Physics (from Ancient Greek: physis "nature") is a natural science that involves the study of matter[1] and its

motion through spacetime, as well as all related concepts, including energy and force.[2] More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.[3][4][5] Science (from Latin: scientia meaning "knowledge") is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the world.[ Branches of Science A

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Acoustics: It is a branch of science related to the study of transmission of sound waves. It usually refers to the characteristics of theaters, auditoriums and studios and includes the behavior of sound in buildings and noise and noise control. Aerodynamics: It is associated with the study of forces of air acting on objects in motion relative to air. Aeronautical Engineering: It is a branch of science that is related to the study of design and manufacture of flight-capable machines as well as the techniques of operating aircraft. Agriculture: It is the science of cultivating the ground, harvesting the crops and rearing and management of farming, husbandry and livestock. It is associated with the production of food, fiber, feed and other goods by systematic harvesting or growing the plants and rearing the animals. Agronomy: It is a branch of agriculture that deals with field crop production and soil management. It involves the scientific study of crop production and its usage for food, feed, fiber and fuel. Algebra: It is a branch of mathematics that deals with the study of structure, quantity and relation. It includes the use of symbols, letters and/or characters to represent numbers and express mathematical relationships. Algology: see Phycology Anatomy: It is a branch of biology, related to the study of structure and organization of living things. It involves human anatomy, plant anatomy (phytotomy) and animal anatomy (zootomy). Angiology: It is the science that includes the study of blood and lymph vessels and their disorders. Anthropology: It involves the study of both past and present human cultures. It is associated with physical and social characteristics of humanity through the study of historical and present

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geographical distribution, acculturation, cultural history and cultural relationships. Apiculture: It is the science and art of raising and management of honeybees, Apismellifera. It involves the cultivation of bees on commercial scale for the production of honey. Applied Mathematics: It is a branch of mathematics that deals with the mathematical techniques, which are used in the application of mathematical knowledge to other domains. Archaeology: It is a subdiscipline of anthropology that involves the study of physical evidence of past human societies, recovered through excavation Astronomy: It is the scientific study of celestial bodies such as stars, comets, planets and galaxies and phenomena that originate outside the Earths atmosphere such as the cosmic background radiation. Astrophysics: It is a branch of astronomy that is associated with the physics of celestial bodies (galaxies, stars and interstellar medium). Atomic Physics: It is a field of physics that is associated with the study of internal structure of atomic nuclei as an isolated system of electrons. It mainly involves the study of arrangement of electrons around the nucleus.

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Bacteriology: It is a branch of microbiology, which involves the scientific study of bacteria in relation to disease as well as agriculture. Biochemistry: It deals with the study of chemical substances and vital processes that take place in living organisms. It primarily focuses on the structure, function and role of biomolecules. It includes the study of organic chemistry of compounds and processes occurring in organisms. Bioengineering: It is an application of systematic, integrative and quantitative engineering principles to living structures, such as creating chemicals, drugs, tissues and artificial organs. Biology: It is also known as biological science, which includes the scientific study of life. It involves the study of structure, origin, growth, evolution, function and distribution of living things. Biophysics: It is a branch of science that involves an application of methods and principles of physics to understand the biological systems. Biotechnology: It is associated with the industrial application of living organisms and/or biological techniques developed through basic research. Biotechnology is applied for producing the pharmaceutical compounds and research

materials. It is mainly applied in genetic engineering and recombinant DNA technology. Botany: It is also referred to as plant biology, plant science or phytology. It involves the scientific study of plant life.

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Cardiology: It deals with study, diagnosis and treatment of various disorders of heart and major blood vessels. Chemical Engineering: It is a branch of engineering that deals with design, construction and operation of machinery and plants for different products such as dyes, acids, plastics, drugs and rubber, applying the chemical reactions. Chemistry: It is a branch of natural science that is associated with the composition of substances and their properties and reactions. It is the science of matter and its interactions with energy and itself. Civil Engineering: This branch of engineering deals with the planning, designing, construction and maintenance of structures (roads, bridges, etc) and altering the geography to suit the human needs. Climatology: It involves the study of climatic data, analysis of climatic changes and investigations of its phenomena and causes. Computer Science: It includes a systematic study of computation and computing system. It involves different theories for understanding the computing systems and methods, algorithms, design methodology and tools, methods of analysis and verification and methods for testing the concepts. Cosmetology: It is the practice of beautifying the face, skin and hair, using different cosmetics. Cosmology: It is a branch of physical science that is associated with the nature of universe, its origin and overall structure. Craniology: This branch of science is related to the study of physical characteristics of the skulls of different human races. Cryogenics: A scientific study that deals with the production, control, application and uses of very low temperature. Cryptography: It is the science of protecting the information by transforming it into an unreadable, unintelligible, enciphered format with the use of a key and an algorithm. Cytology: It is a branch of biological science that is associated with the study of structure, origin, function and pathology of cells.

Dactylography: It is the science of using the fingerprints for the purpose of identification. Dermatology: It is a branch of medicine that deals with the skin disorders such as moles, skin cancers, contact dermatitis, psoriasis and other skin conditions, related to other diseases. It also includes the disorders of hair, nails, mouth and external genitalia. Dentistry: This branch of medicine deals with diagnosis, treatment and prevention of the diseases associated with teeth, oral cavity and related structures. Dynamics: It is a branch of mechanics that includes the study of various forces, their action on bodies and changes in motion they produce.

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Ecology: It includes the study of interrelationships between living organisms and their environment. Electronics: It is a branch of technology, which is associated with the development and application of circuits or systems, using electronic devices such as magnetic amplifiers, transistors, etc. Endocrinology: It is a branch of medical science that is associated with the study of function and pathology of endocrine glands. Engineering: It is an application of scientific, mechanical, physical and mathematical principles to design process, structures and products that are meant for improving the quality of life. Entomology: It is a branch of science that includes the study of insects in their relations to forests and forest products. Environmental Science: It is the study of interactions among biological, physical and chemical components of environmental system. Epidemiology: It includes the study of cause and distribution of diseases in human population. Ethnology: It involves the study of mental and physical differences of mankind. Etiology: It is the study of causes or origins of disease/abnormal condition. Etymology: It includes the study of history of words and their meanings. Eugenics: It deals with the study of hereditary improvement of human race by controlled selective breeding. Evolution: It is the sequence of changes involved in evolutionary development of a species or taxonomic group of organisms. Exbiology: It is a branch of science that deals with life or possibilities of life present beyond the earth.

Forestry: It is the art and science of managing and using forests and their associated resources to produce various products such as timber for human benefits. Floriculture: It is a discipline of horticulture, related with the cultivation of flowering and ornamental plants for the gardens and floristry, including the floral industry. Forensic Science: It is a branch of medical science that deals with establishing the evidence for legal proceeding.

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Genetics: It is a branch of biology that focuses on the heredity and variation of organisms as well as the patterns of inheritance of specific traits. Gemology: It is the science and art of identifying, grading, evaluating and marketing the gemstones. Geography: It includes the study of the earth as well as its features phenomena and inhabitants. It also deals with climate, topography, vegetation and soil. Geology: This branch of science involves the study of origin, history, evolution and structure of the earths crust. It also involves the examination of soil and rocks. Geometry: It is a branch of mathematics that deals with the questions of shape, size and relative positions of figures as well as with the properties of space. It is associated with polygons, vertices, triangles, meshes and associated operations to be done with them in 3D applications. Geophysics: It involves the study of physical and geological properties and characteristics of the earth, minerals and rocks. Gerontology: It deals with the scientific study of psychological, biological and sociological phenomena related to aging and old age. Gynecology: It is a discipline of medicine that is concerned with disorders of women, particularly reproductive and sexual function and diseases of reproductive organs.

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Histology: It includes the study of structure and behavior of cells and body tissues, using microscopic examination of tissue slices. Horticulture: It is an agricultural technology that is associated with growing ornamental plants, flowers, fruits and vegetables. Hydroponics: It is a branch of science that deals with growing the plants, particularly vegetables, in water containing essential mineral nutrients, instead of in soil. Hydrotherapy: It is the science of treating a disease using hot or cold water, internally or externally to maintain and restore health. This treatment involves full body immersion, saunas, steam baths, colonic irrigation, sitz baths and hot or/and cold compresses. Hydrology: It deals with distribution, occurrence, properties, chemistry and circulation of water on the earth. It includes the study of streams, rivers, lakes, etc. Hydrostatics: It involves the mathematical study of forces and pressures in liquids.

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Ichthyology: It is the study of fish. Iconography: It is a system of using images, symbolic pictures, or figures to represent a theme or structure. Immunology: It deals with the study of diseases and bodys immune system and its functions.

Jurisprudence: It is a branch of philosophy associated with study and structure of law and legal system.

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Heliology: It deals with the study of the Sun. Hematology It is a branch of medical science that includes the study of function and disease of blood as well as diagnosis and treatment of disorders of blood, lymph glands and spleen. Hepatology: This branch of medical science incorporates the study of functions and disorders of liver as well as biliary tree, gallbladder and pancreas.

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Lexicography: It is the science of compiling, writing and editing the dictionaries. It is done on the basis of study of meaning, form and behavior of the words in a given language. Linguistics: It incorporates the study of structure, form, sound, function, variety and development of specific languages and human speech in general.

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Mammalogy: It is a branch of zoology that includes the study of mammals. Mammography: It is a special examination breast using an X-ray. It is one of the most effective methods for an early detection of breast cancer.

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Marine Biology: It is associated with the scientific study of living organisms in the ocean and other brackish or marine bodies of water. Mathematics: It is the body of knowledge that focuses on different concepts such as structure, quantity, change and space. It is also one of the academic disciplines. Mechanics: It is a branch of physics that is related to the behavior of physical bodies after subjecting to forces or displacements and the subsequent effects of bodies on their environment. Mechanical Engineering: It is a branch of engineering that includes the study of design, construction and operation of machinery. Medicine: It is the science of maintaining and/or restoring human health through the study, diagnosis and treatment with non-surgical techniques. Metallurgy: It is the science of extracting the metals from their ores. It also involves purifying the metals and casting useful items from them. Meteorology: This branch of science involves the study of chemistry, physics and dynamics of atmosphere and its direct effects on the earths surface, oceans and life on the earth. Microbiology: It is a branch of biology that is concerned with the study of structure and function of microorganisms, including bacteria, moulds and pathogenic protozoa. Mineralogy: It is a scientific discipline that includes the study of chemical composition, physical properties, internal crystal structure, origin, occurrence and distribution in nature of different minerals. Molecular Biology: It is a discipline of biology that includes the study of structure, formation and function of essential macromolecules such as RNA, DNA and proteins. It also deals with the process of replication, transcription and translation of genetic information. Morphology: It is the science of structure and form of organisms, including animals, plants and other forms of life, with special emphasis on external features. Mycology: It is a branch of botany that includes the study of fungi and fungal infection. It involves the study of fungi, their taxonomy, their biochemical and genetic properties and their use to humans as a source for food, medicine and tinder. Myology: This science includes the study of structure and function of muscles and muscle tissues.

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various kidney disorders, including fluid and mineral balance. Neurology: It is related to the structure, functioning and disorders of nervous system including the brain, spinal cord, as well as related muscles, nerves and blood supplies. Nuclear Physics: It is a branch of physics, which includes the study of atomic nuclei, their interaction with each other as well as with constituent particles. Numismatics: This branch of science deals with the study and collection of coins, paper money, medals, tokens and similar objects. Nutrition: It is the study of foods and nutrients and their effect on growth, development and health of an individual.

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Obstetrics: This branch of medicine deals with the health and care of a woman and fetus during pregnancy, parturition and puerperium. Oceanography: It is the study of chemistry, physics, geology and biology of oceans in the world. Odontology: It is associated with the scientific study of anatomy, development and diseases of teeth. Oncology: It is associated with diagnosis and treatment of cancer and tumors. Oneirology: It is a scientific study of dreams and their contents. Ophthalmology: It is a branch of medical science that includes the study of structure, function and diseases of the eyes, such as conjunctivitis, cataracts, glaucoma, etc. Optics: It is a branch of physics that focuses on the physical properties of light and interaction of light with matter. Organic Chemistry: This branch of chemistry is associated with the study of carbon-containing compounds, which includes their structure and reactions. Ornithology: It is a branch of zoology that includes the study of birds. Osteology: It is a branch of anatomy, which involves the scientific study of structure, functions and pathology of bones.

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Nephrology: It is a discipline of medical science that focuses on diagnosis and treatment of

Paleontology: It is a branch of biology that deals with the study of prehistoric life, based mainly in fossils of animals and plants. Pathology: It is a medical discipline that is related to cause and nature of disease. It mainly involves structural and functional changes in tissues and organs caused by the disease.

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Particle Physics: It is a branch of physics that includes the study of particles and their fundamental reactions. Pedology: It is a branch of science that deals with the study of soil, including its formation, composition, structure and classification. Petrology: This science incorporates the study of history, origin, structure, occurrence and chemical classification of rocks. Pharmacology: It involves the study of drugs/medications and their nature, origin, properties as well as their effects on living organisms. Philately: It involves the study and collection of postage stamps. Philology: It is the science of language and linguistics. Phonetics: It is the study and classification of sounds of human speech. Phycology: It is a branch of botany that includes the scientific study of algae. It is also known as algology. Physical Chemistry: It is a discipline of chemistry, which includes the application of techniques and theories from physics to study the microscopic, macroscopic, atomic, subatomic and particulate phenomena in chemical systems. Physics: It is a branch of science that is concerned with the study of properties and interactions of time, space, energy and matter. Physiology: This branch of biology deals with the study of physical, biochemical and mechanical functions and activities of living organisms. Physiography: It is the study of natural features of earths surface and its natural phenomena such as climate, currents, land formation and distribution of flora and fauna. Plasma Physics: It is a branch of physics that deals with the study of interaction of plasma with itself, radiation and particle beams. Pollution: It involves the study of undesirable changes in biological, chemical and physical characteristics of water, air, soil or food, which can cause a number of adverse effects on the living beings. Pomology: It is a branch of science that includes the study of fruits and cultivation of fruits. Protozoology: It is a branch of zoology that deals with the study of protozoans. Psychology: It is the scientific study of mental and behavioral processes.

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Seismology: It is a scientific investigation of earthquakes as well as structure of the earth, based on the study of seismic waves. Sericulture: It is also referred to as silk farming. It is rearing of silkworms for producing the raw silk. Serpentology: It is a branch of zoology, which deals with the study of snakes. Sociology: It is the scientific study of society, human social interaction and social relationships. Speech Therapy: It includes the evaluation and treatment of speech, language and voice disorders. It is the rehabilitation treatment for the patients with difficulties in swallowing or communication. Statics: It is the study of forces that act on the bodies at rest. Statistics: It is a branch of applied mathematics, associated with the collection, analysis, explanation or interpretation and presentation of data. It can be applied to a variety of academic disciplines, from social and natural sciences to humanities and to business and government.

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Taxonomy: It is the science of classifying all the living things by arranging them in groups according to their relationships with each other. Therapeutics: It is the science of healing or medical treatment of disease. Thermodynamics: It is a branch of physics which deals with general properties of energy and matter. It includes the study of amount of work, heat and other energy related to chemical reactions.

Virology: It is a discipline of microbiology or pathology, which includes the study of evolution, structure, classification and pathogenesis of viruses.

Zoology: It is a branch of biology that is related to the study of animal kingdom, including evolution, classification, distribution, structure, habits and embryology of animals. BRANCHES OF PHYSICS

Radiology: It is a medical discipline that focuses on using radiation and other radioactive substances to diagnose and treat various diseases.

EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS

THEORITiCAL PHYSICS Classical Mechanics This is the oldest branch of physics which analytically describes motion of all objects on the macroscopic scales. It describes everything from why large objects like balls bounce, why pendulum swings to why planets revolve around the Sun! It describes 'mechanics' of all kinds on the large scale and its classical, because it cannot explain motion at atomic level. Fluid mechanics is one specialized sub-branch of classical mechanics, which describes the physics of all types of fluids. Mathematical Physics This is the branch of physics, which gives theoretical physics its tools of analysis. Mathematics is the language of nature and therefore if one wants to understand nature, one must understand mathematics. Mathematics brings precision to physics. It is the branch which is an overlap of pure mathematics and physics. Mathematical physics techniques form the toolbox of a physicist. Just like a workman must use the right kind of tools to get his job done, so must a physicist use the right mathematical tools to solve a problem! The more and more deeply we explore nature, every new law discovered can only be expressed in a new form of mathematics. Classical Electrodynamics This field is the most broadly applied of all the branches of physics. Classical electrodynamics is based on Maxwell's laws of electromagnetism, which describes all kinds of electromagnetic phenomena from atomic to global scales. It is the theoretical basis of optics, telecommunication and many other sub-fields. Its domain extends over all of nature, as the 'Electromagnetic Force' is all pervading and we live in an electromagnetic world. Quantum Mechanics This branch describes a new kind of mechanics, which can explain phenomena at the sub-atomic level, which classical mechanics fails to describe. It provides the clearest picture of nature at the sub-atomic scales. Quantum physics, is based on the principle of uncertainty, and predicts all phenomena in terms of probabilities. It describes a weird sub-atomic world, which is totally different from the world at macroscopic scales. Studying quantum physics requires quite a bit of mathematical expertise and it is the theoretical basis of all branches of physics, that describe phenomena at atomic or sub-atomic scales. For more on this read, 'Basics of Quantum Mechanics for Dummies'. Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics Thermodynamics and statistical physics is one of the core branches of physics, which gives a theoretical mechanism to describe the motion of and phenomena in multi-particle systems. Even though a single particle motion can be analyzed by quantum mechanics, it cannot describe multiparticle systems analytically, as the variables of calculation there are too many. So, a statistical approach is needed that describes motion of matter in bulk. Thermodynamics is a predecessor of statistical mechanics. Statistical mechanics combined with quantum mechanics, forms quantum

statistical mechanics. Condensed Matter Physics Condensed Matter Physics is a sub-branch of quantum physics and statistical mechanics, which describes all phenomena that occur in matter, which is in condensed form. This includes everything from liquids, solid and gases. The physics of semiconductor devices, which make today's age of information technology possible, is a result of research developments in condensed matter physics. It describes all phenomena in bulk matter like ferromagnetism, superfluidity and superconductivity. Nuclear Physics Nuclear physics describes all the phenomena that occur at the level of the atomic nucleus. It deals with and explains phenomena like radioactivity, nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. Developments in nuclear physics led to the production of nuclear weapons like the atom bomb, the Hydrogen bomb and made nuclear energy source available to mankind. For more on this, read 'List of Radioactive Elements'. Quantum Field theory This is the physics which describes the physics of particles, which are very small and very fast. It is also known as particle physics. It is based on the three theoretical foundations of quantum mechanics, special theory of relativity and the concept of fields. It is based on the unification of all these three foundations and it describes the physics of fundamental particles of matter. It is one of the most difficult branches of physics, which describe the ultimate building blocks of nature. Non-Linear Dynamics This is a sub-field of classical mechanics, which solves the problems on macroscopic scales, which cannot be solved by classical mechanics. It is an advanced branch of mathematics, which attempts to solve non-linear differential equations of motion, which are not amenable to a solution by conventional techniques. A greater part of it is also known as 'Chaos Theory', which delves in to the organized chaos that exists in the macroscopic world. It is the most happening branch of physics currently. For more on this read, 'An Introduction to Chaos Theory'. Astronomy and Astrophysics Astronomy is the observational study of the universe in all its manifestations and astrophysics (a confluence of all branches of physics), is the theoretical basis, which can explain all those phenomena. It is the most all encompassing of all the branches of physics, which has a singular goal of explaining every phenomenon that occurs in the universe. General Theory of Relativity and Cosmology The general theory of relativity is the correct theory, which describes gravitation at all scales. It interprets gravity not as a force, but as a consequence of the curvature of spacetime. Space around massive objects actually gets warped and bent. Gravity is the result of this warping of space time. Special relativity unifies space and time in to 'Spacetime'

and general relativity makes 'Spacetime' interact with matter. How much space warps, depends on the content of matter and energy in it. In simple words, general relativity is described by, 'Matter tells space how to bend, space tells matter how to move!' For more read 'Does the Fourth(4th) Dimension of Time Exist'. The power of the principle of general relativity is such, that it gave birth to the new science of cosmology, which provides the framework, that can describe the evolution of the Universe in totality! For the first time, thanks to cosmology, physics can provide an answer to the question, 'How was the Universe Created? '. This was a whirlwind tour of all the main branches of physics. I hope, when somebody asks you, 'What are the branches of physics? ', you will direct them to read my article! There are many more specialized branches of physics like 'Biophysics' (a confluence of biology and physics), which describes the physics involved in biological systems. Hope this article has given you an idea of the vastness of physics and the power it provides at your disposal!

condemned heliocentrism as "false and contrary to [10] Scripture", and Galileo was warned to abandon his support for itwhich he promised to do. When he later defended his views in his most famous work, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, published in 1632, he was tried by the Inquisition, found "vehemently suspect of heresy", forced to recant, and spent the rest of his life under house arrest.[11][12]

2.Nicolaus Copernicus (German: Nikolaus Kopernikus; Italian: Nicol Copernico; Polish: Miko aj Kopernik; in his youth, NiclasKoppernigk;[1] 19 February 1473 24 May 1543) was a Renaissanceastronomer and the first person to formulate a comprehensive heliocentriccosmology which displaced the Earth from the center of the universe.[2]
Copernicus' epochal book, De revolutionibusorbiumcoelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres), published just before his death in 1543, is often regarded as the starting point of modern astronomy and the defining epiphany that began the scientific revolution. His heliocentric model, with the Sun at the center of the universe, demonstrated that the observed motions of celestial objects can be explained without putting Earth at rest in the center of the universe. His work stimulated further scientific investigations, becoming a landmark in the history of science that is often referred to as the Copernican Revolution. Among the great polymaths of the Renaissance, Copernicus was a mathematician, astronomer, physician, quadrilingualpolyglot, classical scholar, translator, artist,[3]Catholic cleric, jurist, governor, military leader, diplomat and economist. Among his many responsibilities, astronomy figured as little more than an avocationyet it was in that field that he made his mark upon the world. 3.Tycho Brahe (Danish pronunciation: [t y o b ]) listen (helpinfo) (14 December 1546 24 October 1601), born TygeOttesen Brahe,[1][2][3][4] was a Danishnobleman known for his accurate and comprehensive astronomical and planetary observations. Coming from Scania, then part of Denmark, now part of modern-day Sweden, Tycho was well known in his lifetime as an astronomer and alchemist.In his De nova stella (On the new star) of 1573, he refuted the theory of the celestial spheres by showing the celestial heavens were not in an immutable or unchanging state of perfection as previously assumed by Aristotle and Ptolemy. His precise measurements indicated that "new stars" (novae or also now known as supernovae), in particular that of 1572, lacked the parallax expected in sub-lunar phenomena, and were therefore not "atmospheric" tail-less comets as previously believed, but occurred above the atmosphere and moon. Using similar measurements he showed that comets were also not atmospheric phenomena, as previously thought, and must pass through the supposed "immutable" celestial spheres.[5]Tycho Brahe was granted an estate on the island of Hven and the funding to build the Uraniborg, an early research institute, where he built large astronomical instruments and took many careful measurements, and later Stjerneborg, underground, when he discovered that his instruments in the former were not sufficiently steady. Something of an autocrat on the island he nevertheless

pronunciation: [ ali l o ali l i]; 15 February 1564[4] 8 January 1642),[1][5] commonly known as Galileo, was an Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer and philosopher who played a major role in the Scientific Revolution. His achievements include improvements to the telescope and consequent astronomical observations, and support for Copernicanism. Galileo has been called the [6] "father of modern observational astronomy", the "father [7] of modern physics", the "father of science",[7] and "the Father of Modern Science".[8]Stephen Hawking says, "Galileo, perhaps more than any other single person, was [9] responsible for the birth of modern science." The motion of uniformly accelerated objects, taught in nearly all high school and introductory college physics courses, was studied by Galileo as the subject of kinematics. His contributions to observational astronomy include the telescopic confirmation of the phases of Venus, the discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter (named the Galilean moons in his honour), and the observation and analysis of sunspots. Galileo also worked in applied science and technology, inventing an improved military compass and other instruments.Galileo's championing of Copernicanism was controversial within his lifetime, when a large majority of philosophers and astronomers still subscribed to the geocentric view that the Earth is at the centre of the universe. After 1610, when he began publicly supporting the heliocentric view, which placed the Sun at the centre of the universe, he met with bitter opposition from some philosophers and clerics, and two of the latter eventually denounced him to the Roman Inquisition early in 1615. In February 1616, although he had been cleared of any offence, the Catholic Church nevertheless

SCIENTIST 1.Galileo Galilei (Italian

founded manufactories such as paper-making to provide material for printing his results. Something akin to a research institute was founded which John Napier attended. After disagreements with the new Danish king in 1597, he was invited by the Bohemian king and Holy Roman emperor Rudolph II to Prague, where he became the official imperial astronomer. He built the new observatory at BentkynadJizerou. Here, from 1600 until his death in 1601, he was assisted by Johannes Kepler. Kepler later used Tycho's astronomical results to develop his own theories of astronomy.As an astronomer, Tycho worked to combine what he saw as the geometrical benefits of the Copernican system with the philosophical benefits of the Ptolemaic system into his own model of the universe, the Tychonic system. Furthermore, he was the last of the major naked eye astronomers, working without telescopes for his observations.Tycho is credited with the most accurate astronomical observations of his time, and the data were used by his assistant, Johannes Kepler, to derive the laws of planetary motion. No one before Tycho had attempted to make so many planetary observations. 4.Johannes Kepler (German pronunciation: [ k pl ]; December 27, 1571 November 15, 1630) was a Germanmathematician, astronomer and astrologer. A key figure in the 17th century scientific revolution, he is best known for his eponymouslaws of planetary motion, codified by later astronomers, based on his works Astronomia nova, Harmonices Mundi, and Epitome of Copernican Astronomy. These works also provided one of the foundations for Isaac Newton's theory of universal gravitation.During his career, Kepler was a mathematics teacher at a seminary school in Graz, Austria, where he became an associate of Prince Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg. Later he became an assistant to astronomer Tycho Brahe, the imperial mathematician to Emperor Rudolf II and his two successors Matthias and Ferdinand II. He was also a mathematics teacher in Linz, Austria, and an adviser to General Wallenstein. Additionally, he did fundamental work in the field of optics, invented an improved version of the refracting telescope (the Keplerian Telescope), and mentioned the telescopic discoveries of his contemporary Galileo Galilei.Kepler lived in an era when there was no clear distinction between astronomy and astrology, but there was a strong division between astronomy (a branch of mathematics within the liberal arts) and physics (a branch of natural philosophy). Kepler also incorporated religious arguments and reasoning into his work, motivated by the religious conviction and belief that God had created the world according to an intelligible plan that is accessible through the natural light of reason.[1]Kepler described his new astronomy as "celestial physics",[2] as "an excursion into Aristotle's Metaphysics",[3] and as "a supplement to Aristotle's On the Heavens",[4] transforming the ancient tradition of physical cosmology by treating astronomy as part of a universal mathematical physics.[5]

important scientific books ever written.Widely regarded as one of the most influential people in human history, Newton built the first practical reflecting telescope[7] and developed a theory of colour based on the observation that a prism decomposes white light into the many colours that form the visible spectrum. He also formulated an empirical law of cooling and studied the speed of sound.In mathematics, Newton shares the credit with Gottfried Leibniz for the development of differential and integral calculus. He also demonstrated the generalised binomial theorem, developed Newton's method for approximating the roots of a function, and contributed to the study of power series.Newton was also highly religious. He was an unorthodox Christian, and wrote more on Biblical hermeneutics and occult studies than on science and mathematics, the subjects he is mainly associated with. Newton secretly rejected Trinitarianism, fearing to be accused of refusing holy orders. , Ancient Greek pronunciation: 6.Socrates (Greek: [s krat s], S krt s; c. 469 BC399 BC,[1] pronounced / s kr ti z/ in English) was a classical GreekAthenianphilosopher. Credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy, he is an enigmatic figure known chiefly through the accounts of later classical writers, especially the writings of his students Plato and Xenophon, and the plays of his contemporary Aristophanes. Many would claim that Plato's dialogues are the most comprehensive accounts of Socrates to survive from antiquity.[2]Through his portrayal in Plato's dialogues, Socrates has become renowned for his contribution to the field of ethics, and it is this Platonic Socrates who also lends his name to the concepts of Socratic irony and the Socratic method, or elenchus. The latter remains a commonly used tool in a wide range of discussions, and is a type of pedagogy in which a series of questions are asked not only to draw individual answers, but also to encourage fundamental insight into the issue at hand. It is Plato's Socrates that also made important and lasting contributions to the fields of epistemology and logic, and the influence of his ideas and approach remains strong in providing a foundation for much western philosophy that followed.As one recent commentator has put it, Plato, the idealist, offers "an idol, a master figure, for philosophy. A Saint, a prophet of the 'Sun-God', a teacher condemned for his teachings as a heretic."[3] , 7.Plato (English pronunciation: / ple to /; Greek: Plt n, "broad";[2] 424/423 BC[a] 348/347 BC), was a ClassicalGreekphilosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the foundations of Western philosophy and science.[3] In the famous words of A.N. Whitehead:The safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato. I do not mean the systematic scheme of thought which scholars have doubtfully extracted from his writings. I allude to the wealth of general ideas scattered through them.[4]Plato's sophistication as a writer is evident in his Socratic dialogues; thirty-six dialogues and thirteen letters have been ascribed to him. Plato's writings have been published in several fashions; this has led to several conventions regarding the naming and referencing of Plato's texts.Plato's dialogues have been used to teach a range of subjects, including philosophy, logic, ethics, rhetoric, and mathematics. 8.Aristotle (Greek: , Aristotl s) (384 BC 322 BC)[1] was a Greekphilosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology. Together with Plato and Socrates (Plato's teacher), Aristotle is one

5. Sir Isaac NewtonPRS (4 January 1643 31 March 1727 [OS: 25 December 1642 20 March 1727])[1] was an Englishphysicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist, and theologian.His monograph PhilosophiNaturalis Principia Mathematica, published in 1687, lays the foundations for most of classical mechanics. In this work, Newton described universal gravitation and the three laws of motion, which dominated the scientific view of the physical universe for the next three centuries. Newton showed that the motions of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies are governed by the same set of natural laws, by demonstrating the consistency between Kepler's laws of planetary motion and his theory of gravitation, thus removing the last doubts about heliocentrism and advancing the Scientific Revolution. The.Principia is generally considered to be one of the most

of the most important founding figures in Western philosophy. Aristotle's writings were the first to create a comprehensive system of Western philosophy, encompassing morality and aesthetics, logic and science, politics and metaphysics.Aristotle's views on the physical sciences profoundly shaped medieval scholarship, and their influence extended well into the Renaissance, although they were ultimately replaced by Newtonian physics. In the zoological sciences, some of his observations were confirmed to be accurate only in the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, which was incorporated in the late 19th century into modern formal logic. In metaphysics, Aristotelianism had a profound influence on philosophical and theological thinking in the Islamic and Jewish traditions in the Middle Ages, and it continues to influence Christian theology, especially the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church. His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics. All aspects of Aristotle's philosophy continue to be the object of active academic study today. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues (Cicero described his literary style as "a river of gold"),[2] it is thought that the majority of his writings are now lost and only about one-third of the original works have survived.[3] 9.Michael Faraday, FRS (22 September 1791 25 August 1867) was an Englishchemist and physicist (or natural philosopher, in the terminology of the time) who contributed to the fields of electromagnetism and electrochemistry.Faraday studied the magnetic field around a conductor carrying a DC electric current. While conducting these studies, Faraday established the basis for the electromagnetic field concept in physics, subsequently enlarged upon by James Maxwell. He similarly discovered electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism, and laws of electrolysis. He established that magnetism could affect rays of light and that there was an underlying relationship between the two phenomena.[1][2] His inventions of electromagnetic rotary devices formed the foundation of electric motor technology, and it was largely due to his efforts that electricity became viable for use in technology.As a chemist, Faraday discovered benzene, investigated the clathrate hydrate of chlorine, invented an early form of the Bunsen burner and the system of oxidation numbers, and popularised terminology such as anode, cathode, electrode, and ion.Although Faraday received little formal education and knew little of higher mathematics, such as calculus, he was one of the most influential scientists in history.[3]Historians[4] of science refer to him as the best experimentalist in the history of science.[5] The SI unit of capacitance, the farad, is named after him, as is the Faraday constant, the charge on a mole of electrons (about 96,485 coulombs). Faraday's law of induction states that magnetic flux changing in time creates a proportional electromotive force.Faraday was the first and foremost Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution of Great Britain, a life-time position.Albert Einstein kept a photograph of Faraday on his study wall alongside pictures of Isaac Newton and James Clerk Maxwell.[6]Faraday was highly religious; he was a member of the Sandemanian Church, a Christian sect founded in 1730 that demanded total faith and commitment. Biographers have noted that "a strong sense of the unity of God and nature pervaded Faraday's life and work."[7] 10.Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of NelsonOM, FRS (30 August 1871 19 October 1937) was a New Zealandborn Britishchemist and physicist who became known as the father of nuclear physics.[1] In early work he discovered the concept of radioactive half life, proved that radioactivity involved the transmutation of one chemical element to another, and also differentiated and named alpha and beta radiation. This work was done at McGill University in Canada. It is the basis for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry he was awarded in 1908 "for his investigations

into the disintegration of the elements, and the chemistry of radioactive substances".[2] Rutherford performed his most famous work after he had moved to the U.K. in 1907 and was already a Nobel laureate. In 1911, he postulated that atoms have their positive charge concentrated in a very small nucleus,[3] and thereby pioneered the Rutherford model, or planetary, model of the atom, through his discovery and interpretation of Rutherford scattering in his gold foil experiment. He is widely credited with first "splitting the atom" in 1917.[4] This led to the first experiment to split the nucleus in a controlled manner, performed by two students working under his direction, John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton, in 1932.Rutherford died in 1937, and was honoured in death by being interred near the greatest scientists of the United Kingdom, near Sir Isaac Newton's tomb in Westminster Abbey. The chemical element rutherfordium (element 104) was named for him in 1997. 11.William Gilbert, also known as Gilberd, (24 May 1544 30 November 1603) was an English physician, physicist and natural philosopher. He was an early Copernican, and passionately rejected both the prevailing Aristotelian philosophy and the Scholastic method of university teaching. He is remembered today largely for his book De Magnete (1600), and is credited as one of the originators of the term electricity. He is regarded by some as the father of electrical engineering or electricity and magnetism.[1] While today he is generally referred to as William Gilbert, he also went under the name of William Gilberd. The latter was used in his and his father's epitaph, the records of the town of Colchester, and in the Biographical Memoir in De Magnete, as well as in the name of The Gilberd School in Colchester, named after Gilbert. A unit of magnetomotive force, also known as magnetic potential, was named the gilbert in his honour. 12.NielsHenrik David Bohr (Danish pronunciation: [nels bo ]; 7 October 1885 18 November 1962) was a Danishphysicist who made fundamental contributions to understanding atomic structure and quantum mechanics, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922. Bohr mentored and collaborated with many of the top physicists of the century at his institute in Copenhagen. He was part of a team of physicists working on the Manhattan Project. Bohr married MargretheNrlund in 1912, and one of their sons, Aage Bohr, grew up to be an important physicist who in 1975 also received the Nobel prize. Bohr has been described as one of the most influential scientists of the 20th century.[1]

13.Albert Einstein (

/ lb rt a nsta n/;

German: [ alb t a n ta n] ( listen); 14 March 1879 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist who developed the theory of general relativity, effecting a revolution in physics. For this achievement, Einstein is often regarded as the father of modern physics, and one of the most prolific intellects in human history.[2] He received the 1921Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect".[3] The latter was pivotal in establishing quantum theory within physics.Near the beginning of his career, Einstein thought that Newtonian mechanics was no longer enough to reconcile the laws of classical mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. This led to the development of his special theory of relativity. He realized, however, that the principle of relativity could also be extended to gravitational fields, and with his subsequent theory of gravitation in 1916, he published a paper on the general theory of relativity. He continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics and quantum theory, which

led to his explanations of particle theory and the motion of molecules. He also investigated the thermal properties of light which laid the foundation of the photon theory of light. In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to model the structure of the universe as a whole.[4]He was visiting the United States when Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933, and did not go back to Germany, where he had been a professor at the Berlin Academy of Sciences. He settled in the U.S., becoming a citizen in 1940. On the eve of World War II, he helped alert President Franklin D. Roosevelt that Germany might be developing an atomic weapon, and recommended that the U.S. begin similar research; this eventually led to what would become the Manhattan Project. Einstein was in support of defending the Allied forces, but largely denounced using the new discovery of nuclear fission as a weapon. Later, together with Bertrand Russell, Einstein signed the RussellEinstein Manifesto, which highlighted the danger of nuclear weapons. Einstein taught physics at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton, New Jersey, until his death in 1955.Einstein published more than 300 scientific papers along with over 150 non-scientific works.[4][5] His great intelligence and originality have made the word "Einstein" synonymous with genius.[6] 14.Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck (April 23, 1858 October 4, 1947) was a Germanphysicist who is regarded as the founder of the quantum theory, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918.[1] 15James Clerk Maxwell of Glenlair[1]FRSFRSE (13 June 1831 5 November 1879) was a Scottish[2]physicist and mathematician. His most prominent achievement was formulating classical electromagnetic theory. This united all previously unrelated observations, experiments and equations of electricity, magnetism and even optics into a consistent theory.[3]Maxwell's equations demonstrated that electricity, magnetism and even light are all manifestations of the same phenomenon, namely the electromagnetic field. Subsequently, all other classic laws or equations of these disciplines became simplified cases of Maxwell's equations. Maxwell's achievements concerning electromagnetism have been called the "second great unification in physics",[4] after the first one realised by Isaac Newton. He was the first cousin of notable 19th century artist Jemima Blackburn.Maxwell demonstrated that electric and magnetic fields travel through space in the form of waves, and at the constant speed of light. In 1865 Maxwell published A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field. It was with this that he first proposed that light was in fact undulations in the same medium that is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena.[5] His work in producing a unified model of electromagnetism is one of the greatest advances in physics.Maxwell also helped develop the MaxwellBoltzmann distribution, which is a statistical means of describing aspects of the kinetic theory of gases. These two discoveries helped usher in the era of modern physics, laying the foundation for such fields as special relativity and quantum mechanics.Maxwell is also known for presenting the first durable colour photograph in 1861 and for his foundational work on the rigidity of rod-and-joint frameworks like those in many bridges.Maxwell is considered by many physicists to be the 19thcentury scientist who had the greatest influence on 20th-century physics. His contributions to the science are considered by many to be of the same magnitude as those of Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein.[6] In the millennium polla survey of the 100 most prominent physicistsMaxwell was voted the third greatest physicist of all time, behind only Newton and Einstein.[7] On the centennial of Maxwell's birthday, Einstein himself described Maxwell's work as the "most profound and the most fruitful that physics has experienced since the time of Newton."[8] Einstein kept a photograph of Maxwell on his study wall, alongside pictures of Michael Faraday and Newton.[9]

Natural philosophy or the philosophy of nature (from Latinphilosophianaturalis), is a term applied to the study of nature and the physical universe that was dominant before the development of modern science. It is considered to be the precursor of natural sciences such as physics.Forms of science historically developed out of philosophy or more specifically natural philosophy. At older universities, long-established Chairs of Natural Philosophy are nowadays occupied mainly by physics professors. Modern notions of science and scientists date only to the 19th century (the Oxford English Dictionary dates the origin of the word "scientist" to 1834). Before then, the word "science" simply meant knowledge and the label of scientist did not exist. Isaac Newton's 1687 scientific treatise is known as The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. Heliocentrism, or heliocentricism,[1] is the astronomical model in which the Earth and planets revolve around a stationary Sun at the center of the solar system. The word comes from the Greek helios "sun" and kentron "center"). Historically, ( heliocentrism was opposed to geocentrism, which placed the Earth at the center. The notion that the Earth revolves around the Sun had been proposed as early as the 3rd century BC by Aristarchus of Samos,[2] but had received no support from most other ancient astronomers.Surprisingly Quran mentioned 1432 Hijri years ago that the moon and the sun pursue their own courses. Each one swims along in its own orbit according to Law.[3][4]But it was not until the 16th century that a fully predictive mathematical model of a heliocentric system was presented, by the Renaissance mathematician and astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, leading to the Copernican Revolution. In the following century, this model was elaborated and expanded by Johannes Kepler and supporting observations made using a telescope were presented by Galileo Galilei.With the observations of William Herschel, astronomers realized that the sun was not the center of the universe and by the 1920s Edwin Hubble had shown that it was part of a galaxy that was only one of many billions. In astronomy, the geocentric model (also known as geocentrism, or the Ptolemaic system), is the superseded theory, that the Earth is the center of the universe, and that all other objects orbit around it. This geocentric model served as the predominant cosmological system in many ancient civilizations such as ancient Greece. As such, most Ancient Greek philosophers assumed that the Sun, Moon, stars, and naked eye planets circled the Earth, including the noteworthy systems of Aristotle (see Aristotelian physics) and Ptolemy.[1]Two commonly made observations supported the idea that the Earth was the center of the Universe. The first observation was that the stars, sun, and planets appear to revolve around the Earth each day, making the Earth the center of that system. Further, every star was on a "stellar" or "celestial" sphere, of which the earth was the center, that rotated each day, using a line through the north and south pole as an axis. The stars closer the equator appeared to rise and fall the greatest distance, but each star circled back to its rising point each day.[2] The second common notion supporting the geocentric model was that the Earth does not seem to move from the perspective of an Earth bound observer, and that it is solid, stable, and unmoving. In other words, it is completely at rest.The geocentric model was usually combined with a spherical Earth by ancient Greek and medieval philosophers. It is not the same as the older flat Earth model implied in some mythology. However, the ancient Greeks believed that the motions of the planets were circular and not elliptical, a view that was not challenged in Western culture before the 17th century through the synthesis of theories by Copernicus and Kepler.The astronomical

predictions of Ptolemy's geocentric model were used to prepare astrological charts for over 1500 years. The geocentric model held sway into the early modern age, but was gradually replaced from the late 16th century onward by the heliocentric model of Copernicus, Galileo and Kepler. However, the transition between these two theories met much resistance, not only from the Catholic Church and its reluctance to accept a theory not placing God's creation at the center of the universe, but also from those who saw geocentrism as a fact that could not be subverted by a new, weakly justified theory.