mr. Samuel K. Amoesi who took me round the beneficiaries and ensured that most of the questionnaires were recovered.

I am also indebted to all beneficiaries whose willingness to complete the questionnaire offered me the needed data to accomplish this study.

I am also indebted to all beneficiaries whose willingness to complete the questionnaire offered me the needed data to accomplish this study.

The following people are also worth mentioning for the support, encouragement and pieces of advice that spurred me on to go through this Masters Programme: George, Grace, Kwame, Baaba and Maggie.

Finally, I wish to extend my sincerest appreciation to Mrs. whose untiring effort and skills was able to type and come out with this beautiful write-up etc, etc.

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ABSTRACT (separate page) Abstract is like an Executive summary and it must make mention of the following:

1. What the study is about, 2. The research questions, 3. The method used, 4. The main findings in brief, 5. 6. Any caveat? Any recommendations as to how the findings should be interpreted, understood or applied?

Length: From half a page to a full page (Should not be too long). Remember it is a synopsis.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page DECLARATION DEDICATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ABSTRACT LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS LIST OF TABLES, FIGURES, DIAGRAMS TABLE OF CONTENTS i ii iii iv v vi vii

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study 1.2 Statement of the Problem 1.3 Purpose of the Study etc 4 7 1

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 The Concept of Entrepreneurship 2.2 Women and Entrepreneurship in Ghana 2.3 Policies Affecting Women etc, to the last chapter 16

REFERENCES

APPENDIX

(Remember to write the respective page numbers)

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LIST OF TABLES Page Table 2:1 Participation of Women in some NBSSI Training Programme (1991-95) Table 2:2 Table 2:3 Activities Engage in by Women Repayment Performance of Loan Beneficiaries in Greater Accra (1991-95) Table 4:1 Table 4:2 Table 4:3 Table 4:4 Recovery of Questionnaire Personal Particulars of Beneficiaries Responses on Impact of Entrepreneurship Training Programmes Factors that should influence ETPs Design

Etc.

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LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS (in alphabetical order)

ACW AFWE AFRC AGI AMT BAC CPU DAWS DED DWM EDP ENOWID ETP EQUIP FDA FIDA GAWE GEPC GIMPA GIC GNCC IFWE ILO IYB Masu MSE NANBPW Women NBSSI Etc.

Africa Centre for women African Federation of Women Entrepreneurs Arm Forces Revolutionary Council Association of Ghana Industries Achievement Motivation Training Business Advisory Centre Central Production Unit Development And Womens Studies German Development Agency 31st December Womens Movement Entrepreneurship Development Programme

Entrepreneurship Training Programme Entrepreneurship Quality Improvement Programme Foundation of Democracy in Africa

Ghana Association of Women Entrepreneurs Ghana Export Promotion Council Ghana Institute of Management and Public Administration Ghana Investment Centre Ghana National Chamber of Commerce International Federation of Women Entrepreneurs International Labor Organization Improve Your Workshop Mutual Assistance Susu Limited Micro and Small-Scale Enterprise National Association of Negro Business and Professional

National Board for Small-Scale Industries

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MAKING REFERENCES (see further illustrations below)

This is also a very important aspect of the report. It must follow the laid down conventions and one must be consistent as to approach adopted. Approaches could be Cambridge (UK) or the Harvard/Vancouver (North America/US). The Differences lies in where the year is placed either at the end or just after the Author(s) name.

Illustrations:

Harvard Approach (this is the most fashionable)

Ackroyd, S. and J. Hughes, (1992) Data Collection in Context, London, Longman.

Cambridge Approach

Ackroyd, S. and J. Hughes, Data Collection in Context, London, Longman. (1992)

References/Bibliography
Referencing is in two parts. The in-text citation is normally done in the text and the list of references which is normally at the end of the report, and gives details of the intext citation.

There are two ways of listing the references:

1. List of references this refers to sources of materials cited in the text. Any material used for the preparation of the report but was not cited in the text cannot be part of the list of references. 2. Bibliography this refers to the list of all sources of informational materials used for the preparation of the report whether cited in the text or not. An example is the bibliography at the end of this book. It is a bibliography and
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not a reference list because most of the sources of the sources of the references were not cited in the text.

For Textbooks: The name of the various authors in Alphabetical order:

Surname Name, initials, year, title, (either underlined or in Italics) place of publication, and publishers 

Now study the rest of the Examples:

Ackroyd, S. and J. Hughes, (1992) Data Collection in Context, London, Longman. Bryman, A. (1988) Quantity and Quality in Social Research, London, Unwin Hyman. Jones, R. and M. Pendlebury (1988) Public Sector Accounting, London: Pitman Publishing. Prebisch, R., (1959), Towards a New Trade Policy for Development, UN, New York.

For Journals:
Alphabetical order: Name, initials, year, title, In Name of Journal, Vol. Series, pp 1-22, place  Illustration: Practices in Britain and Nigeria, Mimeo1, University of Benin. Buame, S.C.K., (2000) Entrepreneurship and International Business Strategies, The Journal of Management Studies, SOA /UGBS UG, Legon, Vol. 15, No. 1, January pp34-51. Samuelson, P.A. (1962), The Gains from Trade Once More, Economic Journal, December.

Afejuku, D.H. (1983) A Comparative Study of Consumer Protection Laws and

Mimeo (i.e. printed copies from stencils). The same referencing for working papers, lecture notes etc. 22

Other Sources i. ii. iii. iv. v. Constitution of the Republic of Ghana - 1992 Financial Administration Decree (FAD) (SMCD 221 of 1979), Financial Administration Regulations (FAR) (L.I. 1234 of 1979). Department of Health and Human Services, State of Tennessee. The Epidemiology of HIV in the Midsouth. Annual Public Health Reviews. 1999, 23:51-65. vi. FAO, Production Yearbook, Various Years

Webography
http://www.ghanamail.com.gh// http://cit.org.by/fp/en/smap.htm

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Making References in the body of the Essay as you write

For example: 1. According to Mensah (2002) ..

2. hopes for improved health outcomes in HIV have resulted in a significant reduction in mortality (McDonald & Kuritzkes, 1977; Hogg et. al., 1997)

STYLES AND FORMATING FOR REFERENCING

There are many styles or formats for referencing. These include MLA (Modern Language Association), APA (American Psychology Association)

APA REFERENCING FORMAT

bibliography page, entitled References, and type your paper in APA format.

Footnotes: Used for further clarifications;, references; It can be at the end of--- every page (pagewise), or end of each chapter (chapterwise), at the end of the whole report. The most fashionable, however, is pagewise. Adopt one at a TIME. Do NOT mix up

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Solving problems in organizational set up

Business Organizations: factors that influence - profitability, survival, efficiency, motivation of workers, corporate image and social responsibility, organizational change and restructuring, customer satisfaction, strategic management,

environmental scanning etc Public Organizations: bureaucratic efficiency, effectiveness, public satisfaction, public order, good governance, impact of policies, programmes, projects etc Management Information Systems: Essence of information to management and decision making, Systems Analysis and Design, Data collection, analysis, management, storage and retrieval, application of information systems, e.g. Decision Support System (DSS); Transaction Processing Systems (TPS); Office Automation Systems, (OAS); Executive Information Systems, (EIS). Health Organizations: maintenance of public health, cure, preventions, insurance, safety, efficacy of drugs, lifestyles and health, Institutional and Organizational structures Research in Accounting Accounts: budgetary controls, accountability, elimination of waste

How Research helps us to improve upon our knowledge Research should give us this empirical information or date so that we can arrive at these principles and build or improve upon any system that is supposed to serve our interest. To advance in our research, it is done either by testing or building theory.

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What makes research scientific

1. systematic 2. methodological 3. rigour 4. conventional 5. value free, unbias 6. seperating subject from object

The essence of making research scientific is to ensure: validity (internal and external, reliability, replicability, generalizability,

SO: 1. Science represents the state of things in our world in terms of laws, theories and principles that govern the world, the animate and inanimate world.

2.

It also refers to the present state of how our world is changing

3.

It represents the processes by which we learn about and how we investigate phenomenon in all areas of human existence.

4.

It also refers to the present state of understanding in the world.

Over the years scientist adopted a unique method that is known as research method.

Systematisation
Scientific Research is more of systematisation
1. Systematic observation of phenomenon

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2.

Systematic analysis of the characters of the phenomenon that you observed.

3.

Systematic synthesis of the observation and of the analysis. Synthesis is the process of pulling back together your observation and your analysis.

The final process has a basic aim of solving a problem, describing the nature of things so that you can understand the nature of things governing, as that you can ultimately understand the analysis.

After the synthesis and you understanding it, it should be possible for someone else to carry out the same process and having similar results.

In principle therefore, we need to apply these in any field.

Research uses this scientific method through vigorous data gathering, information to discover new findings, to and interpretation and to help us revise what we know and to apply what we know to solving human practical problems.

Aims of Research Here we are concerned about how you state your aims and the words to use: For instance, to -:      Explore and describe Examine (Investigate and Analyse) Evaluate Analyse Provide more understanding/ explanation

j j Study of Related issues: Structure, hierarchy, efficiency all as social constructs

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VALIDITY
y y y y y

Construct validity(external validity) Internal validity Consistency Repeatability Reliability

GENERALIZATION: A mode of reasoning in which a claim about a group or set of events is based on detailed knowledge of many of those objects or events.

It can be theoretical

or analytical generalizations

Looking for meaningful generalizations usually involves two processes well known to both scientists : INDUCTION and DEDUCTION

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1. RESEARCH DESIGN
The way a research is designed influences the process of data collection and analysis.

What is Research Design? It is the way in which the researcher structures data gathering and data analysis. How you collect your information and how you analyse your information.

Research design is the basic framework outlining the interrelationships between the various research activities required in order to effectively address the central stages of a project to ensure that the research will effectively address the research question.

Longitudinal Research Design   Key design is data collection over time

Research identifies time frame, T1, T2, T3, T4 and collects data at these times.

T1 e.g. investigating motherhood T2 e. g. nine months into pregnancy etc Need to investigate how something is changing over time, rather than how it is now. This may be a Cross-Sectional Research

Need to identify independent variable and dependent variable and the aim is to see how/why time as a factor as well as other factors that change with time impact the object or issue under investigation.

It is useful for studying a number of things such as exchange rates movements, company growth, attitude change. How to look at them over a period of time and what variables may have impacted the movement or growth.

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Case Study Research Design  This is a focused, thorough and holistic way of investigating into 1 or 2 persons or institution. investigation. Looking into something into great depth. It is a detailed

 

Mistake made by students case study.

A case study examines entirely of a sample, collects a variety of data, maybe over time, but focuses on a particular issue e.g. worker attitudes in a particular company.

You may find yourself managing a longitudinal design with case study design. 

Information collected must be detailed may involve a combination of both quantitative and qualitative data e.g.

Survey Design Key aspect of the survey design is that the sample size must be large e.g. about 100, unless the entire population itself is less. You cannot apply case study when the population sample size is about a thousand.

May investigate a wide or limited range of variables across as much of the population possible.

Seeks representativeness and possibility to generalize.

E.g. unemployed baseline study Sexual behaviour of students? Need to carry out a massive survey to get the information. Deposit mobilization rate in the banking sector? Must as much of the banking population to be sure of the data collected Uses Questionnaires.
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Cross Sectional Design  This seeks to examine the issue across possible the sample strategy that may be available. Look at an issue across a particular group of people. Cutting across the different issue in the population

  

E.g. productivity in an organisation by looking at directors, managers, operative

Data are therefore collected across sectionally

Analysis aims at finding differences and or similarities between the different sub-samples within the population. You may need to carry out some kind of statistical test.

Experimental Design    Useful for testing hypothesis and for determining the impact of an independent variable and dependent variable It involves careful manipulation of variables e.g. change a shift pattern to see the impact on production line output changes. It is important to define and specify dependable variable and independent variable very carefully. You are saying that what you said is actually the thing that is happening. Observation of impact must be closely monitored, quantified and measured  Analyses would involve statistical tests.

Field/Observational Design

This is a process of direct observation of phenomena in the setting in which it occurs, by researcher. E.g. researcher collects data about behaviour of stock brokers on the floor of GSE. Use of micro credits extended by a bank to fishmonger at Keta or Kommenda. Need to go there to observe.

 

Researcher has to be clear of what is being observed or looked for. Clear as to how the collected data is to be analysed.
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Social/Community Based Research  The focus here is on issues in the community What are the needs of the community? How are community projects being monitored?

Approaches;  Participatory rural appraisals Focus groups (gather information to inform the research)

Issues here include: Careful crafting of the problem issue Translation of theoretical constructs to ground level Issues of local language

Organisational Research

Is carried out in organisations to identify issues and solutions in and for such organisations

Based on the need for an organisation to know empirically, what is actually happening within

 -

Takes various forms e.g. Employee attitude surveys Skill audits the particular skills that people in the organisation have Performance assessments how people are performing in the organisation.

 -

Issues; Confidentiality Issues that are special to the organisation. Such issues should not go out.

Organisational politics What do you do when you unearth wrong doing?

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Market Research Aim is to help an organisation understand its market in terms of; The definition of market is very important. Any place that you are doing business Market. In forms of:  The behaviour of its consumers Product life cycle Competition profiles and behaviour, etc. Data are then applied to inform company strategy

So a research can be:

i. ii. iii. iv. v.

Descriptive Exploratory Causal Experimental Comparative - this permits generalisation

RESEARCH STRATEGY
This comprises a bundle of skills, assumptions and practices that researchers employ as they move from their paradigm to the empirical field. They connect you the researcher to specific methods of collecting and analyzing empirical materials.

Research strategies are merely tools; it is the researchers responsibility to understand the variety available and different purposes of each strategy, to appreciate in advance the raminifications of selecting one method over another. Each strategy offers a particular and unique perspective that illuminates certain aspects of a reality more easily than others and produces type of results more suited for some applications than others.

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EXPLORATORY RESEARCH The goal of an exploratory study is to develop pertinent hypothesis and propositions for further studies. An exploratory study can use any of research strategies

Another WHAT question which is a form ofhow many/much e.g.what have been the outcomes from a particular managerial, governmental reorganization. This type of research favors ARCHIVAL or SURVEY Strategies

WHAT questions of who and where questions pertaining to description and examination of peoples attitudes, or incidence of diseases favor survey.

On the other hand questions of how and why are more EXPLANATORY and likely to lead to the use of CASE STUDIES, HISTORIES and EXPERIMENTS. how andwhy the Akwatia riots started? Each Strategy has peculiar advantages and disadvantages. The table is by no means comprehensive; it provides a beginning guide for research planning.

CASE STUDY (see Yin on case study)

A case study constitute one of the several ways of doing social science research. They are used when how and why questions are being posed, when the investigator has little control over events and when focus is on a contemporary phenomenon within some real-life context. It can be Embedded or Multidimensional.

It is used settings like: policy, political science community psychology and sociology organisational and management studies city and regional planning research, such as studies of plans, neighborhood, or public agencies and, the conduct of a large proportion of dissertation and theses in the social sciences.

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The case study allows an investigation to retain the holistic and meaningful characteristics of real-life events such as individual life cycles, organization and managerial processes, neighborhood change, international relations and the maturation of industries.

Different types of Research: An Overview

Bases of classification Source of data and data collection methods layout of the research aim of the research scope of the research the time type of the data for the research

Types of Data Collection Type of Research Method Available Methods

1. Experiment 2. Survey 3. Ethnography

Laboratory work Structured interviewing, questionnaire Unstructured interviewing, Participant observation, field research

4. Secondary data

Government statistics, documents, Books, disclosure analysis

Ethnography and Research

Ethnography is a qualitative research and refers to the use of qualitative methods which involve the researchers participation in the lives of research communities. This usually takes the form of observation for a given period of time. Such participation is qualitative because the research method allows the ethnographer to observe events and conversations as part of everyday life as well as ask questions through informal interviews and observation. The ethnographer is in a position to collect data from
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multiple sources which may be relevant to the research topic and Atkinson 1995:1). Ethnography therefore is linked with specific research methods that allow analysis of communities and groups considered as individual entities. The ethnographer is best placed to study the uniqueness of culture through recording how different groups live, interact, communicate and socialize.

Today many people are talking about quantitative research as that is the best way of doing research. Quantitative research is good: but it is a mere data reducing technique. Remember, most of the earlier great researchers were ethnographic in approach.

Source of Data and data collection methods

Source of data is divided into PAPER AND PEOPLE.

On one hand, documentary sources include: books, articles, research reports, journals, diaries, radio, TV, letters. On the other hand, data from people come through: Interviews, Questionnaires and Observations Also, source of data can be divided into PRIMARY DATA as may be collected by the researcher himself and SECONDARY DATA as collected by other people. TERTIARY: from encyclopedia, lexicons

The Types of Data Sources

Photographs with detailed captions, Fieldwork notebooks, Research diary, Tape Recordings, Video recordings, Copies of secondary data documents,
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Maps and diagrams, Transcripts,

Exploratory Research What factors caused a certain phenomenon This is also called preparatory research aimed at: precise problem formulation, often expressed in hypothesis to help the researcher in coming out further research questions, to help the researcher know or find out what is already known in the area to enable him come out with a better research question, aim, methods, analysis etc.

Exploratory researches are done through:

j experiment interviews, j

literature review and,

j field studies

Exploratory research should differentiated from pilot studies which is small-scale research as to find out if a bigger study or program can be carried out (essence is to ensure quality and minimize cost).

Exploratory studies are 1. To satisfy the researchers curiosity and desire for a better understanding, 2. To test the feasibility of undertaking a more comprehensive study, 3. To develop methods to be used in a more comprehensive study, problem for more precise investigation 4. To formulate a

Descriptive Research: Ethnographic methods This can vary. Describing working environment in a particular organization, how does the school board function production process in particular factory, how the parliament functions,
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the union work in a company, the social togetherness in a residential area, the market profile of a product, the living conditions of pensioners since 19 etc. Use of ethnographic methods - unstructured interviews, participant observation, field notes, documents, records etc. The descriptions must be done from somebodys perspective Was the phenomenon described earlier? And what conclusions could be drawn from it Do you need more or new description or a new language (technical or Street language).

Explanatory Research This is to answer the question why, normally with a statistical test of a hypothesis. Hypothesis that is clearly stated with measurable variables, e.g.: is there any relationship between market share and high profitability? . smoking and lung cancer? . age and absenteeism etc

The researcher attempts to identify causal factors (determinants) to a particular phenomenon. The effects created by these determinants are also called resultants.

Diagnostic Research (The Clinical Approach) This is to find underlying causes to a certain phenomenon, e.g.; why the high labor turn over? why the wild strikes? Why is it difficult to develop? Why fall in profit margins?

Diagnostic research aims at finding solutions to practical problems, i.e. concrete problems. Distinguish between symptoms and effects. Hence solution methods and measures should be clearly stated

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Evaluative Research This is to assess, or evaluate the effects of particular policies, laws, programs, schemes or methods etc. Towards recommendations for improvement or adoption elsewhere. Measures taken Study Causal Relations The Effects (what are the underlying mechanisms?)

The social and economic contexts. What are the criteria for evaluation?

The Scope of the Research Total research - involving all the units in the population Sample research - studies only certain aspects of the unit. Scope relates to how deep or wide one is looking at things.

The Time Dimension of the Research Historical: What has happened? Or what will happen? Normally, most studies have to be related to their historical context and with a look into the future.

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7. SOME ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Codes of Ethics Most professional groups, such as sociologist, psychologists, anthropologists, physicians etc., have developed specific codes of ethics which state proper and improper behaviour and represent a professional consensus on ethics. It is expected that researchers will uphold ethical standards as part of their participation in professional community. Ethics in social research is, therefore, believed to be a matter of principled sensitivity to the rights of others. Being ethical limits the choices social researchers make in the pursuit of knowledge. Most ethical concerns in social research literature generally revolve around questions of harm, privacy, consent deception and confidentiality, acknowledgement.

The Ghanaian environment is, on the whole, not a very good for research: 1. It is difficult to get easy access to relevant information 2. Government officials are wrongfully reluctant to give out information 3. Private firms hide behind secrecy and wariness of competition not to co-operate with well-meaning researchers 4. Healthy and mutually nourishing linkage between Industry and the Academia rather non-existent 5. Modes of communication telephones, addresses are not very reliable 6. It is just expensive, tiring and frustrating to conduct research in information deficient society 7. Interview Response rates are rather on the low side

Researchers are therefore required to be very crafty, tolerant persistent and sacrificing.

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Avoid the following:

1. Deception 2. Manipulation 3. Plaglarism (plaglarise) 4. Any short cuts or fast tracks approaches

j Access and ethics are critical aspects for the conduct of research.

j Different types and levels of access have been identified which help us to

understand the problem of gaining entry: physical access to an organisation; access to intended participants; continuing access in order to carry out further parts of your research or to be able to repeat the collection of data in another part of the organisation; cognitive access in order to get sufficiently close to find out valid and reliable data.

j Feasibility has been recognised to be an important determinant of what you

choose to research and how you undertake the research.

j Strategies to help you gain access to organisations and to intended participants

within them have been described and discussed.

j Research ethics refer to the appropriateness of your behaviour in relation to the

rights of those who become the subject of your work or are affected by the work.

j Potential ethical issues should be recognised and considered from the outset of

your research and be one of the criteria against which you research proposal is judged.

j Ethical concerns are likely to occur at all stages of your research project: when

seeking access, during data collection, as you analyse data, and when you report it.

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j Qualitative research is likely to lead to a greater range of ethical concern in

comparison to qualitative research, although all research methods have specific ethical issues associated with them.

j Ethical concerns are also associated with the power relationship between the

researcher and those who grant access, and the researchers role (as external researcher, practitioner-researcher or internal consultant).

. PREPARING FOR DATA COLLECTION

j Your choice of sampling techniques is dependent on the feasibility and sensibility

of collecting data to answer your research question(s) and address your objectives from the entire population. For populations of 50 or under there is often no need to sample if you are considering probability sampling.

j Choice of sampling technique or techniques is dependent on your research

question(s) and objectives:

Research question(s) and objectives which need you to estimate statistically the characteristics of the population from a sample require probability samples;

research question(s) and objectives that do not require such generalisations can make use of non-probability sampling techniques.

j Factors such as the confidence that is needed in the findings, accuracy required

and likely categories for analyses will affect the size of the sample that needs to be collected:

Statistical analysis usually requires a minimum sample size of 30; Research question(s) and objectives that do not require statistical estimation may need far smaller samples.

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j Sample size and the technique used are also influenced by the availability of

resources, in particular financial support and time available to select the sample and collect, enter into a computer and analyse the data.

j Probability sampling techniques all necessitate some form of sampling frame, so

they are often more time consuming than non-probability techniques.

j Where it is no possible to construct a sampling frame you will need to use non-

probability-sampling techniques.

j Non-probability sampling techniques also provide you with the opportunity to

select your sample purposively and to reach difficult-to-identify members of the population.

j For many research projects you will need to use a combination of different

sampling techniques.

j All your choices will be dependent on your ability to gain access to organisations.

The considerations summarised earlier must therefore be tempered with an understanding of what is practically possible.

Personal Interviews

j Participant observation is a method in which researchers participate in the lives

and activities of those whom they are studying. It is used to attempt to get to the root of what is going on in a wide range of social settings.

j You may use the participant observation method in a student placement or you

may already be a member of an organisation, which will enable you to adopt the role of the practitioner-researcher.
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j Participant observation means that you adopt a number of potential roles,

differentiated by the degree to which your identity is concealed from the subjects of the research and the degree to which you participate in he events you are studying.

j Participant observation must avoid the trap of mere story telling. The purpose is

to develop theory.

j A prevalent form of data analysis used in participant observation is analytic

induction, which may lead to an initial hypothesis being re-developed more than once.

j Structured observation is concerned with the frequency of events.

It is

characterised by a high level of pre-determined structure and quantitative analysis.

j A choice may be made between off-the-shelf coding schedules and a schedule,

which you design for your own purpose. Alternatively you may decide to use a hybrid.

j The main threats to reliability and validity inherent in structured observation are

subject error, time error,, time error and observer effects.

j In-depth interviews are difficult to conduct properly. j Interviews can be differentiated according to the level of structure and

standardisation

j You can use in-depth and semi-structured interviews to explore topics and explain

other findings.

j Your research design may incorporate more than one type of interview.

j In-depth and semi-structured interviews can be used in quantitative as well as

qualitative research.
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j There are situations favouring in-depth interviews, which will lead you to use this

method. Apart from the nature of your research strategy, these are related to the significance of establishing personal contact; the nature of your data collection questions; and the length of time required from those who provide data.

j Data-quality issues, your level of competence and logistical and resource matters

will all need to be considered when you use in-depth and semi-structured interviews.

j Apart from one-to-one interviews,, you may consider using group interviews.

There may be particular advantages associated with group interviews, but these are considerably more difficult to manage than one-to-one interviews.

Questionnaires
j Questionnaires collect data by asking people to respond to exactly the same set of

questions. They are often used as part of a survey strategy to collect descriptive and explanatory data about attitudes, beliefs, behaviours and attributes. Data collected are normally coded and analysed by computer.

j Your choice of questionnaire will be influenced by your research question(s) and

objectives and the resources that you have available. The four main types are postal, delivery and collection, telephone and structured interview.

j Before designing a questionnaire you must know precisely what data you need to

collect to answer your research question(s) and meet your objectives. One way of helping to ensure that you collect this data is to use a data requirement table.

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j The validity and reliability of the data you collect and the response rate you

achieve depend, to a large extent, on the design of your questions, the structure of your questionnaire and the rigour of your pilot testing.

j When designing your questionnaire you should consider the wording of individual

questions before you think about the order in which they appear. Questions con be divided into open and closed. The six types of closed questions are list, category, ranking, scale, quantity and grid.

j Wherever possible, closed questions should be pre-coded on your questionnaire to

facilitate analysis.

j The order and flow of questions in the questionnaire should be logical to the

respondent. This can be helped by filter questions and linking phrased.

j The questionnaire should be laid out so it is easy to read and the responses are

easy to fill in.

j Questionnaires must be carefully introduced to the respondent to ensure a high

response rate. For self-administered questionnaires this should take the form of a covering letter, for interviewer-administered questionnaires this will be done by the interviewer.

j All questionnaires should be pilot tested before collecting data to assess the

validity and reliability of the questions.

j Administration of questionnaires will differ depending on the type of

questionnaire.

Order of Questions
Vary the orientation of questions because people are inclined to answer yes yes yesencourage yea saying and nay saying. For example, if you can predict a series of
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attitudes/answers to questions then phrase those questions so that someone with a consistent point of view will answer yes to some and no to others.

If the questionnaire includes questions of a sensitive nature, place these at the end of the questionnaire. Respondents are less likely to abandon completion if they have already answered most of the questions. Socio-demographic questions are often more sensitive than you might expect. You can split them into two parts with non-sensitive one coming early (e.g. gender, job title) and sensitive ones at the end (e.g. income, religious affiliation).

Covering Letter or Verbal Introduction to the Questionnaire For postal surveys you will need to write a covering letter. For structured interviews you will need to prepare a verbal introduction. This is your chance to explain the questionnaire and persuade the potential respondent to complete it and return it.

Keep it as succinct as possible/ Only give information that is needed. Use clear, precise language.

Preparing towards the Interview

Under your methodology describe vividly the following:

Population:
parameters.

Consists of all the members.

It study will yield results of

Sampling is the selection of a part to represent the whole or a subgroup of the

population. The sample yields results of statistics.

Sample Frame:

e.g. women or children of a larger population

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Bias: This is when some members have a greater chance of being selected than others.

Sampling frame: A complete list of population - from a census, register, list of students or employees, or other official record or a map which shows all the plots, villages or schools for sampling.

Sampling Approaches
Sample Size Determination Sampling fraction being large enough is not all. Let the standard error formula guide your choice of sample size. If the population is large, the finite population correction (N-n)/N is close to one and the precision of the sample result is seen to depend on n, the size of the sample, not n/N, the sampling fraction.

A large sample size, however, is not sufficient to guarantee the accuracy of the results. Although, for a given design, an increase in sample size will increase the precision of the sample results (cf SE formula), it will not eliminate or reduce any bias in the selection procedure. Therefore, the size of the sample size is not in itself enough to ensure that all will be well.

A. Non-probability sampling:
Accidental (sampling of convenience) anyone met by chance or anyone who is handy. Sometimes a situation of volunteerism arises where those have the chance of being included may refuse. This may be presumed to be creating bias. Quotas accidental but looking for characteristics Convenience Sampling Purposive Used for community studies or case studies villages, communities or samples that are typical e.g. Nima Snowball - good for social networks and groups of people who are widely dispersed e.g.

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All non-probability sampling leaves us with the problem of assessing how representative the data are.

Can the results be generalized. - analytically or theoretically. However it is cheaper and more convenient. Generalization can be improved by studying more units.

B. Probability sampling
o Random it requires a complete, accurate and up-to date sampling

frame. For large-scale studies, multistage random sampling may be used. In this technique, you might draw a sample of regions or districts at random from all districts or regions at random and then draw voting precincts at random.
o Systematic e.g. taking every Nth person/unit o Stratified This is superior to simple random sampling. Here the

population is first divided into strata .e.g. males separate from females
o Clusters All members must belong to a certain cluster (i.e. an existing

group) Adv. few people to contact and degree of cooperation is greater. Diasadv. the group may be too homogeneous Simple random sampling identifies an unbiased sample Random sampling produces sampling errors Selecting a very large sample does not correct for errors due to bias. The larger the sample, the better. Where there is little variability in a population, even a small sample may yield highly accurate results. E.g. estimating the weight of eggs identified as extra large Where there is much variability in a population, small sample may produce data with much error. E.g. SSS student in Accra Metropolis. When studying a rare phenomenon, large sample are usually required. E.g University students who are HIV positive NB: It is better to use a small unbiased sample than a large, biased sample.

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Types of Research Interviewing Interviews can take the form of formal and informal talks between the interviewer and interviewee involving asking questions and listening to the replies. There are different types of interviewing used in social research and each is used to find information. There are four main types of interviewing distinguished by the degree of structure imposed on the interviewing format. Social Science and Humanities research often uses a combination of these types of interviewing to gather more accurate information.

The Structure or Standardized Interview In a structured interview, questions are arranged prior to the interviews and are standardized in the form of a questionnaire. These can be aggregated and quantified. Examples are market research and public opinion polls. The questionnaire structures the interview-giving the same order and wording for all interviews. Often, answers are given in the form of examples to choose from, which implies that respondents can fit into predetermined boxes or categories. This method allows for comparability of respondents. This type of interviewing tends to be with survey research. (May 1993: 92)

The Semi-Structured Interview Unlike the structured interview the semi-structured interview allows the interviewer more freedom to modify the sequence of the questions to be asked to change the phrasing or wording and add explanations or clarifications if necessary. This can be useful when we want more specific or detailed information. The interviewer has more freedom to probe beyond simplistic answers. In semi-structured interviews we give an opportunity to the interviewees to answer on their own terms rather than within the standardized constraints of a structured interview. However, the semi-structured interview still provides a greater structure for comparison of interviewee responses than an informal interview. The semi-structured interview is in a sense a half-way mark between the highly structured and the informal.

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Unstructured or Informal Interview What differentiates this form of interview from the structured or semi-structured interview is its open-ended approach. Based on a list of topics which the interviewer wishes respondents to discuss, questions are flexible and phased as the interviewer wishes. They can be asked in any order that is appropriate at the time f the interview.

Context in this type of interview is very important. It is the most informal form of data collection and is often rich in context, which is why it is associated with a qualitative approach. Since interviewees are permitted to talk about subjects in terms of their own frame of reference it is important that the meanings and interpretations that individuals attribute to the events and relationships are understood so that the researcher can gain a greater understanding of the subjects point of view (May, 1993). Life histories and oral histories are included in this type of interviewing. In contrast to structured interviews which do not allow respondents to express their own opinions in a manner of their choosing, unstructured interviewing values the freedom to do so and stresses the value of meaning above generalization (May 1993:94).

Group Interviewing Group interviewing is a valuable and useful type of data collection enabling the researcher to focus on a particular group of people consisting of 8 to 12 individuals. In this type of interviewing the topic should be directed and it is up to the interviewer to maintain the focus so that the discussion does not deviate from the main topic. The researcher aims to encourage interaction in the group.

8. HANDLING SECONDARY DATA We usually define secondary data as those data (either quantitative or qualitative) which others have collected or created, and which are being made available to a different user. Thus government data

sets, official publications, annual

reports, and many texts such as policy statements-all count as

secondary data.
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Panel and Longitudinal Studies Panel means to collect information from the same sample on more than occasion. It begins as a randomly selected sample of the survey population. Information is the n sought from this sample at intervals. One can study trends here. A panel study nearly always measures changes with greater precision than does a series of independent samples of the same size.
j Data that have already been collected for some other purpose, perhaps processed

and subsequently stored, are termed secondary data. There are three main types of secondary data: documentary, survey and those from multiple sources.

j Most research projects require some combination of secondary and primary data

to answer our research question(s) and meet your objectives. secondary data in a variety of ways. These include:

You can use

to provide your main data set; to provide longitudinal (time-series) data; to provide area-based data; to compare with, or set in context, your own research findings.

j Any secondary data you use will have been collected for a specific purpose. This

purpose may not match that of your research. In addition, the secondary data are likely to be less current than any data you collect yourself.

j Finding the secondary data you require is a matter of detective work. This will

involve you in:

Establishing, if the sort of data you require are likely to be available; locating the precise data.

j Once located you must assess secondary data sources to ensure their overall

suitability for your research question(s) and objectives. In particular, you need to pay attention to the measurement validity and coverage of he data.
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j You must also evaluate the precise suitability of the secondary data.

Your

evaluation should include both reliability and any likely measurement bias. You can then make a judgement on the basis of the costs and benefits of using the data in comparison to alternative sources.

j When assessing cost and benefits you need to be mindful that secondary data,

which are not completely reliable and contain some bias, are better that no data at al if they enable you partially to answer your research question(s) and meet your objectives.

10. PLAYING WITH DATA: TOWARDS DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

DATA ANALYSIS Data analysis is a dynamic and creative process. Throughout analysis, researchers attempt to gain a deeper understanding of what they have studied and continually refine their interpretations. Researchers also draw on their first hand experience with settings, informants, or documents to make sense out of the data. In any data analysis you are seeking themes in terms what the respondent has talked about (given his cultural knowledge, beliefs, values). Researcher then categorizes it and rearranges the data after investigating the interiors (states of mind) and exteriors (description of social settings) It can be done both qualitatively and quantitatively. In management/organizational studies one has used both innovatively.

All qualitative studies contain rich descriptive data Seeing things from the respondents points of view (walking in their shoes) In theoretical studies researchers try to provide understanding of social life beyond the particular people and settings studied.

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Substantive area of enquiry includes, e.g. schools, prisons, juvenile delinquency, and patient care. Formal theory or area of enquiry refers to conceptual area of inquiry such as stigma, formal organizations, and socialization deviance Analytic induction: trying to develop and verify or test propositions about the nature of social life.

Interpretations and presentations are normally qualitative

Qualitative data (soft data) relating to attitudes, values, opinions, Quantitative (hard data)

Analysing Qualitative Data

j Qualitative data is based on meanings expressed through words. It results in the

collection of non-standardised data which requires classification, and is analysed through the use of conceptualisation.

j The process of qualitative analysis involves the development of data categories,

allocating units of your original data to appropriate categories, recognising relationships with and between categories of data, and developing and testing hypotheses to produce well-grounded conclusions.

j The process of data analysis and data collection is necessarily an interactive one.

j There are a number aids which you may use to help you through the process of

qualitative analysis, including interview, observation, document and interim summaries, self memos and maintaining a researchers diary.
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j Different qualitative analytical strategies can be identified, related to using either

predicted theoretical explanations or a grounded theory approach. The use of these strategies has implications for the procedures involved in the analysis of qualitative data.

j Quantifying some categories of qualitative data may help you to analyse them.

j The use of computer software can help you to perform four basic and useful

functions during qualitative analysis, related to: project management; coding and retrieval; data management; and hypothesis building and theorising.

Analysing Quantitative

Quantitative Techniques are just data reduction tools. It is necessary to contrast analytical induction with enumerative induction that provided mere correlations and cannot account for exceptions to statistical relationships

j Data for quantitative analysis can be collected and subsequently coded at different

levels of numerical measurement. The data type (precision of measurement) will constrain the data presentation, summary and analysis techniques you can use.

j Data are entered for computer analysis as a data matrix in which each column

usually represents a variable and each row a case. Your first variable should be a unique identifier to facilitate error checking.

j All data should, with few exceptions, be recorded using numerical codes to

facilitate analyses.

j Where possible you should use existing coding schemes to enable comparisons.

j For primary data you should include pre-set codes on the data collection form to

minimise coding after collection. For variables where responses are not known
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you will need to develop a code book after data have been collected for the first 50 to 100 cases.

j You should enter codes for all data values, including missing data.

j The data matrix must be checked for errors.

j Your initial analysis should explore data using both tables and diagrams. Your

choice of table or diagram will be influenced by your research question(s) and objectives, the aspects of the data you wish to emphasise and the level of measurement at which the data were recorded. This may involve using:

-tables to show specific values; -bar charts, multiple bar charts and histograms to show limits (highest and lowest values); -line graphs to show trends; -pie charts and percentage component bar charts to show proportions; -scatter graphs to show relationships between variables.

j Subsequent analyses will involve describing your data and exploring relationships

using statistics. As before, your choice of statistics will be influenced by your research question(s) and objectives and the level of measurement at which the data were recorded. Your analysis may involve using statistics such as:

- The mean, median and mode to describe the control tendency; - The inter-quartile range and the standard deviation to describe the dispersion; - Chi square to test whether two variables are significantly associated; - T-tests and analysis of variance (ANOVA) too test whether groups are significantly different; Correlation and regression to assess the strength of relationships between

variables; -regression analysis to predict values.

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j Longitudinal data may necessitate selection different statistical techniques such

as:

-index numbers to compare trends between two or ore variables measured in different units or at different magnitudes; -moving averages and regression analysis to determine the trend and forecast.

j Qualitative data is based on meanings expressed through words. It results in the

11. THEORIES IN ORGANISATION AND MANAGEMENT (Public or Private) Examples:

y

General Systems theory [Autopoesis (self-reproduction and references); self-reflectivity]

y y y y y y y y y y y y y y

Agency Theory Exchange Theory Network theory Contingency Models Organisatonal Metaphors Symbolism Deconstruction Organizational Change and Learning (Double and Single Loops) Resource Dependency Population Ecology and Adaptability Institutional theory Bureaucracies Public Choice Etc.

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12. WRITING THE FINAL REPORT This is basically concerned with packaging and presenting the results of your study according to academic conventions.

j Writing is a powerful way of clarifying your thinking.

j Writing is a creative process, which requires the right conditions if it is to produce

successful results.

j Your project report should have a clear structure which enables you develop a

clear storyline.

j Your report should be laid out in such a way that our reader finds all the

information readily accessible.

j You should try to develop a clear, simple writing style, which will make reading

the report an easy and enjoyable experience.

j Spelling and grammatical errors should be avoided.

j Dont think of your first draft as your last. Be prepared to rewrite your report

several times until you think it is the best you can do.

SO, If we are to write well we need to know what we are talking about. In order to find out what, precisely, we are talking about we need to write.

In writing we bring knowledge into being, we record and preserve it. Writing is the seed, the fruit and the pickle of our understanding.

Good academic writing actually creates new knowledge and new meaning.

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It can be an agonizing exercise. Reading and writing may go on simultaneously. The writing is added to, subtracted from, reshaped, cancelled, and reading.

There are four elements whose relationship needs to be balanced in order to bring this (good writing) about.

 The Writer  The Object of analysis or discussion (content)  The Reader  The formal properties of Language and institutional conventions Getting the balance might well depend on how you, the writer, respond in particular circumstances and partly on those traditions of expression and scholarship which grow up within certain disciplines, schools of thought within disciplines and within a particular college and university departments.

The characteristics of the four elements: Writer: Your own point of view must emerge, not as a mere opinion but as a JUSTIFIED JUDGEMENT. You need to treat your subject matter as comprehensively and precisely as the essay topic demands. You must read widely and from the range of information and ideas create a unified view. You must read carefully and do your best to make your language clarify the information and ideas you find in your books. You must present your work in the appropriate fashion for academic readers. This means that you will have to learn certain CONVENTIONS of academic writing which are at times quite different from what you may be used to. Finally, the text of your essay needs to forge a coherent unity from the diverse elements of language and thought that go to make it. It is in many of the details of your text that your purpose is realized. An essay is not merely a vehicle for ideas, but is itself (whatever the discipline) a piece of literature.

But fundamental to this whole process is your use of language:- words, grammar and discourse. Avoid:
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unnecessary repetition long sentences very long or very paragraphs Watch out spelling mistakes, punctuations and grammatical errors.

Structure of the Report

Common Format/Layout of the Final Report Title Page-Indicate the following: 1. Title to be pithy and informative: it can be of two parts the first setting out to define and confine the problem: the second part more apt and short 2. Topic of the research/study/paper 3. Name of the author(s) 4. Name of the organization where the report has been prepared and for what program

Table of Contents: 1. Lists of contents and page numbers

2. Headings and subheading

Headings serve as the outline of the report and should be clear, meaningful and consistent. We often number headings to highlight different heading levels, but numbers are not necessary. It is possible to use different styles of type to make these levels explicit. One way is to use the heading style used in this book. The most important aspect is not to use too many levels of heading, as the reader should be able to differentiate easily between different levels of heading and subheading.

3. Tables 4. Figures

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Table of Contents (A Format)

Page SUMMARY Declarations Dedications PREFACE/ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1. Introduction 1.1 Purpose of Study 1.2 Research Problems 1.3 2 Theoretical Framework/Analytical Framework 2.1 2.2 2.3 etc. i ii iii 1 3 3

1. Executive Summary (Synopsis) Necessary to have an Executive Summary 1. It should be self-sufficient: a kind of synopsis 2. Highlighting the whole report 3. Dont add anything new 4. It should convey to the reader the gist of what is in the report

2.

Introduction and Problem Statement

Introduction might be difficult to write because it must address multiple objectives. It must: a) Create reader interest in the topic b) Establish the problem that leads to the study c) Place the study within the larger context of the scholarly literature d) Reach out to a specific audience

Therefore:
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1. What are the main issues or research questions to be addressed? In social science research problems arise from: - difficulties, issues and current practices. That problems arise from deductions from theory, related literature, current social and political issues, practical situations and personal experiences. 2. Present what the report/study is about 3. What is the purpose of the study? It establishes the direction of the study. Use words like: PURPOSE, INTENT, OBJECTIVE e.g. The purpose of this study is . To DESCRIBE, PROVIDE UNDERSTANDING OF, To DEVELOP,

4. It should provide the reader with the necessary information to understand and comprehend the rest of the study 5. It should tell why one is studying a particular problem and what can be expected to be found in the rest of the report 6. Define or Clarify all unfamiliar terms and concepts 7. Some account of what has been done in the area should be presented (Essence of Literature Review) 8. How is the report/study organized 9. Also Limitations and Significance of the study

3.

Theoretical background (Survey of previous work or Historical review) ---

Literature Review Here the theoretical background to the problem area as well as to the study design is presented. If we are using hypotheses or a priori assumptions, there has to be a proper reasoning with the help of previous studies and findings. Depending upon the research orientation, as covered in Chapters 2 and 3, the importance of theory and its use is different. It is therefore important to be consistent in our report and we should check this section with our research orientation and design.

4.

Methodology

Describe how the whole study has been conducted, the processes, the difficulties faced and how handled etc. Reliability Issues, Validations, population and sampling.

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5.

Findings or Empirical Study (Results or Analysis)

Conclusions derived from your own work: relationship with that of others, and speculation on where the conclusions might lead.

j Discussions: Comment on results, interpret them and draw appropriate deductions.

j By order of occurrence. Here you present the findings chronologically. This is

particularly suitable when you are working with case studies, or when you have a process or longitudinal approach: for example, when explaining the process of negotiations and factors influencing this process
j By criteria or topics. You may use your own headings for example, from the

questionnaire or problem statement as a format to present the findings. You may have some criteria on what affects what for example, independent and dependent variables which can be used as headings to present the findings. You might number your research questions or hypotheses as l, 2, 3..and then discuss each of these in the same sequence.
j By order of location. You can present your findings from different parts of the

country or world in different sections and use these as headings: for example, findings from the south, east or central parts of the country, or findings from different countries or continents.
j Graphic Illustration. Charts, graphs and tables

6.

Conclusions and Recommendations

7. Footnotes (Variations include 1. Page wise, 2. Chapter wise, 3. At the end of the whole report) Be sparing in the use of footnotes

8.

Bibliography or Reference

Bibliographies are lists of books (and other material) on a particular subject and should include at least all the sources that have been cited in the report. A list of references, on the other hand, includes only those sources cited and should not include books and other material not cited in the report. Bibliographies and reference lists

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should be in alphabetical order with authors surnames coming first. (According to Harvard or Vancouver style)

If there is no author, the issuing organisations name should come first in the alphabetical order: for example, the European Commission or, in the case of an editorial in a periodical, The Economist. In the case of a reference to an article in a periodical, the authors name should come first.

Others technicalities, e.g. Et al: Rohlin, et al, 1988, p 47 Ed: Op. cit: Ibid. Deku, ed, 1989, p 60 Bulla op cit. Or Bulla, 1980, op cit.

Definitions, Delimitations, Significance

Define terms and concepts so that readers can understand the context which the words are being used or their unusual or restricted meaning.

Another parameter for a research study establishes the boundaries, exceptions, reservations and qualifications inherent in every study: delimitations ans limitations. E.g. this study is limited to; is focused; is not generalizable to all but only to ,

Scholarly Writing
Do well to present a SCHOLARLY long essay or thesis. How do you do this? Writing is a craft and following conventions

A highly readable manuscript should be the outcome of the writing process, and coherence is built into a study by using consistent terms, staging narrative thoughts and connecting sentences and paragraphs

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Be consistent in the use of terms Be coherent Correct grammar

WRITING AS THINKING Start by writing down ideas Work through a number of drafts of paper, rather than try to polish the first draft.

THE HABIT OF WRITING

j Establish the writing process the discipline of writing on a continuous and

regular basis.
j Establish good writing habits j Justify your text (avoid left aligning) j Font - Times New Roman j Font size 12 or 14 j Spacing 1 (standard)

The Following Sentences Adverbials (linking terms) can enrich your work:

Firstly, furthermore, in particular, consequently, in other words, alternatively, in comparison, in addition, by contrast, similarly, admittedly, certainly, to digress, to recapitulate, to resume. As mentioned in .., This is elaborated in section or chapter , However, Nevertheless,

NB: vary your sentences

Referring Expressions Referring expressions are used to help clarify what goes with what in your text. A subject or participant introduced at one point in the text becomes the fulcrum on which both earlier and later references ti it will turn. Examples: the(definite articles), it, he/she (pronouns), this, that, those (demonstrative), some, many, much, all, none, each, any (quantifiers)

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Others:
j Such , so, the very, the same, previously, the former, the latter (the backward

referrals)
j Below, as we shall see, thus, hence,(the forward referrals)

Coordinating Words and, in addition, These are all terms for your extending, elaboration, enhancing, analyzing and structuring.

DISCUSSION Discussion is an essential part of academic work both as an informal preparation for the writing and as writings final justification. Informal discussion with friends and fellow students is an important preparation.

Work hand in hand with your supervisor. Take a look at previous long essays.

TIME PLAN

Candidate: Adama Kofi

Supervisors: I.R.S Vate

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DATE (fill in)

CHAPTER/ACTIVITY

DURATI ON

RECEIVE D

REMARKS

Search for Topic

2 Months

Accomplished

Finalization of Topic/Draft of background of study

4 Weeks

Chapter I Proposal: Draft & Final

2 Months 24/10/98 20/11/98 14/11/98 24/11/98

Defense of Proposal and Final Adjustments on Proposal

Chapter II: Review of Related Literature Draft Final

2 Months

Chapter III: Methodology Questionnaire Development Draft Final Collection of Data

Chapter

IV:

Analysis and

1 Month

Discussion of Findings Draft Final

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Summary,

Conclusion

and

1 Month

Recommendation (Draft/Final) Thesis Manuscript Submitted in

Typing,

Editing

and

1 Month

Submission of Final Thesis

GOOD LUCK!!!!!!!!!!!!!

ILLUSTRATION FOR STUDENTS

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CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This section is largely informed by the ideas of Goski (2009) General Guidelines for writing a report, IPS.

1.1 Background to the Study

Chapter one begins with a short background to the study. The primary goal of these introductory paragraphs is to catch the attention of the readers and to get them gain an insight into the problem the research is seeking to address. It sets the stage for the research work and puts your topic in perspective. The introduction often contains noteworthy and general statements about the need for the study. It uses vivid illustration or quotes and relevant background information to give the import of the study. It normally would end with what the paper sets out to achieve or the question(s) that seeks to answer?

For example, the Background to a study entitled: An Assessment of Quality Assurance Practices in Higher Institutions of Learning in Ghana is given below -

Example: Several indicators have shown that in recent times, the need for quality assurance in higher institutions in Ghana is crucial. It appears that standards of education in higher institutions in Ghana have been declining in recent times.

For instance, the scarcity of resources reflected by the total number of qualified senior secondary school graduates against the present number of both public and private higher Institutions of learning demonstrates a strain on the higher educational sector. In addition, availability of other important but scarce resources are believed to underpin the quality of higher education in Ghana. The committee of Review of

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Educational Reforms (2002) reported that .most tertiary institutions do not have a comprehensive mechanism for monitoring internal quality.

Furthermore, an analytical study of higher education in Ghana revealed that the issue of financing, which is at the core of tertiary education development in Ghana, is inextricably linked with the perceived problem of quality and relevance (Boateng and Ofori-Sarpong 2002). Recent developments in the job market in Ghana, is also revealing the need to further look at strategies that would enhance the quality of graduates from higher institutions of learning. The Association of Ghana Industries (AGI) has indicated over and again that generally graduates produced in recent times in the country do not meet the expectations of industry (AGI, 2007). This need was re-emphasized in the theme of the 2008 New Year School of the University of Ghana, Tertiary Education and National Development (Institute of Adult Education Handbook, 2008). The short comings attributed to current graduates could possibly be adduced to the lack of comprehensive Quality Assurance mechanisms for both internal and external assessment processes. Arguably, it can be suggested that the focus of Higher education in Ghana seems to have been more quantity oriented than quality oriented.

Guided by the changing needs of the economy of Ghana, there is need to ensure that structures and academic programs of tertiary institutions guarantee that a system of formal quality assurance procedures are maintained at all levels. This is to ensure the demonstration of quality of output and consistency.

The question, however, is to what extent are quality management practices imbued in public higher institutions of learning in Ghana? Is there a recognized and standardized system or framework for assuring quality of higher education in Ghana?

This study therefore sought to find some answers to these questions and to ascertain the level of quality assurance practices in some selected higher institutions of learning in Ghana. The study further examines how management systems facilitate quality output of the countrys Higher Institutions of learning. The study hypothesized that quality assurance practices in higher institutions of Learning in Ghana is below average at 1% level of significance. The study, therefore sought to serve as a
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baseline barometer for quality assurance practices in Higher Institutions of Learning in Ghana though exploratory in nature.

1.2

Statement of the Problem

The statement of the problem is the focal point of your research. It is just one sentence (with several paragraphs of elaboration). Here, the researcher is looking for something wrong. ...or something that needs close attention ...or existing methods that no longer seem to be working.

Illustration: The frequency of job layoffs is creating fear, anxiety, and a loss of productivity among middle management workers.

While the problem statement itself is just one sentence, it is always accompanied by several paragraphs that elaborate on the problem. Present persuasive arguments why the problem is important enough to study. It includes the opinions of others (politicians, managers, other professionals). Explain how the problem relates to business, social or political trends by presenting data that demonstrates the scope and depth of the problem. Try to give dramatic and concrete illustrations of the problem. After writing this section, make sure you can easily identify the single sentence that is the problem statement. Using the example of the Assessment of Quality Assurance Practices in Ghana, the Problem statement is as indicated below

An example of a Problem Statement

It appears that standards of education in tertiary institutions in Ghana have been declining in recent times. This could possibly be attributed to the lack of comprehensive Quality Assurance mechanisms for both the internal and external assessment of programs in tertiary institutions by regulatory bodies, like the National Accreditation Board (NAB) and the National Board for Professional and Technician Examination (NABPTEX). Even though these bodies have some instruments or
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questionnaire for the assessment of existing and new programmes these do not seem to allow for a complete quality assurance scheme. Several publications and reports have also suggested similar trends. Mention some of the specific reports as mentioned above.

1.3 Purpose/ Aim

The purpose is a single document or paragraph that explains what the study intends to accomplish. A few statements are:

The goal/ aim of this study is to overcome the difficulty with discover what understand the causes or effects of refine our current knowledge of provide a new interpretation of understand what makes a successful or unsuccessful

1.4 Objectives of the Study

The objective is a statement that describes what would be measured to be able to answer the research question and sometimes how it would be measured. That is the specific measurable outputs expected to answer the research question. For examples,

Research Question: Why have retail banks in Ghana introduced Quality Departments?

Objective: To identify the reasons for the introduction of Quality Departments by Ghanaian retail banks.

Research Question: How can the effectiveness of Quality Departments in retail banks be measured?

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Objective: To establish a suitable criteria or framework for measuring the effectiveness of Quality Departments in retail banks in Ghana.

Research Question: Has quality Departments in retail banks in Ghana been effective?

Objective: To describe the extent to which the effectiveness criteria of Quality Departments in retail banks in Ghana has been met.

Using the example of the Assessment of Quality Assurance Practices in Ghana, the objectives of the study are as indicated below:
y

To assess quality assurance practices in Public Higher Institutions of Learning in Ghana using a self developed instrument based on the National Accreditation Board (NAB) Requirements and the UNESCO guidelines for quality assurance as a reference.

To develop a criteria for classifying quality assurance practices of Higher Institutions of Learning either as Poor Quality, Ordinary , Above average Quality, High Quality and Institutions of Excellence.

To ascertain challenges of complying with recommended quality Assurance Practices n Public Higher Institutions of Learning in Ghana and make recommendations.

1.5 Significance of the Study

This section creates a perspective for looking at the problem. It points out how your study relates to the larger issues and uses a persuasive rationale to justify the reason for your study. It makes the purpose worth pursuing. The significance of the study answers the questions:
" Why is your study important? " To whom is it important? " What benefit(s) will occur if your study is done?

Using the example of the Assessment of Quality Assurance Practices in Ghana, the significance of the study is as indicated below:

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It is believed that the results of this study can:

y

Help Ghanaian Higher Institutions of Learning to be more responsive to quality assurance issues by adopting more proactive and innovative approaches, systems, as well as processes in producing quality human resource for the nation.

Help Ghanaian tertiary institutions to demonstrate due diligence and confidence to their stakeholders, by putting in place, appropriate organizational structures and controls, procedures, processes and resources capable of training and developing world-class human resource.

Serve as a source of evaluation for further research into quality issues in such Institutions.

1.6 Research Questions and/or Hypotheses

As noted above, the research questions (although it is equally acceptable to present the hypotheses or null hypotheses, or proposition(s). No elaboration is included in this section. An example:

The research question(s) for this study will be:

Research Question 1. What are the attitudes of 2. Is there a significant difference between 3. Is there a significant relationship between

Null Hypothesis the attitudes are not different there is no significant difference there is no significant relationship

1.7 Scope and Organization of the Study

This section describes the depth of the research and general outline of presentation of the entire work according to chapters. For example, the researcher may say, This report is organized in five chapters.

Illustration:

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Chapter one gives on overview of the background to the study, the key objectives and how the results of this work could be used. Chapter two examines the relevant theories from both an appreciative inquiry and critical analysis points and gives some perspectives on some empirical works in the area. Chapter three gives the general design of the study and key methods of analysis. Chapter four presents the results and discusses the findings and chapter five draws conclusions and makes recommendations.

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

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The literature review section is normally in two parts that is the Theoretical Literature and the Empirical Literature, although this is sometimes presented together. The two components can also be separated as the standard for presenting the literature review. This is important because it shows what is already known in terms of theory about the subject and what previous researchers have observed empirically. It is usually quite long and primarily depends upon how much research has previously been done in the area the researcher(s) is planning to investigate. If the researcher(s) intends to explore a relatively new area, the literature review should cite similar areas of study or studies that led to the current research. The researcher(s) should never say that the area is so new that no literature exists. It is one of the key elements that justify the need for that research.

The Discussion here should therefore have the following key components:

2.1 Theoretical Literature

The theoretical literature presents and attempts to explain theories that relate to the research question or hypothesis, or proposition or subject matter in general.

Example, assuming you were writing on the topic, Factors influencing Work output in the Public Sector of Ghana, this section should talk about motivation theories, theories on how people get to do things, work systems, organizational culture etc. and relate it to the hypothesis, proposition or question in an argumentative form. Example in the case of the quality assurance studies the researcher(s) should be talking about quality assurance theories, theories on service quality, theories on product quality. However, under empirical literature talk about quality assurance practices in institutions of learning.

2.2 Empirical Literature The empirical literature describes what have been practically observed and validated objectively on the subject and how it relates to the subject matter. This should either support or question the validity of the theory under certain conditions or context.
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Normally it is preferable to get empirical literature that both support or criticize your proposition or hypothesis and argue on that. This should normally end with another justification or statement that justifies the need for your research.

2.3 Operational Definitions and Constructs Chapter two should contain a definition of terms section where appropriate. The researcher(s) must include this if the report uses special terms that are unique to the field of inquiry or that might not be understood as the general concept. Such special definitions formulated for particular studies are called Constructs. Operational definitions on the other hand are definitions formulated for the study which also describe the units of measurements. An example of an operational definition is: For the purpose of this research, improvement is operationally defined as post-test score of students performance minus pre-test score of students performance. The operational definition is a construct stated in terms of a specific testing or measurement criteria. The definition must specify characteristics of how the variables are to be observed. The specifications and procedures must be so clear that any competent person using them would classify the objects the same way.

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design The methodology section describes the basic research plan. It usually begins with a few short paragraphs that restate purpose and research questions. In this case, describe the research method, time dimension for the work, research techniques, and nature of the study, primary or secondary research, and measurable variables. All these descriptors are to be considered in the research design.

Table 1: Descriptors of Research Design Nature of the Research

y Exploratory study

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y Formal study

Method of Data collection

y Survey y Experiment y Interview y Simulation/ Modelling y Focused Group Discussion y Observation y Monitoring

Design of Control of Variables

y Experimental y Ex Post Facto

Purpose of Study

y Descriptive y Casual

Time Dimension

y Cross Sectional y Longitudinal / Time series

Topical Scope of the Work

y Case study* (Case study not allowed

for dissertation in some institutions though multiply case studies with

quantitative design would be allowed)

y Statistical study

The Research Environment

y Field Setting y Laboratory setting y Simulation

For example, this study is based on an ex-post facto design /experimental design and is an exploratory or in-depth study. The research is based on a crosssectional/longitudinal survey method or the research was based on a longitudinal/time series experiment or observation or interview method, or focused group discussion and employs both quantitative and qualitative techniques. You may indicate whether it is an exploratory study, case study, in-depth study, causal or descriptive study. You may also add the variables or the indicators the study is attempting to measure.

3.2 Population and Sampling

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This section should describe the Population of Interest, the Sample frame and Sampling Techniques employed.

It is incumbent upon the researcher to clearly define the target population. There are no strict rules to follow, and the researcher must rely on logic and judgment. The population is defined by keeping the objectives of the study in mind.

Sometimes, the entire population will be sufficiently small, and the researcher can include the entire population in the study. This type of research is called a census study because data is gathered on every member of the population.

Usually, the population is too large for the researcher to attempt to survey all of its members. A small, but carefully chosen sample can be used to represent the population. What is important in this case is that the sample chosen should reflect the characteristics of the population from which it is drawn. Two things become important here. The accuracy of the sample; that is the degree to which the sample is free from bias; and precision of the sample, that is the level of sample errors. This is why the sampling technique becomes important because they help to reduce bias and enhance precision of the sample.

The basic research paradigm is: 1. Define the population 2. Draw a representative sample from the population 3. Do the research on the sample 4. Infer your results from the sample back to the population\

Except situations where the populations of interest is extremely small say less than thirty elements and are very different from each other then you do a census.

3.21 Target Population The conduct of the research begins with a precise definition of the population. The whole idea of inferential research (using a sample to represent the entire population) depends upon an accurate description of the population. When the research is
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completed and statements are made based on the results, who will they apply to? Usually, just one sentence is necessary to define the population.

Examples are: The population of interest for this study is defined as all adult customers who make a purchase in pharmaceutical stores during the sampling time frame in Ghana, or all home owners in the city of Accra, or all potential customers of poultry products in Ho or elsewhere.

3.2.2 Sample Frame The sample frame is however, the list of elements in the population of interest from which the sample is actually drawn. For example:

All mobile phone users in Ghana

(Target Population)

All mobile phone users within the age bracket (20-35 years) (Sample frame)

3.2.3 Sampling

While the population can usually be defined by a single statement, the sampling procedure needs to be described in extensive detail. There are numerous sampling methods from which to choose. These include, Simple Random sampling, Systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster etc. All these are probability sampling methods which are preferable. Describe in minute detail, how the sample would be selected. Use specific names, places, times, etc. Do not omit any details. This is extremely important because the reader of the report must decide if the sample is sufficiently representative of the population. Ideally, the sampling must be based on probability sampling techniques. If for some reason you have to use non-probability sampling techniques like purposive sampling or quota sampling or snowball, then adequate and tangible reasons must be given for this. As much as possible avoid using convenience sampling techniques.

Probability and non-probability Sampling

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Sampling methods are classifies as either probability and non- probability. In probability samples, each member of the population has a known non-zero probability of being selected. Probability methods include random sampling, systematic sampling, and stratified sampling. In non- probability sampling, members are selected from the population in some non random manner. These include convenience sampling, judgment sampling, quota sampling, and snowball sampling. The advantage of probability sampling is that sampling error can be calculated. Sampling error is the degree to which a sample might differ from the population. When inferring to the population, results are reported plus or minus the sampling error. In non- probability sampling, the degree to which the sample differs from the population remains unknown.

Probability Sampling

Random Sampling is the purest form of probability sampling. Each member of the population has an equal and known chance of being selected. When there are very large populations, it is often difficult or impossible to identify every member of the population, so the pool of available subjects becomes biased.

Systematic Sampling is often used instead of random sampling. It is also called an Nth name selection technique. After the required sample size has been calculated, every Nth record is selected from a list of population members. As long as the list does not contain any hidden order, this sampling method is as good as the random sampling method. Its only advantage over the random sampling technique is simplicity. Systematic sampling is frequently used to select a specified number of records from a computer file.

Stratified sampling is commonly used probability method that is superior to random sampling because it reduces sampling error. A stratum is a subset of the population that shares at least one common characteristic. Examples or stratums might be males and females, or managers and non-managers. The researcher first identifies the relevant stratums and their actual representation in the population. Random sampling is then used to select s sufficient number of subjects from each stratum. Sufficient
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refers to a sample size large enough for us to be reasonably confident that the stratum represents the population. Stratified sampling is often used when one or more of the stratums in the population have a low incidence to the other stratums.

Cluster Sampling is a random sample based on geo-demographic groupings. Here, the researcher either uses geographical grouping or demography or economic factors to group elements (cluster) before drawing the sample.

Convenience sampling is used in exploratory research where the researcher is interested in getting an inexpensive approximation of the truth. As the name implies, the sample is selected because they are convenient. This non- probability method is often used during preliminary research efforts to get a gross estimate of the results, without incurring the cost or time required to select a random sample. It is however, not very reliable and reduces the acceptability of the research for purposes of generalization and must be avoided as much as possible.

Non- probability Sampling

Purposive or Judgment sampling is a common non- probability method. The researcher selects the sample based on judgment but with tangible reasons. This is usually an extension of convenience sampling. For example, the researcher may decide to draw the entire sample from one representative city, even though the population includes all cities. When using this method, the researcher must be confident that the chosen sample is truly representative of the entire population and always give tangible reasons or justification for this.

Quota sampling is the non- probability equivalent of stratified sampling. Like stratified sampling, the researcher first identifies the stratums and their proportions as they are represented in the population. Then convenience or judgment sampling is used to select the required number of subjects from each stratum. This differs from stratified sampling, where the stratums are filled by random sampling.

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Snowball sampling is a special non- probability method used when the desired sample characteristic is rare. It may be extremely difficult or cost prohibitive to locate respondents in these situations. Snowball sampling relies on referrals from initial subjects to generate additional subjects. While this technique can dramatically lower search costs, it comes at the expense of introducing bias because the technique itself reduces the likelihood that the sample will represent a good cross section from the population.

3.4 Instrumentation

Three categories of instruments can be used. These include:

y y

Adopting a Standard instrument Adapting an existing non-standardized instrument. This is normally instruments that have been used by other researchers in a previous work

A self developed instrument. This is a questionnaire or an instrument designed by the researcher him or herself.

Note that for an experiment, or observation or simulation the instrument would not be a simple questionnaire. This would be the instruments or objects or devices that would help the researcher to collect the data required for the analysis/

For example assuming, a study on the Nutritional Status of Women in Ghana for which the researcher decided to measure blood HB and Body Mass Index (BMI), the instruments to be used in this research would be the kit for measuring the Blood HB and the tape measure and weighing scale. Here, the researcher must mention the name of the devise and model number and describe what and how it works. If the researcher were also using a focused group discussion or interview method the instruments would be a tape or video recorder, jotter for taking notes and check list or appeared list of questions to ensure uniformity of measurement. If the researcher were using an observation method, then the device to be used for the observation is what would be described her as the instrument. If the researcher is doing a monitoring he or she would also require a check list.

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For surveys the instruments are normally questionnaires. Here, the researcher(s) would have to describe the theoretical constructs that the survey or study is attempting to measure. Describe also the variables that would be measured and the number of questions under each. Indicate whether, the questionnaire would be made up of structured, semi-structured or unstructured questions. Indicate also what type of measurement it would employ, whether it would be ordinal or nominal or Likert scale etc. Include a copy of the actual questionnaire that was designed by someone else; state the source of the instrument. If the study were on secondary data method, there would be the need to describe the specific model explicitly pointing out the dependent and independent variables.

3.5 Procedure and time frame State exactly when the research began and when it ended. Describe any special procedure that was followed (e.g., Instructions that will be read to participants, presentation of an informed consent form, etc.)

3.6 Statistical Analysis (Test of Hypothesis) The analysis plan should be described in detail here. This should address how the research question(s) or hypothesis was analyzed and tested. Each research question will usually require its own analysis. Thus, the researcher question(s) should be addressed one at a time followed by a description of the type of statistical tests that was performed to answer that research question. Be specific. State what variables were included in the analyses and identify the dependent and independent variables if such a relationship exists. The decision making criteria (e.g., the critical alpha level which is the level of error acceptable by the researcher) should also be stated. The researcher could choose from a number of parametric and non-parametric tests. Examples of common ones normally used include regression analysis, chi-squared analysis, paired observation test, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), correlation analysis, test of proportion, Test of Differences of Means etc. In such cases, Z -test would be used for large samples while T-test would be used for small samples, F-test for ANOVA (parametric test), Chi-squared test for Chi-Squared test (non-parametric).

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Additionally, the computer software that will be used for the analysis must also be indicated. (Example, SPSS, Mini-TAB, Statgraph) See details in table 2.

Table 2: Examples of Commonly Used Inferential Statistical Tests and their Purposes Parametric Statistics Statistical Tests Students test Purpose To determine whether a statistically significant difference exists between two means. To look for differences among three or more means by comparing the variances (s2) both within and across groups. If an ANOVA yields a significant result (i.e., a significant value for F), you should follow up comparing various pairs of means using a post hoc comparison.

Analysis of variance (ANOVA)

Analysis of covariance

To look for differences among means while controlling for the effects of a variable that is correlated with the dependent variable. This technique can be statistically more powerful (i.e., it

decreases the probability of a Type II error) than ANOVA.

Regression

To examine how effectively one or more variables allow(s) you to predict the value of another (dependent) variable. A simple linear regression generates an equation in which a single independent variable yields a prediction for the dependent

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variable. A multiple linear regression yields an equation in which two or more independent variables are used to predict the dependent variable. Factor analysis To examine the correlations among a number of variables in order to identify clusters of highly interrelated a variable that reflects underlying themes, or

factors, within the data. Structural Equation To examine the correlations among a number of variables in order to identify possible Modeling (SEM) causal relationships (paths)

among the variables. SEM encompasses such techniques as path analysis and confirmatory analysis and is typically used to test a previously hypothesized model of how variables are causally interrelated.

Nonparametric Statistics Sign test To compare two correlated variables to determine if the values of one variable are significantly larger than the values of the other. Mann-Whitney U To compare two groups when the data are ordinal ( e.g., ranked) rather than interval in nature. This procedure is the

nonparametric counterpart of the t test in parametric statistics. Kruskal-Walliss test To compare three or more group means when the data are ordinal (e.g., ranked). This procedure is the nonparametric counterpart of ANOVA.

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Wilcoxon matched-pair signed rank test

To determine whether two samples with ordinal data differ from each other when a relationship exists between the samples (i.e., when each data point in one sample is paired with a data point in the other sample).

Chi-square (j2) Goodness-of-fit test

To determine how closely observed frequencies or probabilities match

expected frequencies or probabilities. A chi-square can be computed for nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio data. Odds ratio To determine whether two dichotomous nominal variables (e.g., smokers vs. nonsmokers and presence vs. absence of heart disease) are correlated Fischers exact test To determine whether two dichotomous variables (nominal or ordinal) are

correlated when the sample sizes are quite small (e.g., n<30) Source: Leady and Ellis Ormrod, 2005

3.7 Validity and reliability

Every Research instrument needs to be validated and also treated in a way to ensure reliability. If the questionnaire in the research was designed by another researcher, then it would be appropriate to describe the previous validity and reliability assessments. When using an existing instrument, it would be necessary to re-validate and ensure re-assure the reliability of that instrument by performing the same reliability measurement as the author of the instrument. If the researcher is using a self developed instrument, then he or she must describe the steps taken to assess its validity and a description of how the measure its reliability would be ensured. There are many different ways to design the questions for a survey. The problem is how can

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we check the validity of the survey? How can we determine if a survey is actually measuring what it is supposed to measure?

Validity refers to the accuracy or truthfulness of a measurement. Is the researcher really measuring what he or she expects to measure? There are no statistical tests to measure validity. All assessments of validity are subjective opinions based on the judgment of the researcher. When a survey is validated it means that the researcher has come to the opinion that the survey is measuring what it was designed to measure, or the researcher has received a statement from another researcher indicating that they believe the instrument is measuring what it was designed to measure. When an instrument is developed, each question is scrutinized and modified until the researcher is satisfied that it is an accurate measure of the desired construct, and that there is adequate coverage of each area to be investigated. Nevertheless, there are at least three types of validity that should be addressed and you should state what steps you took to assess validity.

Face validity refers to the likelihood that a question will be misunderstood or misinterpreted. Pre-testing a survey is a good way to increase the likelihood of face validity. One method of establishing face validity is to debug a questionnaire by sending the questionnaire to a sample of about 30 potential respondents and evaluate their responses for potential problems.

Content validity refers to whether an instrument provides adequate coverage of a topic. Expert opinions, literature searches, and pre-test open-ended questions help to establish content validity.

Construct validity refers to the theoretical foundations underlying a particular scale or measurement. It looks at the underlying theories or constructs that explains a phenomena. In other words, if you are using several items to measure a more global construct (e.g., a subscale of a survey), then you should describe why you believe the items comprise a construct. If a construct has been identified by previous researchers, then describe the criteria they used to validate the construct. A technique known as confirmatory factor analysis is often used to explore how individual survey items contribute to an overall construct measurement.
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Reliability is synonymous with repeatability or stability. A measurement that yields consistent results over time is said to be reliable. When a measurement is prone to random error, it lacks reliability.

There are three basic methods to test reliability: test-retest, equivalent form, and internal consistency. Most research uses some form of internal consistency. When there is a scale of items all attempting to measure the same construct, then it would be expected that a large degree of coherence in the way people answer those items. Various statistical tests can measure the degree of coherence. Another way to test reliability is to ask the same question with slightly different wording in different parts of the survey. The correlation between the items is a measure of their reliability. Reliability is synonymous with repeatability. A measurement that yields consistent results over time is said to be reliable. When a measurement is prone to random error, it lacks reliability. The reliability of an instrument places an upper limit on its validity. A measurement that lacks reliability will also lack validity. There are three basic methods to test reliability: test-retest, equivalent, form, and internal consistency

A test-retest measure of reliability can be obtained by administering the same instrument to the same group of people at two different points in time. The degree to which both administrations are in agreement is a measure of the reliability of the instrument. This technique for assessing reliability suffers two possible drawbacks. First, a person may have changed between the first and second measurement. Second, the initial administration of an instrument might in itself induce a person to answer differently on the second administration.

The second method of determining reliability is called the equivalent-form technique. The researcher creates two different instruments designed to measure identical constructs. The degree of correlation between the instruments is a measure of equivalent-form reliability. The difficulty in using this method is that it may be very difficult (and/or prohibitively expensive) to create a totally equivalent instrument.

The most popular methods of estimating use measures of internal consistency. When an instrument includes a series of questions to examine the same construct, the
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questions can be arbitrarily split into two groups. The correlation between the two subjects of questions is called split-half reliability. The problem is that this measure of reliability depending on how the questions are split. A better statistic, known as Cronbachs alpha, is based on the mean (absolute value) interterm correlation for all possible variable pairs. It provides a conservative estimate of reliability, and generally represents the lower bound to the reliability of a scale of items. For dichotomous nominal data, the KR-20 (Kuder-Richardson) is used instead of Cronbachs alpha. Assumptions

All research studies make assumptions. The most obvious is that the sample represents the population. Another common assumption is that an instrument has validity and is measuring the desired constructs. Still another assumption is that respondents will answer a survey truthfully. Most importantly, researchers assume that certain constructs may measure a phenomenon and fail to realize how certain important variables could be overlooked in certain instances. For example, in a study attempting to measure quality of vision, the leaders vision was assumed to be the vision to use in the measurement. However, this assumption overlooked the fact that the organization may have it own vision which may be different from a leaders vision for the organization at the time of measurement. A new leader may have met an organizational vision and be compelled to work with that so which vision should be used in determining quality of leadership and can this two be separated? The important point is for the researcher to state specifically what assumptions are being made.

CHAPTER FOUR
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4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Description of the results

When data is collected in a research, it needs to be treated, analyzed and presented in a form that would be meaningful to the reader or audience in general. Data presented in the raw form gives no information. Raw data should first be sorted and cleaned to remove extreme outliers and incomplete information. It should then be summarized in a manner that gives meaningful information. To do this, data are normally presented as the descriptive statistics and/or inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics includes figures, tables, charts, graphs, mean, mode, median or central tendencies and dispersions in the form of variances and standard deviations peculiar to the sample studied. Nearly all researchers collect various demographic information. It is important to report the descriptive statistics of the study because it helps the reader decide if the sample is truly representative of the population. If the researcher wants to generalize his or her findings he needs to employ the inferential statistics.

Analyses The analyses section is cut and dry. It precisely follows the analysis plan laid out in Chapter three. Each research question addressed individually. For each research question:

1. Restate the research question using the exact wording as in Chapter I 2. If the research question is testable, state the null hypothesis statistical form 3. State the type of statistical test(s) performed 4. Report the statistics and conclusions, followed by any appropriate table(s)

Numbers and tables are not self-explanatory. If tables are used, refer to them in the text and explain what they communicate, i.e. provide an inducing sentence. Example Table 3 shows a strong negative relationship between delivery time and customer satisfaction (r = -72, p=.03)

All tables and figures have four parts:

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1. Table Number 2. Title of Table (descriptive) 3. Information being communicated well reduced and summarized to give information not data 4. Source of the information, as illustrated in Table 4 below

Table 4: Frequency and Proportion on No. of Years in Maize Production Years 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 Above 20 Total Source: Survey data, 2006 Frequency 2 17 9 3 2 33 Percentage (%) 6.1 51.5 27.2 9.1 6.1 100

Avoid the use of trivial tables or graphs. If a graph or table does not add new information (i.e., information not explained in the text), then dont include it.

Discussion

Discuss the findings. Do your findings support existing theories? Explain why you think you found what you did. Present plausible reasons why the results might turned out the way they did.

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary

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Begin the final chapter with a few paragraphs summarizing what was done and found (i.e., the conclusions from Chapter four). State the position clearly with respect to the research question, hypothesis or the proposition based on the findings.

5.2 Recommendations

Present recommendations based on the findings and objectives of the study. Recommendations must not be out of the scope of the work. Avoid the temptation to present recommendations based on researchers own beliefs or biases that are not specifically supported by the empirical evidence.

5.3 Limitations All research studies also have limitations and a finite scope. Limitations are often imposed by time and budget constraints. Precisely list the limitations of the study. Describe the extent to which you believe the limitations degrade the quality of the research.

5.4 Further Studies

There are almost always that a study be improved or refined. What would you change if you were to do your study over again? These are the recommendations to other researchers.

WORD PROCESSING FORMAT FOR THE PRESENTATION OF NORMAL DISSERTATION REPORT

TITLE

- 120 Characters with Spaces

ABSTRACT

- 150 Words

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NUMBER OF PAGES

- 45-90 (could vary)

FONT SIZE

- 12 Times New Roman

SPACING

- 1.5 or Double spacing

FORMATTING for details

- Title Page, Font Size (20-14) See Appendix A

Bolded and Caps Chapter Headings Font Size 14 Bolded and Caps

HEADINGS Text First Sub Heading: Second Sub Heading:

- Font size 12, Bolded, Caps, One Space from

- Bolded, Tile Case, not spaced from Text - Italics, Title case, not spaced from Text

TITLE PAGE All text on the title page is centred vertically and horizontally. The title page has no page number and it is not counted in any page numbering.

PAGE LAYOUT Left Right Top Bottom margin margin margin margin 11/2 1 1 1

PAGE NUMBERING Pages are numbered at the bottom centre. There should be 1 inch of white space from the top of the page number to the top of the paper. Numeric page numbering begins with the first page of Chapter 1 (although a page number is not placed on page 1)

SPACING AND JUSTIFICATION All pages are single sided. Text is double-spaced and justified on both sides.
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FONT TYPE AND FONT SIZE FOR TABLES AND FIGURES Times New Roman font is acceptable. The font should be 12 points. Generally, the same font must be used throughout the manuscript, except;
y y

Tables and graphs which my be smaller (d 11 but not d 9) Chapter titles and section headings may use a different font as indicated under formatting above.

REFERNCES APA Format should be used to cite references within the paper. No Footnotes or Endnotes are allowed in this format. Please see detail under the APA format below.

PRESENTATION STYLE FOR BODY OF THE REPORT

CHAPTER ONE (Centred)

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6

Background of the Study Statement of the Problem Objectives Hypothesis/ Prepositions Significance of the Study Organization of the Study

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Theoretical Literature 2.2 Empirical Literature 2.3 Definition of terms and Constructs

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CHAPTER THREE

3.0 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design 3.2 Sampling Method/ Data Collection Method 3.3 Study Instruments 3.4 Analytical Tools and Techniques

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 Results 4.2 Discussion

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSIONS

5.1 Summary 5.2 Recommendations 5.3 Limitations of the Study 5.4 Further Studies

REFERENCES

List references in APA Referencing format

APPENDIX

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Include a copy of any actual instruments. If used, include a copy of the informed consent form. Douglas, J.D. (1985) Creative Interviewing. London: Sage Publications. Douglas, M. (1975) Implicit Meanings. London: Routlege: & Kegan Paul. Jick, T.D. (1979) Mixing Qualitative and Quantitative Methods: Triangulation in Action, Administrative Science Quarterly, 24:602-611. Rosen, M. (1991) Coming to Terms with the Field: Understanding and Doing Organizational Etnography. Journal of Management Studies. Vol. 28,1:1-24. Sanders, P. (1982) Phenomenology: A New Way of Viewing Organizational Research. Academy of Management Review, Vol.7,3:353-360. Taylor, S.J., and Bogdan, R., (1984) Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods. The Search for Meanings. New York: Wiley. Turner, B. (1918) Some Practical aspects of Qualitative Data Analysis, Quality and Quantity, No.15:225-247. Van Maanen, J. (1987) Tales of the Feld: On Writing Ethnography. Chicago, Ill.,: University of Chicago Press. Wagner, p. et al. (Eds.) (19910 Discussions on Society: The Shaping of the Social Sciences, London: Kruver Academy Publishers. Wax, R.H. (1917) Doing Fieldwork: Warnings and Advice. Chicago. UC Press. Yin, R.K. et al. (1976) The Difference that Quality makes: The Case of Literature Reviews: Sociological Methods and Research. 5:139-56. Yin, R. (1989) Case Study Research: Design and Methods, London: Sage.

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