MECN 4016 Aerodynamics

M ECN 4016 Aer odynami cs 06 June 2011
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M ECN 4016 Aerodynamics
Assignment
M et hods of Det ermining t he Low Speed Dow nw a sh Angle on a n Aft Ta il
Jameson Bent ley
Thando Tshabalala
06 June 2011
M ECN 4016 Uni ver si t y of t he Wi t w at er sr and
School of Aer onaut i cal Engi neer i ng

1

Abst r act
Var i ous met hods wer e appl i ed t o est i mat e t he downw ash angle of a w i ng at a ver y l ow M ach
number , and t he ef f ect t hi s w oul d have on t he ef f ect i ve angle of at t ack of a t ai l af t of t he w i ng. The
t heor y f or t he anal ysi s i s based ar ound Pr andt l s Li f t i ng Li ne Theor y, w her e cal cul at i ons w er e
per f or med usi ng M i cr osof t Excel and M at l ab. The t heor y w as compar ed t o empi r i cal dat a obt ai ned
f r om per f or mi ng wi nd t unnel t est s of t he same dow nw ash scenar i o. Fur t her model s w er e
est abl i shed usi ng Vor t ex Panel M et hod Tor nado, r un i n M at l ab, as w el l as a DATCOM anal ysi s. Fr om
t he f our met hods of anal ysi s i t w as f ound t hat t he dow nw ash angl e pr oduced by a rect angul ar
NACA-0015 (w i t h chor d 0.08m and span 0.48m at an ai r speed of 33.57m/ s) w as a f unct i on of angle
of at t ack. Thi s f unct i on w as r epr esent ed by a l i near r el at i onshi p as ant i ci pat ed f r om t he t heor y.
Fur t her mor e i t w as val i dat ed t hat t he i nf l uence coef f ici ent s w er e a f unct i on of w i ng geomet r y and
r emai ned const ant w i t h changi ng angl es of at t ack. Ther ef or e t he dow nw ash angl e var ied w i t h t he
val ue f or l i f t coef f i ci ent . It w as al so f ound t hat t he spanw i se l ocat i on at a const ant di st ance af t of t he
w i ng changed t he dow nw ash angl e because i t changed bot h t he l i f t co-ef f i ci ent and t he i nf l uence
coef f i ci ent s. Thi s r el at i onshi p w as r at her more compl ex and r equi r ed numeri cal i t er at i on and mat r i x
met hods t o sol ve. The DATCOM anal ysi s r eveal ed a per f ect l y l i near r el at i onshi p bet w een li f t
coef f i ci ent and dow nw ash angl e and a si mi l arl y li near r el at i onshi p bet w een dow nw ash and angl e of
at t ack.

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Decl ar at i on
Group declarat ion w it h joint t ask submit t ed f or assessment
We, t he under si gned, ar e r egi st er ed f or M ECN 4016, Aerodynamics i n t he year 2011. We
her ew i t h submi t t he f ol l ow i ng t ask,
M et hods of Det ermining t he Low Speed Dow nw a sh Angle on a n Aft Ta il
i n par t i al f ul f il ment of t he r equi r ement s of t he above cour se.
We her eby decl ar e t he f ol l ow i ng:
We ar e aw ar e t hat pl agi ari sm (t he use of someone el se s w or k wi t hout t hei r per mi ssi on
and/ or w i t hout acknow l edgi ng t he or i gi nal sour ce) i s w r ong.
We conf i r m t hat t he w or k submi t t ed her ew i t h f or assessment i n t he above cour se i s our
ow n unai ded w or k except w her e w e have been expl i cit l y i ndi cat ed ot her w i se.
Thi s t ask has not been submi t t ed bef or e, ei t her indi vi duall y or j oi nt l y, f or any cour se
r equi r ement , exami nat i on or degr ee at t hi s or any ot her t er t i ar y educat i onal i nst i t ut i on.
We have f ol l ow ed t he r equi r ed convent i ons i n r ef er enci ng t he t hought s and i deas of ot her s.
We under st and t hat t he Uni ver si t y of t he Wi t w at er sr and may t ake disci pli nar y act i on agai nst
us i f i t can be show n t hat t hi s t ask i s not our ow n unai ded w or k or t hat w e have f ail ed t o
acknow l edge t he sour ces of t he i deas or w or ds i n our w r i t i ng i n t hi s t ask.

Si gned t hi s, t he ____________ day of ________________ i n t he year ___________.

St udent number St udent name Signat ure % cont ribut ion
324628 Thando Tshabal al a 50.0
0616194H Jameson Bent l ey 50.0


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Cont ent s
Abst r act ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ............ 1
Decl ar at i on ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ........ 2
Li st of Fi gur es ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .... 5
Li st of Tabl es ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ..... 6
1. Int r oduct i on ................................ ................................ ................................ .............................. 7
1.1. Backgr ound Inf or mat i on ................................ ................................ ................................ .... 7
1.2. Li t er at ur e ................................ ................................ ................................ ........................... 9
The Dow nw ash Af t of an Unsw ept Wi ng (3) ................................ ................................ ............... 9
2. Obj ect i ves ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ 17
3. Anal ysi s ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ... 18
3.1. Pr andt l s Li f t i ng Li ne Theor y ................................ ................................ ............................. 18
3.2. DATCOM ................................ ................................ ................................ .......................... 20
4. Exper i ment at i on ................................ ................................ ................................ ...................... 21
4.1. CFD (Tor nado) ................................ ................................ ................................ .................. 21
4.2. Wi nd-t unnel Test ................................ ................................ ................................ ............. 22
4.2.1. Appar at us ................................ ................................ ................................ ................. 22
4.2.2. Pr ocedur e................................ ................................ ................................ ................. 25
4.2.3. Obser vat i ons ................................ ................................ ................................ ............ 25
5. Resul t s ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ..... 26
6. Di scussi on ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ 30
6.1. Thando Tshabal al a ................................ ................................ ................................ ........... 30
6.2. Jameson Bent l ey ................................ ................................ ................................ .............. 30
7. Concl usi ons and Recommendat i ons ................................ ................................ ......................... 34
7.1. Thando Tshabal al a ................................ ................................ ................................ ........... 34
7.2. Jameson Bent l ey ................................ ................................ ................................ .............. 34
8. Ref er ences ................................ ................................ ................................ ............................... 36

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9. Appendi x ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ . 37


5

Li st of Fi gur es
Fi gur e 1: Var i at i on of Dow nw ash w i t h l i f t coef f i ci ent ................................ ................................ ......... 7
Fi gur e 2: Var i at i on of maximum dow nw ash angl e i n t he symmet r y plane w i t h Cl f or a Cl ar k Y aer of oi l
................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .......................... 8
Fi gur e 3: Compari son of cal cul at ed and exper iment al dow nw ash at t he t ai l of t he mi dwi ng-
monopl ane model (Sil ver st ei n, S and Bul l i vant 1939) ................................ ................................ ......... 9
Fi gur e 4: Pr andt l ' s model f or t he bound vor t i ci t y and t he t r ai l i ng vor t ex sheet gener at ed by a f i ni t e
w i ng (Phi ll i ps, et al . 2002) ................................ ................................ ................................ ................ 10
Fi gur e 5: Schemat i c of t he vor t i ci t y r oll up behi nd a f i ni t e wi ng wi t h ell i pt i cal pl anf or m shapeb
(Phi ll i ps, et al . 2002) ................................ ................................ ................................ ........................ 11
Fi gur e 6; t he vor t ex used f or est imat i ng t he dow nw ash a f ew chor d l engt hs or mor e af t of an
unsw ept w i ng (Phil li ps, et al . 2002)................................ ................................ ................................ .. 12
Fi gur e 7: The w i ng t i p vor t ex st r engt h f act or as pr edi ct ed f r om t he ser i es sol ut i on t o Pr andt l s l i f t i ng-
l i ne t heor y (Phil li ps, et al . 2002) ................................ ................................ ................................ ...... 15
Fi gur e 8: The w i ngt i p vor t ex span f act or as pr edi ct ed f r om t he ser i es sol ut i on t o Pr andt l ' s l i f t i ng l i ne
t heor y (Phi l li ps, et al . 2002) ................................ ................................ ................................ ............. 15
Fi gur e 9: The ef f ect of t ai l posi t i on on t he dow nw ash angl e i n t he pl ane of symmet r y af t of an
unsw ept w i ng (Phil li ps, et al . 2002)................................ ................................ ................................ .. 16
Fi gur e 10: Pl an vi ew of t he Cont i nuous Wi nd Tunnel used f or t he t est ................................ ............. 22
Fi gur e 11: The conf i gur at i on of t he w i ng and t ai l as set up i n t he cont i nuous w i nd t unnel ............... 23
Fi gur e 12: Bubbl e i ncl i nomet er ................................ ................................ ................................ ........ 24
Fi gur e 13: Dow nw ash angl e ver sus semi -spanw i se posit i on, usi ng Pr ant dl s LLT .............................. 26
Fi gur e 14: Var i at i on i n dow nw ash angl e w i t h AoA f or bot h Pr ant dl s LLT and t he w i ndt unnel t est ... 27
Fi gur e 15: Rel at i onshi p bet w een dow nw ash angl e and l i f t coef f i ci ent accor di ng t o Pr ant dl s LLT, and
t he DATCOM anal ysi s ................................ ................................ ................................ ...................... 27
Fi gur e 16: Li f t coef f i ci ent ver sus AoA f or Pr ant dl s LLT compar ed t o t he t heor et i cal val ue. .............. 28
Fi gur e 17: Li f t coef f i ci ent ver sus AoA f or t he w i nd t unnel exper iment compar ed t o t he t heor et i cal
val ue. ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .............. 29
Fi gur e 18: Spanw i se var i at i on i n l if t coef f i ci ent pr oduced by Vor t ex Panel M et hod Tor nado. ........... 38
Fi gur e 19: Spanwi se var i at i on i n normali zed f or ce over t he sur f ace of t he w i ng, accor di ng t o panel
met hods r un i n Tor nado. ................................ ................................ ................................ ................. 39


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Li st of T abl es
Tabl e 1: Resul t s as publ i shed f r om DATCOM ................................ ................................ ................... 20
Tabl e 2: Geomet r i c char act er i st i cs of t he w i ng and t ai l sect i ons ................................ ...................... 23
Tabl e 3: Gr oup member r esponsi bi l i t y ................................ ................................ ............................. 37


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1 . I nt r oduct i on
1 .1 . Back gr ound I nfor mat i on
It has l ong been know n t hat t he angle of dow nw ash, as obser ved at a gi ven poi nt behi nd t he
aer of oi l , i s di r ect l y pr opor t i onal t o t he l i f t of t he aer of oi l (Br . A.C.A. R. & M . No.196) and i nver sel y
pr opor t i onal t o t he aspect r at i o (Lanchest er Aer i al Fl i ght Vol . 1, Chapt er 8, Br . A.C.A. R. & M .
No.191).
Thi s has been det ermi ned exper iment all y by Hunk and dat a f r om f i ve ser i es of dow nw ash
det er mi nat i ons have been pl ot t ed bel ow , w i t h angl e of dow nw ash as or di nat es and l i f t coef f i ci ent s
as absci ssa. It i s evi dent f r om i nspect i on of t he gr aph bel ow t hat t he dow nw ash angl e var i es di rect l y
w i t h l i f t coef f i ci ent . The val i di t y of t he r esul t s obt ai ned i s obvi ousl y conf i ned t o t hat r ange of angl e
of at t ack of l i f t coef f i cient i n w hi ch t he f l ow about t he aer of oil i n w hi ch t he f l ow i s not abnor mal ly
t ur bul ent . (Di ehl 1921)
Figure 1: Variat ion of Dow nw ash w it h lif t coeff icient

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Si mil ar r esul t w her e al so f ound by Si lver st ei n w her eby i f i t w as assumed t hat , f or a w i ng w i t hout
t w i st , t he span l oad di st r i but i ons ( or ci r cul at i on di st r i but i on) ar e si mi lar at al l angl es of at t ack, i t
f ol l ow s t hat dow nw ash shoul d be pr opor t i onal t o t he l i f t coef f i ci ent . Thi s i s pr opor t i onal i t y i s show n
i n (L and E 1999).
Si l verst ei n obt ai ned dow nw ash angl es exper iment all y by compar i ng t ai l -of f pi t chi ng moment s w i t h
t ai l -on pi t chi ng moment s obt ai ned at di f f er ent st abi l i zer set t i ngs. The st abil i zer set t i ngs
cor r espondi ng t o zer o l oad on t he t ai l w er e f ound by i nt er pol at i on or ext r apol at i on. Fr om t hese
val ues, t he cor r espondi ng angl es of at t ack of t he ai r pl ane, and t he j et -boundar y cor r ect i ons, t he
dow nw ash angles ar e der i ved. The agr eement bet w een t heor y and experi ment i s show n i n (Diehl
1921) t o be sat i sf act or y except at higher angles of at t ack, w her e t he t i ps ar e st al led. This w as seen as
f avour abl e as f avour abl e as t he model used w as w ell st r eaml i ned and had a rel at ively smal l f usel age.
It i s l i kel y t hat , si mil ar t o t hi s exampl e, i nt er f er ence w i ll be small i n moder n car ef ul ly st r eaml i ned
ai r pl anes.
The t heor et i cal comput at i ons w her e done by means of t he Bi ot -Savar t equat i on, t he t heor et i cal
span l oad di st r i but i on, and t he l i f t i ng l i ne concept . (Si lver st ei n, S and Bul l i vant 1939)
Figure 2: Variat ion of maximum dow nw ash angle in t he symmet ry plane w it h Cl f or
a Clark Y aerof oil

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Figure 3: Comparison of calculat ed and experiment al downw ash at t he t ail of t he midw ing-
monoplane model (Silverst ein, S and Bullivant 1939)

1 .2 . Li t er at ur e
T he Dow nw ash Aft of an Unsw ept Wi ng ( Phi l l i ps, et al . 2 0 0 2 )
The w el l -know n i nf i ni t e ser i es sol ut i on t o Pr andt l s cl assi cal l i ne equat i on appl ies t o a si ngl e f i ni t e
w i ng wi t h no sw eep or di hedr al , havi ng an ar bi t r ar y spanw i se vari at i on i n chor d l engt h. Thi s sol ut i on
i s based on t he change of var i abl es

Equat ion 1
The var i at i on i n sect i on ci r cul at i on al ong t he span of t he w i ng, as pr edi ct ed by t hi s sol ut i on, i s

Equat ion 2

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Hi st or i call y, t he coef f i ci ent s i n t hi s i nf i ni t e ser i es solut i on may have been usual l y eval uat ed f r om
col l ocat i on met hods. Typi cal l y t he ser i es i s t r uncat ed t o a f i ni t e number of t er ms and t he coef f i ci ent s
i n t he f i ni t e seri es ar e eval uat ed by r equi ri ng t he li f t i ng-l i ne equat i on t o be sat i sf ied at a number of
spanw i se l ocat i ons equal t o t he number of t er ms i n t he ser i es. A very st r aight f or w ar d met hod w as
f i r st pr esent ed by Gl auer t (Gl auer t 1959). M ost r ecent l y, Rasmussen and Smi t h (L and E 1999) have
pr esent ed a mor e r i gor ous and r api dl y conver gi ng met hod, based on a Four i er ser i es expansi on
si mil ar t o t hat f i r st used by Lot s and Kar amchet i (Kar amchet i 1966).
Usi ng Equat i on 1 and Equat i on 2and t he f ol l ow i ng equat i on f or bound vor t i ci t y

The spanw i se var i at i on of shed vor t i ci t y i s

Equat ion 3
The dow nw ash t hat i s pr edi ct ed di r ect l y f r om Equat i on 3 i s not accur at e i n t he r egi on behi nd t he
w i ng. Thi s i s because t he devel opment of Equat i on 3 i s based on t he assumpt i on t hat t he vor t ex
f i l ament s t r ai l i ng dow nst r eam f r om t he w i ng ar e all st r ai ght and par al l el t o t he f r eest r eam f l ow , i s
show n i n Fi gure 4. In r eali t y, t he vor t i ci t y t r ai li ng f r om each si de of t he wi ng wi ll r oll up ar ound an
axi s t r ai li ng sl ight l y i nboar d f r om t he w i ngt i p, as i s show n schemat i cal l y f or an el li pt i c w i ng i n Fi gur e
5.

Figure 4: Prandt l' s model f or t he bound vort icit y and t he t railing vort ex sheet generat ed by a f init e
w ing (Phillips, et al. 2002)

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Figure 5: Schemat ic of t he vort icit y rollup behind a f init e w ing w it h ellipt ical planf orm shapeb
(Phillips, et al. 2002)
The r ol l up of t he vor t ex sheet t r ai l i ng behi nd each semi -span of t he w i ng can be vi ew ed as a r esul t of
t he vor t ex l i f t i ng l aw (see Saf f man (Saf f man 1992)). Thi s vor t ex l i f t i ng l aw r equi res t hat , i n any
pot ent i al f l ow cont ai ni ng vor t ex f i l ament s, a f or ce i s exer t ed on t he sur r oundi ngs t hat i s
pr opor t i onal t o t he cr oss pr oduct of t he l ocal f l ui d vel oci t y w i t h t he l ocal f i l ament vor t i ci t y. Si nce a
f r ee vor t ex f il ament cannot suppor t a f or ce, t he cr oss pr oduct of t he l ocal f l ui d vor t i ci t y w i t h t he
l ocal f i l ament vor t i ci t y must al w ays be zer o at ever y poi nt al ong a f r ee vor t ex f i l ament . Thi s means
t hat al l f r ee vor t ex f il ament s must f oll ow t he st r eaml i nes of t he f l ow ever yw her e. Thus, t he f r ee
vor t ex f i l ament s t r ai li ng behi nd each semi -span of t he w i ng w il l f ol l ow t he st r eamli nes and r ol l up
about t he cent r e of vor t i ci t y shed f r om t hat semi -span. Wi t hi n a f ew chor d l engt hs behi nd t he w i ng,
t he vor t ex sheet becomes compl et el y r oll ed-up t o f orm w i ngt i p vor t i ces. Thi s r ol l up has a si gni f i cant
ef f ect on t he dow nw ash.
Each w i ngt i p vor t ex i s gener at ed f r om t he t r ai l i ng vor t ex sheet pr oduced by one-hal f of t he w i ng.
Ther ef or e, a w i ngt i p vor t ex, a f ew chor d l engt hs or mor e behi nd t he w i ng, can be appr oxi mat ed by a
si ngle vor t ex of st r engt h,
w t
, w hi ch i s gi ven by

Equat ion 4
Subst i t ut i ng equat i ons Equat i on 1 and Equat i on 3 i n Equat i on 4 gi ves

Equat ion 5

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Per f or mi ng t he i ndi cat ed i nt egr at i on, w e have

Equat ion 6

Figure 6; t he vort ex used f or est imat ing t he dow nw ash a f ew chord lengt hs or more af t of an
unsw ept w ing (Phillips, et al. 2002)
When compar i ng t he dow nw ash a f ew chor d l engt hs or mor e dow nst r eam f r om a f i ni t e w i ng, w e
can appr oxi mat e t he r ol l ed-up vor t ex sheet as a si ngl e hor seshoe shaped vor t ex f i l ament of st r engt h
w t
, as show n i n Fi gure 6. The dist ance bet w een t he t r ai l i ng vor t i ces, b , i s l ess t han t he w i ngspan
because t he vor t ex sheet f r om each si de of t he w i ng rol l s up ar ound t he cent r e of vor t i ci t y, w hi ch i s
somew hat i nboar d f r om t he w i ngt i p. The hor seshoe f i l ament st ar t s at an i nf i ni t e di st ance
dow nst r eam f r om a poi nt sl i ght ly i nboar d of t he l ef t wi ngt i p, (,0,b/2) and runs upstream along the
l ef t w i ngt i p vor t ex t o t he lef t w i ng, (0,0,b / 2). Fr om her e i t r uns acr oss t he quar t er -chor d t o a poi nt
sl i ght l y i nboar d of t he r ight w i ngt i p vor t ex t o i nf i ni t y, (,0, -b / 2). Fr om t he Bi ot -Savar t l aw , t he y-
vel oci t y component i nduced at any poi nt (x, y, z) by t hi s ent i r e hor seshoe vor t ex i s

Equat ion 7


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Si nce t he vor t ex sheet shed f r om each semi -span of t he w i ng r ol l s up about t he cent r e of vor t i ci t y,
w e have

Equat ion 8
Usi ng Equat i on 4 i n Equat i on 8 gi ves

Equat ion 9
Now , appl yi ng Eqs. 5, 7, and 10, t hi s can be r ew r i t t en as

Equat ion 10
The i nt egr at i on w i t h r espect t o i n Eq. 14 i s r eadi l y car r i ed out t o gi ve

Equat ion 11
Usi ng Eq. 15 i n Eq. 14 r esul t s i n

Equat ion 12
Because t he dow nw ash is smal l compar ed t o t he f r eest r eam vel oci t y, t he dow nw ash angl e,
d
, can
be appr oxi mat ed as t he dow nw ash vel oci t y di vi ded by t he f r eest r eam vel oci t y. Thus, appl yi ng Eq. 10

14

and Eq. 16 t o Eq. 11 t he dow nw ash angl e a f ew chor d l engt hs or mor e dow nst r eam f r om an i nsw ept
w i ng i s appr oximat ed as

Equat ion 13
Wher e

Equat ion 14

Equat ion 15

Equat ion 16

Equat ion 17

Equat ion 18

15

The di mensi onl ess paramet er s K
v
and K
b
depend on t he pl anf or m shape of t he wi ng. For an ell i pt i cal
w i ng, al l t he coef f i ci ent s, B
n
, i n t he i nf i ni t e ser i es sol ut i on, except f or t he f i r st ar e zer o. Usi ng t hi s f act
w i t h Equat i on 14, w e f i nd t hat K
v
i s 1.0 f or an ell i pt i c w i ng. Thus, f r om Equat i on 6 and Equat i on 14,
w e see t hat t he vor t ex st r engt h f act or , K
v
, i s t he r at i o of t he wi ngt i p vor t ex st r engt h t o t hat
gener at ed by an ell i pt i c w i ng havi ng t he same l i f t coef f i ci ent and aspect r at i o. The vor t ex span
f act or , K
b
, i s def i ned as t he spaci ng bet w een t he w i ngt i p vor t i ces di vi ded by t he w i ngspan. Bot h K
v
and K
b
w er e det er mi ned anal yt i call y f r om t he ser i es sol ut i on t o Pr andt l s l i f t i ng-l i ne equat i on. For an
el li pt i c w i ng w i t h no sw eep, di hedr al , or t w i st K
v
i s 1.0 and K
b
i s /4. For an unswept wing with no
di hedr al or t w i st , K
v
and K
b
ar e r el at ed t o t he aspect r at i o and t aper r at i o as i s show n i n Fi gur e 7 and
Fi gur e 8.

Figure 7: The w ing t ip vort ex st rengt h f act or as predict ed f rom t he series solut ion t o Prandt ls
lif t ing-line t heory (Phillips, et al. 2002)

Figure 8: The w ingt ip vort ex span f act or as predict ed f rom t he series solut ion t o Prandt l' s lif t ing
line t heory (Phillips, et al. 2002)
The di mensi onless par amet er , K
p
, i s a posi t i on f act or t hat account f or speci al var i at i ons i n
dow nw ash. As a f i r st appr oximat i on, t he var i at i on i n dow nw ash al ong t he span of t he hor i zont al t ai l
i s usuall y negl ect ed. The dow nw ash f or t he ent i r e t ail i s t ypi call y t aken t o be t hat eval uat ed at t he

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aer odynami c cent r e. For asymmet r i c ai r pl ane, t he aer odynami c cent r e of t he t ai l i s i n t he pl ane of
symmet r y. The change i n t he dow nw ash w i t h r espect t o t he spanw i se coor di nat e i s zer o at t he
ai r cr af t pl ane of symmet r y. Fur t her mor e, t he span of t he hor i zont al t ail i s usual ly small compar ed t o
t hat of t he w i ng. Thus, t he dow nw ash i s of t en f ai r l y uni f or m over t hi s span, and a r easonabl e f i r st
appr oxi mat i on f or t he dow nw ash on an af t t ai l i s f ound by set t i ng t he di mensi onl ess spanw i se
coor di nat e, z, equal t o zer o i n Equat i on 16. Thi s gi ves t he r el at i vel y si mpl e r el at i on

Equat ion 19
The t ai l posi t i on f act or , K
p
, depends on t he pl anf or m shape of t he wi ng and t he posi t i on of t he t ai l
r el at i ve t o t he wi ng. The var i at i on of K
p
w i t h t ai l posi t ion i n t he pl ane of symmet r y i s show n i n f ig. 6.
The pl anf or m shape of t he w i ng af f ect s t he val ue of K
p
onl y t hr ough i t s ef f ect on K
b
. Thus, f or a mai n
w i ng wi t h no sw eep or di hedr al , t he val ue of K
p
i n t he pl ane of symmet r y i s a uni que f unct i on of x/ K
b

and y/ K
b
, as i s show n i n Fi gur e 9.

Figure 9: The ef f ect of t ail posit ion on t he dow nwash angle in t he plane of symmet ry af t of an
unsw ept w ing (Phillips, et al. 2002)
Not i ce f r om Fi gur e 7 and Fi gur e 8 t hat t he pl anf or m shape of t he mai n w i ng has a ver y si gni f i cant
ef f ect on t he dow nw ash i nduced on an af t t ail . Si mi lar r esul t s w ere obser ved empi r i call y by Hoak,
but ar e not account ed f or i n t he model pr oposed by M cCor mi ck.


17

2 . Obj ect i ves
I. Exper i ment all y est i mat e t he l ow -speed dow nw ash angl e on an af t t ai l .
II. Compar e t he resul t s obt ai ned exper iment all y wi t h t heor et i cal comput at i ons f ound by t he
f ol l ow i ng met hods:
a) The modi f i ed analyt i cal t echni que f ounded on Pr andt l s cl assi cal l if t i ng li ne t heor y,
devel oped by W. F. Phil li ps, E.A. Ander son, J.C. Jenki ns, and S. Sunouchi .
b) An empi ri cal met hod.
c) Pr edi ct i ons f ound by Comput at i onal Vor t ex Panel M et hods usi ng M at l ab-based code
Tor nado.

18

3 . Anal ysi s
3 .1 . Pr andt l s Li ft i ng Li ne T heor y ( Nei sw ander 2 0 0 8 )
For t he case of an unsw ept w i ng t he spanw i se posi t i on i s gi ven by t he t r ansf or mat i on:
z =
b
2
cos 0
Wher e z i s t he spanw i se co-or di nat e and is the angle between the quarter-chor d l i ne of t he w i ng
and t he l i ne connect i ng t he w i ngt i p t o t he r oot of t he t ai l quar t er -chor d. It i s al so given t hat t he
dow nw ash vel oci t y i s r epr esent ed by t he f undament al equat i on:
w( z
0
) =
1
4n
J
J
Jz
( z
0
z)
b
2
-
b
2
Jz
Conver t i ng t o pol ar co-or di nat es usi ng t he t r ansf or mat i on equat i on and appl yi ng t he def i ni t i on of
ci rculation as a function of :
( 0) =
2bI
C
L
nAR
`
B
n
B
1
si n n0
n=1

It can be deduced af t er subst i t ut i on t hat t he dow nw ash angl e i s given by t he equat i on:
s( x, y, z) =
x
u
x
p
C
L
x
h
AR

Wher e t he coef f i ci ent s ar e def i ned as:
= 1 + `
B
n
B
1
si n(
nn
2
]
)
n=2

b
=
n
4
+
nB
n
( n
2
1) B
n
cos
nn
2
]
N
n=2
1 +
B
n
B
1
si n(
nn
2
]
)
N
n=2


19

p
=
1
n
2

b
(
b
z)
y
2
+ (
b
z)
2
|1 +
x
.x
2
+ y
2
+ (
b
z)
2
|
+

b
x
x
2
+ y
2
|

b
z
.x
2
+ y
2
+ (
b
z)
2
+

b
+ z
.x
2
+ y
2
+ (
b
+ z)
2
|
+

b
(
b
+ z)
y
2
+ (
b
+ z)
2
|1 +
x
.x
2
+ y
2
+ (
b
+ z)
2
|

Wher e
x =
x
b
2
]

y =
y
b
2
]

z =
z
b
2
]

ar e t he non-di mensi onal i zed r ef erence posi t i on co-or di nat es f or measur i ng t he dow nw ash.
The val ue f or aspect r at i o, AR can be f ound usi ng:
AR =
b
2
S
wng

And t he l i f t coef f i ci ent can be f ound usi ng t he r el at i onshi p bet w een i t sel f and angl e of at t ack,
C
L
=
JC
L
Jo
. o
Wher e t he angl e of at t ack i s t he geomet r i c angl e of at t ack.
It i s al so w or t h not i ng t hat t he kappa-coef f i ci ent s ar e pur el y f unct i ons of t he w i ng geomet r y, not of
t he f l ow f i el d condi t i ons. The r esul t of t hi s i s t hat t he dow nw ash angl e var i es as a li near f unct i on of
al pha (t he angl e of at t ack). The coef f i ci ent s i n t he summat i on (t he Bn s) ar e r equi r ed i n or der t o
per f or m t he cal cul at i on f or t he kappa-coef f i ci ent s. Thi s w as not an easy t ask. The f oll ow i ng
r el at i onshi p w as gi ven f or t he cal cul at i on of t he coef f i ci ent s f r om t he l ocal geomet r i c angl e of at t ack:
|
o( 0
1
)
o( 0
2
)
o( 0
N
)
| =
g
1,1
g
1,2
g
1,N
g
2,1
g
2,N

g
N,1
g
N,2
g
N,N
. |
B
1
B
2
B
N
|

20

The cent r al g-mat r i x w as det er mi ned and expanded in M i cr osof t Excel . How ever f or t he cal cul at i on
of t he Bn s t hat r equi r es t he i nver se of mat r i x g mul t i pli ed by t he angl es of at t ack, i .e.
[ B] = [ g]
-1
. [ o( 0) ]
Thi s oper at i on w as i nput i nt o M at l ab f r om Excel and t hen pl ot t ed back i nt o Excel t o sol ve f or t he
kappa-coef f i ci ent s. The r esul t s of t hi s can be f ound i n t he sect i ons t hat f ol l ow .

3 .2 . DAT COM
DATCOM i s an empi r i cal met hod t hat has t he f undament al pur pose i s t o est imat e aer odynami c
st abi l i t y and cont r ol char act er i st i cs i n pr el i mi nary design appl i cat i ons.
Thi s comput at i onal met hod w as use by f i r st def i ni ng f l i ght condi t i on( M ach number , Al t i t ude, and
angl e of at t acks t o be anal yzed), f ol l ow ed by synt hesis w hi ch set s up t he CG l ocat i on as w el l as t he
posi t i on of t he wi ng and t ail sur f aces, al so t he w i ng planf or m i s def i ned by usi ng vari abl es r el at ed t o
w i ng t ype, span, chor d, sw eep and et c., and si mi l ar l y t he hor i zont al t ai l w as al so def i ned.
Thi s dat a w as t he used t o f i nd t he t ai l and w i ng l i f t coef f i ci ent s as w el l as t he l i f t cur ve sl ope. The
val ues f ound w er e t hen used t o cal cul at e t he dow nw ash angl e.

Table 1: Result s as published f rom DATCOM
Cl Cl W ing Cl Tail alpha w ing alpha t ail deg
0.298 0.211 0.087 0.04014231 0.016552 0.023591 1.35165
0.45 0.329 0.121 0.06259156 0.02302 0.039572 2.267283
0.694 0.521 0.173 0.09911915 0.032913 0.066206 3.79334
0.865 0.656 0.209 0.12480262 0.039762 0.085041 4.872479
0.953 0.726 0.227 0.13811997 0.043186 0.094934 5.4393


21

4 . Exper i ment at i on
4 .1 . CFD ( T or nado)
Tor nado i s a Vor t ex Panel M et hod t hat w as r un i n M at l ab i n or der t o t heor et i cal l y cal cul at e t he
ef f ect s of t he angl e of at t ack on dow nw ash. Fi r st t he par amet er s f or anal ysi s had t o be i nput i nt o t he
pr ogr am. Thi s began by def i ni ng t he panel s over t he sur f ace of t he ai r f oi l t hat w oul d be t he basi s f or
cal cul at i on. The w i ng w as anal ysed as a combi nat i on of 20 i dent i cal par t i t i ons f r om t i p t o t i p. These
par t i t i ons w er e each one-t w ent i et h of t he span i n wi dt h and had 10 i dent i cal panel s segment i ng t he
upper sur f ace and 10 i dent i cal panel s segment i ng t he l ow er sur f ace. The r ul e-of -t humb w i t h panel
met hods i s t he mor e panel s t hat ar e used; t he mor e t he met hod r epl i cat es t he act ual sur f ace. Thi s
how ever comes at comput at i onal cost i n t he f orm of t i me-expendi t ur e. It w as def i ned al so t hat t he
par t i t i ons w oul d each have zer o di hedr al , zer o t w i st , zer o f l ap def l ect i on and zer o change i n ai r f oil
pr of i l e acr oss t he span. Thi s w as i n accor dance w i t h t he exper i ment al t est pi ece used i n t he w i nd
t unnel t est . The span, chor d l engt h and pr of i l e w er e def i ned as t hose used i n t he w i nd t unnel and
t he det ai l s can be f ound i n t abl e 2 i n t he f ol l ow i ng sect i on. The or i gi n w as def i ned as t he l eadi ng
edge at t he w i ng r oot .
In addi t i on t o t he geomet r y bei ng def i ned, t he f l ow condi t i ons al so had t o be i nput . Thi s w as mai nl y
t o def i ne t he speed of t he ai r st r eam and w hat angl e of at t ack t he w i ng w as at . Due t o t he amount of
t i me t aken t o per f or m a si ngl e simul at i on, t he angle of at t ack w as f i xed at a r easonabl e 4. Thi s w as
a f ai r l y good poi nt t o choose t o compar e t o t he ot her met hods because i t i s i n a r ange w her e t he l i f t
cur ve sl ope of t he w i ng i s r oughl y l i near.
Af t er t he geomet r y and f l ow f i el d condi t i ons w er e i nput , t he panel l at t i ce w as gener at ed. Thi s w as
w hen t he sur f aces of t he w i ng w ere di scr et i zed i nt o t he var i ous panels t hat w oul d be used f or t he
anal ysi s. Fol l owi ng t he l at t i ce gener at i on, t he var i ous si mul at i ons w er e per f or med. The f l i ght
condi t i on w as cl assi f i ed as a st eady, l evel f l i ght pat h and as such no val ues w er e i nput f or si desli p
angl e, pi t ch angl e or any of t he angul ar r at es. For t hi s r eason onl y t he al pha sheet , f or ce, l i f t and
coef f i ci ent di st r i but i on w er e si mulat ed acr oss t he span. The r esul t s w er e obt ai ned i n t he f or m of
gr aphs an t abl es as out put by t he Tor nado code and can be f ound i n t he r esul t s sect i on t hat f ol l ow s.


22

4 .2 . W i nd-t unnel T est
4 .2 .1 . Appar at us
Cl osed-ci r cui t W i nd T unnel
The w i nd t unnel used f or t est i ng w as a cl osed ci r cui t , l ow speed t unnel dr i ven by a si ngle f an. The
t est sect i on w as el l i pt i cal , f ed by a nozzl e and vacat ed t hr ough a di f f user as show n i n t he f igur e
bel ow . The cr oss sect i on of t he t est chamber w as a 916 x 616 mm el li pse, w i t h a cl ear Per spex
r emovabl e obser vat i on cover. Test hol es wer e dri ll ed t hr ough t he si des of t he wi nd t unnel f or e and
af t t he t est pi ece f or measur i ng pr essur es usi ng a Pi t ot t ube. The dr i ve mot or w as an Engl i sh El ect r i c
DC mot or w i t h a r at ed maxi mum of 50 hp.

Figure 10: Plan view of t he Cont inuous W ind Tunnel used f or t he t est

23

W i ng a nd T a i l Confi gur at i on

Table 2: Geomet ric charact erist ics of t he w ing and t ail sect ions
W ing Tail
Prof ile NACA-0015 NACA-0018
Planf orm shape Rect angul ar Rect angul ar
Ref erence area [ m
2
] 0.0384 0.0093
Span [ m] 0.48 0.2
Chord Lengt h [ m] 0.08 0.0465

Figure 11: The conf igurat ion of t he w ing and t ail as set up in t he cont inuous w ind t unnel

24

Bubbl e I ncl i nomet er a nd el ect r i c t r i m cal i br a t or

The angl e of at t ack of t he t est pi ece w as cal i br at ed using a devi ce t hat el ect r i call y adj ust s t he t r i m of
t he w i ng pr of il e f r om a di gi t al scal e bet w een -50 and 1500. At r egul ar r ecor ded i nt er val s t his number
w as r ef er enced agai nst t he act ual measur ed angl e of at t ack usi ng t he bubbl e i ncl i nomet er , and t he
scal e number coul d be cal cul at ed t o gi ve t he est i mat ed angl e of at t ack. Fr om t hi s r el at i onshi p i t w as
possi bl e t o obser ve t he angl e of at t ack at w hi ch t he w i ng pr of i le st ar t ed t o pr oduce posi t i ve l i f t ,
maxi mum l i f t and w her e t he w i ng st al led.
Figure 12: Bubble inclinomet er

25

4 .2 .2 . Pr ocedur e
Pr eca ut i ons befor e t est i ng
1. Ensur e t her e ar e not obst acl es w i t hi n t he w i nd t unnel .
2. Ensur e t hat al l par t s of t he w i nd t unnel ar e secur e.
3. Ensur e t hat t he t est sect i on door i s pr oper l y cl osed bef or e t aki ng aer odynami c
measur ement s.
4. When var yi ng t he angle of at t ack, onl y move i n one di r ect i on (do not i ncr ease t hen decr ease
t he angl e of at t ack bef or e t he end of t he t est r un).
5. Al l ow t he ai r f l ow t o set t l e bef or e t aki ng measur ement s.
T est i ng pr ocedur e
In or der t o det er mi ne t he val ue of t he dow nw ash angl e, t hat i s, t he di f f er ence bet w een t he
aer odynami c, or ef f ect i ve angl e of at t ack, and t he geomet r i cal , act ual angl e bet w een t he t ai l cent r e
l i ne and t he di r ect i on of f l i ght t he f ol l ow i ng pr ocedur e w as used:
1. The angl e of at t ack w as measur ed on t he bubbl e i ncl i nomet er and t he ar m w as set t o t hi s
val ue.
2. The door t o t he t unnel w as t hen cl osed and bol t ed.
3. The t unnel w as t hen st ar t ed and t he ai r speed f or t he oncomi ng ai r f l ow w as set .
4. Tai l and w i ng li f t w as t hen measur ed separ at el y by means of a st r ai n gauges i n t er ms of
st r ai n.
5. Thi s pr ocedur e w as r epeat ed f or var i ous angl es of at t ack.

4 .2 .3 . Obser vat i ons
For l ow angl es of at t ack t her e w as excessive vibr at i on of t he ai r f oil s, causi ng vast
f l uct uat i ons i n t he st r ai n r eadi ngs.
Past a cer t ai n angl e of at t ack t he w i ng became f ul l y ef f ect i ve and t he vi br at i on sl ow ed dow n
and t aki ng r eadi ngs w as much easi er.
The appar at us f ai r i ng coul d have pl ayed a r ol e i n af f ect i ng t he ai r f l ow t ow ar ds t he t ai l , or
ot her w i se changi ng t he pr essur e var i at i on bel ow t he w i ng.


26

5 . Resul t s
Fi gur e 13 bel ow show s t he vari at i on of dow nw ash angl e ver sus semi -spanw ise posi t i on accor di ng t o
Pr ant dl s l i f t i ng l i ne t heor y. In t hi s f igur e t he dow nwash angle i s show n as posi t i ve dow nw ash and
t her ef or e any upw ash i s i ndi cat ed as negat i ve. For bot h angl es of at t ack t he zer o up/ dow n w ash
l ocat i ons ar e sl i ght ly i nboar d of t he w i ngt i p (wi ngt i p @ 0.24m). Thi s i ndi cat es t he posi t i on w her e
ai r f l ow t r yi ng t o move t o t he upper sur f ace due t o di f f er ent i al pr essur es cancel s out t he ef f ect of t he
ai r bei ng f or ced t o angl e dow nw ar ds due t o t he angl e of at t ack. Thi s poi nt sl i ght l y i nboar d of t he
w i ngt i ps i ndi cat es t he cent r el i ne of t he t r ai l i ng vor t ex w her e zer o w ash condi t i ons ar e expect ed.
Impor t ant l y t he af t posi t i on of t hi s up/ dow n w ash behavi our w as i nput as t he quar t er chor d posi t i on
of t he t ai l . It i s cl ear t hat w i t h a t ai l semi span of 0.1m t hat t he t r ai l i ng vor t ex w as never t r ail i ng over
t he t ai l and t her ef or e t he t ai l w as exper i enci ng t he dow nw ash of t he w i ng.

Figure 13: Dow nw ash angle versus semi-spanw ise posit ion, using Prant dls LLT

Fi gur e 14 show s t he var i at i on i n dow nw ash angl e f or changi ng angl es of at t ack. Accor di ng t o t he
t heor y t he change i n angl e of at t ack shoul d cause a li near r esponse i n dow nw ash. Thi s how ever w as
assumi ng t hat t he change i n l i f t coef f i ci ent w i t h changi ng angl e of at t ack w as l i near , w hi ch i t w as
not . The dow nw ash angl e how ever di d show a l i near cor r el at i on t o t he l i f t coef f i ci ent as ant i ci pat ed.
Thi s can be seen i n f i gur e 15.
-0.5
-0.4
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
D
o
w
n
w
a
s
h

[
d
e
g
]
Semi-span [ m]
AoA=4
AoA=8

27

Figure 14: Variat ion in dow nw ash angle w it h AoA f or bot h Prant dls LLT and t he w indt unnel t est
Fi gur e 15 bel ow show s t he cor r el at i on bet w een t he dow nw ash angl e and l i f t coef f i ci ent . As
ant i ci pat ed by t he t heor y t he r el at i onshi p i s per f ect l y l i near f or bot h t he li f t i ng l i ne t heor y and t he
DATCOM anal ysi s. The di f f er ence i n gr adi ent i s of concer n, how ever t he di f f er ences bet w een t he
exper i ment at i on and t he t heor et i cal anal ysi s have show n t o have di scr epanci es t hr oughout . The
concl usi on can onl y be dr aw n t hat t he er r or bet w een r esul t s i s caused by a f undament al i ssue
r el at i ng t o exper i ment al er r or or i naccur at e anal ysi s.

Figure 15: Relat ionship bet w een downw ash angle and lif t coeff icient according t o Prant dls LLT,
and t he DATCOM analysis
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
0.2
0 5 10 15
D
o
w
n
w
a
s
h

[
d
e
g
]
AoA [ deg]
LLT Dow nw ash
EXP Dow nw ash
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0 1 2 3
D
o
w
n
w
a
s
h

a
n
g
l
e

[
d
e
g
]
CL
Dow nw ash vs CL
DATCOM

28

Fi gur e 16 show s t he var i at i on i n li f t coef f i ci ent w i t h angl e of at t ack f or Pr ant dl s LLT compar ed t o t he
t heor et i cal angl e of at t ack. As is cl ear t he LLT f ol l ow s t he t heor y unt i l about 6.5 degr ees af t er w hi ch
i t devi at es dr ast i cal l y. The r easons behi nd t hi s coul d have st emmed f r om er r or s i n t he cal cul at i on of
t he f i r st ser i es coef f i ci ent f or var yi ng angl es of at t ack. Thi s er r or coul d have come f r om t he pr ocess
of per f or mi ng t he mat r i x i nver si on, w her e small er r or s become ampl i f i ed. Al so aspect s of t he t heor y
may have unknow i ngly i ncor por at ed smal l angl e approxi mat i ons t hat w ent unnot i ced dur i ng l engt hy
cal cul at i on. Thi s may expl ai n t he cohesi on f or smal l er angl es of at t ack and devi at i on t her eaf t er .

Figure 16: Lif t coef f icient versus AoA f or Prant dls LLT compared t o t he t heoret ical value.

The exper iment al l i f t coef f i cient ver sus angle of at t ack i s show n i n f i gure 17 bel ow . Unli ke t he LLT
t he shape of t he gr aph appr oxi mat es t he t heor et i cal l i ne f ar bet t er despi t e havi ng some l ocal
r andom dat a poi nt s. These di scr epanci es can be put dow n t o sl i ght l y i naccur at e measur ement of t he
appar at us dur i ng t he exper iment and el ast i c movement of t he r i g dur i ng oper at i on. Al so t he
cal i br at i on of t he st r ai n gauges w as quest i onabl e, al l of w hi ch coul d have l ed t o t he i naccur at e
r el at i onshi p ar r ived at i n f i gur e 17.
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
0 5 10 15
C
L
AoA [ deg]
CL vs al pha LLT
Theor y

29

Figure 17: Lif t coef f icient versus AoA f or t he w ind t unnel experiment compared t o t he t heoret ical
value.
Fi gur e 18 and f igur e 19 show t he spanwi se l i f t di st r i but i on on t he w i ng as simul at ed i n Tor nado. The
shape of t he dist r i but i on cor r el at es t o t hat expect ed by t heor y of l i f t coef f i ci ent . The i r r egul ar shape
of t he di st r i but i on i s due t o t he f act t hat t he pr ogr am uses panel met hods i n or der t o i t er at e a
sol ut i on. How ever no r esul t s w ere r el eased f or m Tornado r egar di ng dow nw ash due a def ect wi t h
t he pr ogr am. Al so t he val ue f or ai r densi t y coul d not be changed so i t w as r un as st andar d ai r densi t y
of 1.225 i nst ead of t he act ual t est condi t i on of 1.02. These di scr epanci es and i nadequaci es w i t h t he
pr ogr am r ul e t he resul t s obt ai ned as i naccur at e and unr el i abl e, and as a r esul t t hey have been
moved t o t he appendi x.

0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
0 5 10 15
C
L
AoA [ deg]
CL vs al pha EXP
Theor y

30

6 . Di scussi on
6 .1 . T hando T shabal al a
The dow nw ash w as t heor et i cal l y expect ed t o be di rect l y pr opor t i onal t o t he l i f t of t he ai r f oil , by
r ef er r i ng t o f igur e 15 one can see t hat t hi s has been conf i r med by t heor et i cal comput at i onal
met hods used i n DATCOM as w el l as Pr andt l s Li f t i ng l i ne t heor y as bot h gr aphs il l ust r at e li near
behavi our bet w een t he dow nw ash and l i f t coef f i ci ent .
The r el at i on bet w een dow nw ash and angl e of at t ack w as al so pr oposed t o be l i near bot h
exper i ment al l y and t heor et i cal l y by means of f i gur e 3. If one compar e t hi s t o f i gur e 14 one not es
t hat t hi s i s not w hat w as f ound by t he model used and t he r esul t s obt ai ned exper i ment al ly.
The var i at i on i n l i f t coef f i ci ent wi t h angle of at t ack f or Pr ant dl s LLT compar ed t o t he t heor et i cal
angl e of at t ack may be vi ewed i n Fi gur e 16 .Pr andt l s model f oll ow s t he t heor y unt i l about 6.5
degr ees af t er w hi ch t he val ues f or Pr andt l become consi der abl y hi gher . The r easons behi nd t hi s
coul d have st emmed f r om er r or s i n t he cal cul at i on of t he f i r st seri es coef f i ci ent f or var yi ng angl es of
at t ack i n addi t i on t o t he pr ocess of per f or mi ng t he mat r i x i nver si on, i n w hi ch smal l er r or s become
ampl i f i ed and r oundi ng of f er r or s al so become mor e pr omi nent . Al so aspect s of t he t heor y may have
unknow i ngly i ncor por at ed smal l angle appr oxi mat i ons t hat w ent unnot i ced dur i ng l engt hy
cal cul at i on. Thi s may expl ai n t he cohesi on f or smal l er angl es of at t ack and devi at i on t her eaf t er . It
al so shoul d be not ed t hat st al l i s not t aken i nt o account at hi gher angl es of at t ack (t hi s occur s due t o
separ at i on) w hi ch i s w hat w oul d happen i n r eal i t y.
The exper iment al l i f t coef f i cient ver sus angle of at t ack i s show n i n f i gure 17 bel ow . Unli ke t he LLT
t he shape of t he gr aph appr oxi mat es t he t heor et i cal l i ne f ar bet t er despi t e havi ng some l ocal
r andom dat a poi nt s. These i naccur aci es can be at t r i but ed t o sl i ght l y i naccur at e measur ement of t he
appar at us dur i ng t he exper i ment and el ast i c movement of t he r i g dur i ng oper at i on. Thi s al so coul d
be due t o t he f act t hat not al l t unnel i nt er f er ence ef f ect s coul d be el i mi nat ed as no cor r ect i on w as
i nt r oduced f or t he model bei ng i n a cl osed wi nd t unnel w hi ch r esul t s i n t he r educt i on of t he w ake
behi nd t he model . Thi s w as not t aken i nt o account dur i ng t heor et i cal anal ysi s.
The cal i br at i on of t he st r ai n gauges w as quest i onabl e, w hi ch coul d have l ed t o t he i naccur at e
r el at i onshi p ar ri ved at i n f i gur e 17. Thi s coul d al so be due t o t he f act t hat t he exper i ment w as
per f or med a hi gher angl es of at t ack i n t he r egi on w her e aer odynami c t heor y may br eak dow n due t o
separ at i on. Anot her r eason f or t hese di scr epanci es may be due t o t he f act t hat ef f ect s of t ur bul ence

31

w er e al so not t aken i nt o account (t her e i s al w ays sound l evel of t ur bul ence i n r eal f l ow s) w hi ch
causes mor e r andom behavi our i n ai r f l ow s. The appr oxi mat e manner i n w hi ch t he l i f t i ng l i ne
t heor y deal s w i t h bound vor aci t y may al so causes dat a var i at i ons.


32

6 .2 . Jameson Bent l ey
The r esul t s obt ai ned f r om t he exper i ment at i on nei t her compl et el y val i dat ed or compl et el y
i nvali dat ed t he r esul t s obt ai ned f r om Pr ant dl s Li f t i ng Li ne Theor y. How ever based upon t he
r esear ch conduct ed and t he gener al l y under st ood t heor y, t he l i f t i ng l i ne met hod seemed t o show
st r ong cor r el at i on t o r eal -w or l d pr act i cal exampl es r egar di ng t he ai r f l ow over ai r f oil s. Thi s
par t i cul ar l y t r ue w hen obser vi ng f i gur e 15, t he r el at i onshi p bet w een dow nw ash and l i f t coef f i ci ent .
Pr edi ct abl y t he gr aph i s a st r ai ght l i ne, i n accor dance w i t h t he t heor et i cal r el at i onshi p, and despi t e a
cont r ast i ng sl ope t o t hat of t he DATCOM anal ysi s, t hi s st i l l l ends cr edi bi li t y and conf i dence t o t he
dat a sur r oundi ng t he li f t i ng l i ne cal cul at i ons (because bot h ar e per f ect l y l i near ). In f igur e 13 t he
spanw i se dow nw ash i s pl ot t ed, w her e i t i s obser ved t hat t he dow nw ash i ncr eases f or i ncr easi ng
angl es of at t ack. Thi s makes l ogi cal sense because l i f t i ncr eases wi t h i ncr easi ng angl es of at t ack and
t he dow nw ash i s a f unct i on of t he l i f t at any par t i cul ar spanw i se st at i on. Thi s l ends i t sel f t o anot her
w el l know n r el at i onshi p r egar di ng li f t , i n t hat i t i s commonl y under st ood t hat l i f t cannot be
pr oduced w i t hout t he pr esence of ci r cul at i on (t he Kut t a-Joukow sky t heor em). Consi deri ng t hat t he
dow nw ash angl es ar e cal cul at ed based on t he gener at i on of ci r cul at i on, t hi s al l cor r el at es
appr opr i at el y. The mat t er of ci r cul at i on how ever i s not conf i ned t o a mer e mat hemat i cal f or mal i t y;
i t i s evi dent on f igur e 13. Near t he w i ng t i p t her e i s a pr esence of negat i ve dow nw ash, or upw ash.
Pr act i cal l y t hi s r epresent s t he t endency of t he hi gh pr essur e ai r on t he l ow er sur f ace t o move
t ow ar ds t he l ow er pr essur e air on t he upper sur f ace. Thi s pot ent i al and r esul t i ng separ at i on of f t he
t r ai l i ng edge mani f est s i t sel f as upw ash at t he t i p. A conundr um now exi st s f or t he span i n-bet w een
t he upw ash at t he t i p and t he dow nw ash f r om appr oxi mat ely mi d-span. The r esul t i s f or t he f l ow t o
separ at e of f t he t r ai l i ng edge a small spanw i se di st ance i nboar d of t he w i ngt i p w i t h a hi gh-energy
r ot at i onal f l ow due t o t he di f f er ence i n upw ash and dow nw ash meet i ng at a poi nt . Thi s f or ms t he
t r ai l i ng vor t ex. Impor t ant l y t he t heor y suggest s t hat i f t he w i ng had i nf i ni t e aspect r at i o and
t her ef or e i nf i ni t e span, t her e w oul d never exi st t he poi nt w her e t he ai r w oul d t r y t o move f r om t he
hi gh pr essur e of t he l ow er sur f ace t o t he l ow pr essur e of t he upper sur f ace and t her ef or e t he t r ai l i ng
vor t ex w oul d never f or m. Pr act i cal ly how ever , w e know t hi s never t o be t he case.
Fi gur e 14 show s t he var i at i on i n dow nw ash angl e w i t h i ncr easi ng angles of at t ack f or bot h t he l i f t i ng
l i ne t heor y and t he exper iment al w i nd t unnel t est . The r esul t of t hi s show s a cl ose cor r el at i on
bet w een t he cur ve shape of each appr oach, onl y w i t h a sli ght of f set i n t he x-axi s, meani ng t hat i n
t he r eal case a higher angl e of at t ack i s requi r ed t o i nduce t he same dow nw ash angl e. Thi s
di scr epancy coul d be put dow n t o a mi st ake r egar di ng t he cal cul at ed ai r densi t y, a di f f er ence i n t he
i deal and act ual ai r f oi l sur f ace r oughness, or gener al exper i ment al er r or.

33

The var i at i on of l i f t coef f i ci ent w i t h angl e of at t ack i s show n by f i gur es 16 and 17, f or t he l i f t i ng li ne
t heor y and t he exper iment al dat a respect i vel y. The gener al t r end i s f ol l owed f or small angl es of
at t ack f or t he l i f t i ng l i ne case; how ever t he gr aph begins t o devi at e above appr oxi mat el y 6 degr ees.
Thi s coul d have been caused by ampl i f i ed er r or s i n t he mat r i x i nver si on f or cal cul at i ng t he seri es of
l i f t i ng l i ne coef f i ci ent s or j ust due t o some mat hemat i cal i nconsi st ency. For f i gur e 17 t he li f t
coef f i ci ent ver sus angl e of at t ack show ed l i t t l e cor r el at i on t o t he exact sl ope out l i ned by t he t heor y.
Unf or t unat el y very f ew dat a poi nt s wer e t aken and t hi s af f ect ed t he r esol ut i on of t he r esul t s. The
r ough shape of t he l i near r el at i onshi p i s appr oxi mat ely f ol l ow ed. Thi s di scr epancy can be put dow n
t o i naccur at e exper i ment at i on t echni ques and quest i onabl e cal i br at i on dat a.

34

7 . Concl usi ons and Recommendat i ons
7 .1 . T hando T shabal al a
Concl usi ons
The l i f t i ng l i ne t heor y pr ovi des a suf f i ci ent basi s f or comput at i on on t he dow nw ash angl e behi nd
aer of oi l w i t hout f l aps on an af t t ai l but t hi s concept br eaks dow n at hi gh angl es of at t ack w her e
separ at i on occur s.
The empi r i cal model (DATCOM ) appr oximat el y agr ees w i t h t heor et i cal expect at i ons but not
necessar i l y exper iment al due t o appr oxi mat i ons, inaccur aci es and r andom behavi our due t o
separ at i on f ol l ow ed by t ur bul ence ment i oned above.
Abbot w as al so f ound t o be t heor et i cal l y ver y accur at e f or si mul at i on.
Recommendat i ons
It w oul d be mor e i deal i f t he exper iment w as per f or med at l ow er angl es of at t ack f or bet t er
cor r el at i on w i t h t heor et i cal dat a. And i f i t w er e possi bl e t o have per f or med t he exper iment at l ower
speeds t o model mor e l ami nar f l ow.
In addi t i on t o t hi s a cor r ect i on f act or coul d have been i nt r oduced t o t ake i nt o af f ect w ake ef f ect s i n
t he t unnel as w el l as changes i n densi t y bei ng account ed f or .

7 .2 . Jameson Bent l ey
Concl usi ons
Dow nw ash angl e vari es l i nearl y w i t h coef f i ci ent of l if t and spanw i se l ocat i on. It w as al so
f ound t hat t he dow nw ash at t he poi nt of t r ai l i ng vor t ex f or mat i on w as zer o. Thi s poi nt w as
sl i ght l y i nboar d of t he w i ngt i p.
Exper i ment al w i nd t unnel t est i ng can vali dat e t he t heor et i cal dat a pr ovi di ng t hat met hods of
exper i ment at i on ar e accur at e.
The dow nw ash pr oduced by a w i ng makes a si gni f i cant di f f er ence t o t he li f t pr oduced by a
t ai l af t of t he mai n w i ng.

35

Pr ant dl s Li f t i ng Li ne Theor y i s an accur at e and accept abl e met hod f or eval uat i ng t he
dow nw ash pr oduced by a w i ng, w her e t he ef f ect of t he dow nw ash can be f ound at var yi ng
l ocat i ons af t of t he w i ng.
Recommendat i ons
Per f or m t he exper i ment know i ng t he geomet r y and pr of i l e i nf or mat i on i n gr eat er det ai l .
Take f ar mor e dat a poi nt s f or t he exper i ment al dat a.
Use a mor e sophi st i cat ed CFD pr ogr am compar ed t o Tor nado i n or der t o val i dat e/ i nvali dat e
t he r esul t s.
Use a gener i c pr ogr am based on Pr ant dl s Li f t i ng Li ne Theor y i n or der t o val i dat e/ i nvali dat e
t he dat a obt ai ned.
Per f or m t he exper i ment usi ng a camber ed ai r f oi l as wel l.


36

8 . Refer ences
Bar l ow , J. B., W. H. Rae, and A Pope. Low -speed wi nd t unnel t est i ng. Wil ey, 1999.
Di ehl , Wal t er S. The Det er mi nat i on of Dow nw ash. Nat ional Advi sor y Comi t t ee f or Aer onaut i cs,
1921.
Gl auer t , H. The El ement s of Aer f oil an Air scr ew Theor y. Cambri dge: Cambr i dge Uni ver si t y Pr ess,
1959.
Kar amchet i , K. Ideal Fl ui d Dynami cs. New Yor k: Wi l ey, 1966.
L, Rasmussen M , and Smi t h D E. Li f t i nd-Li ne Theor y f or Ar bi t r ar y Shaped Wi ngs. Jour nal of Ai r cr af t ,
1999.
Nei sw ander , Br i an. Pr ant dl ' s Li f t ing Line Theory and Fini t e Wi ngs. Uni ver si t y of Not r e Dame, 2008.
Phi ll i ps, W. F, Ander son E.A, J. C. j enki ns, and S Sunouchi . Est i mat i ong t he Low-Speed Dow nw ash
Angle on an Af t Tai l . 40t h Aer ospace Sci ences M eet ing & Exhi bi t , 2002.
Saf f man, P. G. Vor t ex Dynami ns. Cambr i dge: Cambr i dge Uni ver si t y Pr ess, 1992.
Si l verst ei n, Abe, Kat zof f S, and Kennet h W Bull i vant . Dow nw ah and Wake Behi nd Pl ai n and Fl apped
Ai r f oil s. Nat i onal Advi sory Commi t t ee f or Aeronaut i cs, 1939.


37

9 . Appendi x
Table 3: Group member responsibilit y
Sect ion Person responsible
Backgr ound Thando Tshabal al a
Li t er at ur e sur vey: Resear ch and w r i t e up Thando Tshabal al a
Obj ect i ves Thando Tshabal al a
Appar at us: Wr i t e up and di agr ams Thando Tshabal al a
Pr ocedur e f or w i ndt unnel Thando Tshabal al a
Anal ysi s: Pr ant dl Li f t i ng Li ne t heor y Jameson Bent l ey
Anal ysi s: Dat com Thando Tshabal al a
Exper i ment at i on: Wi ndt unnel dat a pr ocessi ng Jameson Bent l ey
Exper i ment at i on: Tor nado Jameson Bent l ey
Resul t s: Pr ocessi ng and i nt er pr et at i on Jameson Bent l ey
Di scussi on Indi vi dual
Concl usi ons and Recommendat i ons Indi vi dual
For mat t i ng, f i nal w r i t e up, abst r act Jameson Bent l ey
Compil at i on Jameson Bent l ey

EQUATI ONS TO DESCRIBE THE PROPERTI ES OF AIR

Ai r densi t y as a f unct i on of Temp and Rel at i ve Humi di t y
u
= |
0.0034847
I
1 ( P 0.003796R
h
c
s
) kg/ m
3

c
s
= ( 1.7526 10
11
) c
( -5315.56/ 1)

Wher e:
u
cnsity
kg
m
3
]
c
s
Soturotion Iopour Prcssurc

38

P Ai r pressur e i n Pa
R
h
= Rcloti:c EumiJity [ os o %; ic i 40% tcn sub 40 ]
T Temper at ur e i n K

Vi scosi t y of ai r at a gi ven t emp
Used t o cal cul at e Reynol ds number
0
= |
I
R
I
0
1
3
2
]
I
0
+ 198.6
I
R
+ 198 .6

Wher e: I
R
= Icmpcroturc in R
I
0
= 518.6R
0
= 3.74 10
-7
lb s/ t
2
(Bar l ow , Rae and Pope 1999)

Figure 18: Spanw ise variat ion in lif t coef f icient produced by Vort ex Panel M et hod Tornado.


39

Figure 19: Spanw ise variat ion in normalized f orce over t he surf ace of t he w ing, according t o panel
met hods run in Tornado.

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