BEHAVIORAL

CONCEPT

IN

NURSING

THEORIES: I. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING : is a technique used in behavioral training. A naturally occurring stimul us is paired with a response. Then, a previously neutral stimulus is paired with the naturally occurring stimulus. Eventually, the previously neutral stimulus c omes to evoke the response without the presence of the naturally occurring stimu lus. The two elements are then known as the conditioned stimulus and the conditi oned response. Is Stimulus (S) elicits >Response (R) conditioning since the antecedent stimulus causes the reflexive or involuntary response to occur. Starts with a reflex: an innate, involuntary behavior elicited or caused by an antecedent environmental event. For example, if air is blown into your ey e, you blink. You have no voluntary or conscious control over whether the blink occurs or not. Primarily concerned itself with reflexive or unlearned behavior such as the jerking of a knee upon being tapped with a hammer. The specific model for classical conditioning : 1. Unconditioned Stimulus (US) elicits > Unconditioned Response (UR): a sti mulus will naturally (without learning) elicit or bring about a reflexive respon se 2. Neutral Stimulus (NS) ---> does not elicit the response of interest: thi s stimulus (sometimes called an orienting stimulus as it elicits an orienting re sponse) is a neutral stimulus since it does not elicit the Unconditioned (or ref lexive) Response. 3. The Neutral/Orienting Stimulus (NS) is repeatedly paired with the Uncond itioned/Natural Stimulus (US). 4. The NS is transformed into a Conditioned Stimulus (CS); that is, when th e CS is presented by itself, it elicits or causes the CR (which is the same invo luntary response as the UR; the name changes because it is elicited by a differe nt stimulus. This is written CS elicits > CR. II. OPERANT CONDITIONING : refers to a systematic program of rewards and punishments to influence b ehavior or bring about desired behavior Two basic assumptions about human experience and psychology in operant condition ing : (1) A particular act results in an experience that is a consequence of that act (2) The perceived quality of an act's consequence affects future behavior. - A central idea of operant conditioning holds that the main influences on behavior are externalthat is, it is in a person's external environment that his o r her behavior is programmed. - Deals with learned, not reflexive behavior. Reinforcement is used to increase the probability that behavior will occur in th e future, whereas punishment aims to decrease that probability. In addition, the process of removing reinforcement from an act is called extinction. Operant conditioning does not rely on attitudes, beliefs, intentions, an d motivation for predicting and influencing behavior. Operant conditioning can be applied to organizational management. Worker s learn various kinds of behavior before and after joining a company, and they e ncounter a host of stimuli in a company setting that can cause them to behave in certain ways with certain consequences. o The stimuli in the workplace include schedules, corporate structures, co mpany policies, telephone calls, managers, and so on. o The consequences of work-place behavior include approval or disapproval from managers and coworkers, promotions, demotions, pay increases, etc.

III. SOCIAL LEARNING Focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context. It conside rs that people learn from one another. derived from the work of Albert Bandura which proposed that social lear ning occurred through four main stages of imitation: i. close contact ii. imitation of superiors, iii. understanding of concepts, iv. role model behavior General principles of social learning theory : 1. People can learn by observing the behavior is of others and the outcomes of t hose behaviors. 2. Learning can occur without a change in behavior. Behaviorists say that learni ng has to be represented by a permanent change in behavior, in contrast social l earning theorists say that because people can learn through observation alone, t heir learning may not necessarily be shown in their performance. Learning may or may not result in a behavior change. 3. Cognition plays a role in learning. Over the last 30 years social learning th eory has become increasingly cognitive in its interpretation of human learning. Awareness and expectations of future reinforcements or punishments can have a ma jor effect on the behaviors that people exhibit. 4. Social learning theory can be considered a bridge or a transition between beh aviorist learning theories and cognitive learning theories. How the environment reinforces and punishes modeling: People are often reinforced for modeling the behavior of others. Bandura suggested that the environment also reinforces modeling. This is in seve ral possible ways: 1. The observer is reinforced by the model. For example a student who changes dr ess to fit in with a certain group of students has a strong likelihood of being accepted and thus reinforced by that group. 2. The observer is reinforced by a third person. The observer might be modeling the actions of someone else, for example, an outstanding class leader or student . The teacher notices this and compliments and praises the observer for modeling such behavior thus reinforcing that behavior. 3. The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences. Many behavior s that we learn from others produce satisfying or reinforcing results. For examp le, a student in my multimedia class could observe how the extra work a classmat e does is fun. This student in turn would do the same extra work and also receiv e enjoyment. 4. Consequences of the models behavior affect the observers behavior vicariously. This is known as vicarious reinforcement. This is where in the model is reinfor ced for a response and then the observer shows an increase in that same response . Bandura illustrated this by having students watch a film of a model hitting a inflated clown doll. One group of children saw the model being praised for such action. Without being reinforced, the group of children began to also hit the do ll . Contemporary social learning perspective of reinforcement and punishment: 1. Contemporary theory proposes that both reinforcement and punishment have indi rect effects on learning. They are not the sole or main cause. 2. Reinforcement and punishment influence the extent to which an individual exhi bits a behavior that has been learned. 3. The expectation of reinforcement influences cognitive processes that promote learning. Therefore attention pays a critical role in learning. And attention is influenced by the expectation of reinforcement. An example would be, where the teacher tells a group of students that what they will study next is not on the t est. Students will not pay attention, because they do not expect to know the inf ormation for a test. Cognitive factors in social learning: Social learning theory has cognitive factors as well as behaviorist factors (act

ually operant factors). 1. Learning without performance: Bandura makes a distinction between learning th rough observation and the actual imitation of what has been learned. 2. Cognitive processing during learning: Social learning theorists contend that attention is a critical factor in learning. 3. Expectations: As a result of being reinforced, people form expectations about the consequences that future behaviors are likely to bring. They expect certain behaviors to bring reinforcements and others to bring punishment. The learner n eeds to be aware however, of the response reinforcements and response punishment . Reinforcement increases a response only when the learner is aware of that conn ection. 4. Reciprocal causation: Bandura proposed that behavior can influence both the e nvironment and the person. In fact each of these three variables, the person, th e behavior, and the environment can have an influence on each other. 5. Modeling: There are different types of models. There is the live model, and a ctual person demonstrating the behavior. There can also be a symbolic model, whi ch can be a person or action portrayed in some other medium, , such as televisio n, videotape, computer programs. Behaviors that can be learned through modeling: Many behaviors can be learned, at least partly, through modeling. Examples that can be cited are, students can watch parents read, students can watch the demons trations of mathematics problems, or seen someone acting bravely and a fearful situation. Aggression can be learned through models. Much research indicate that children become more aggressive when they observed aggressive or violent models . Moral thinking and moral behavior are influenced by observation and modeling. This includes moral judgments regarding right and wrong which can in part, devel op through modeling. Conditions necessary for effective modeling to occur: Bandura mentions four conditions that are necessary before an individual can suc cessfully model the behavior of someone else: 1. Attention: the person must first pay attention to the model. 2. Retention: the observer must be able to remember the behavior that has been o bserved. One way of increasing this is using the technique of rehearsal. 3. Motor reproduction: the third condition is the ability to replicate the behav ior that the model has just demonstrated. This means that the observer has to be able to replicate the action, which could be a problem with a learner who is no t ready developmentally to replicate the action. For example, little children ha ve difficulty doing complex physical motion. 4. Motivation: the final necessary ingredient for modeling to occur is motivatio n, learners must want to demonstrate what they have learned. Remember that since these four conditions vary among individuals, different people will reproduce t he same behavior differently. 4 conditions that will reproduce same behavior differently in motivation : b. Effects of modeling on behavior: c. Modeling teaches new behaviors. d. Modeling influences the frequency of previously learned behaviors. e. Modeling may encourage previously forbidden behaviors. Modeling increases the frequency of similar behaviors. For example a student mig ht see a friend excel in basketball and he tries to excel in football because he is not tall enough for basketball. Self efficacy: People are more likely to engage in certain behaviors when they believe they are capable of executing those behaviors successfully. This means that they will ha ve high self-efficacy. In layman s terms self-efficacy could be looked as self c onfidence towards learning. How self-efficacy affects behavior: a. Joy of activities: individuals typically choose activities they feel they wil l be successful in doing. b. Effort and persistence: individuals will tend to put more effort end activiti

es and behaviors they consider to be successful in achieving. c. Learning and achievement: students with high self-efficacy tend to be better students and achieve more. Factors in the development of self efficacy: In general students typically have a good sense of what they can and cannot do, therefore they have fairly accurate opinions about their own self-efficacy. In m y multimedia program, the challenge is to increase student self-efficacy. There are many factors which affect self efficacy. Some of these factors can be; previ ous successes and failures, messages received from others, and successes and fai lures of others. Note example of ACS and Cliff & Vanessa. Self regulation: Self-regulation has come to be more emphasized in social learning theory. Self-r egulation is when the individual has his own ideas about what is appropriate or inappropriate behavior and chooses actions accordingly. There are several aspect s of self regulation: Setting standards and goals Self observation Self judge Self reaction Promoting self-regulation can be an important technique. This is usually done by teaching the individual to reward himself after doing the needed behavior. For example, a graduate student will tell himself to complete a certain chapter befo re taking a break and relaxing. Self instructions: An effective strategy is to teach learners to give themselves instructions that guide their behavior. There are five steps to achieve this goal: 1. Cognitive modeling 2. Overt external guidance 3. Overt self guidance 4. Faded, overt self guidance 5. covert self instruction Self monitoring and self reinforcement: These are two ways that people can control their own behavior. First they monito r and observe their own behavior, sometimes even scoring behavior. Secondly, peo ple are also able to change their behavior by reinforcing themselves, by giving are withholding reinforcement Educational implications of social learning theory: 1. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other people. 2. Describing the consequences of behavior is can effectively increase the appro priate behaviors and decrease inappropriate ones. This can involve discussing wi th learners about the rewards and consequences of various behaviors. 3. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new behaviors. Inste ad of using shaping, which is operant conditioning, modeling can provide a fast er, more efficient means for teaching new behavior. To promote effective modelin g a teacher must make sure that the four essential conditions exist; attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation. 4. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and take care that they do not model inappropriate behaviors. 5. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models. This technique is especially important to break down traditional stereotypes. 6. Students must believe that they are capable of accomplishing school tasks. Th us it is very important to develop a sense of self-efficacy for students. Teache rs can promote such self-efficacy by having students receive confidence-building messages, watch others be successful, and experience success on their own. . 7. Teachers should help students set realistic expectations for their academic a ccomplishments. In general in my class that means making sure that expectations are not set too low. I want to realistically challenge my students. However, so metimes the task is beyond a student s ability, example would be the cancer grou p.

8. Self-regulation techniques provide an effective method for improving stu dent behavior. IV. BEHAVIORAL MODIFICATION is the use of empirically demonstrated behavior change techniques to imp rove behavior, such as altering an individual s behaviors and reactions to stimu li through positive and negative reinforcement of adaptive behavior and/or the r eduction of maladaptive behavior through its extinction, punishment and/or thera py. aims at modifying behavior by reinforcing acceptable behavior and suppre ssing undesirable behavior. 7 CHARACTERISTICS OF BEHAVIORAL MODIFICATION : 1. There is a strong emphasis on defining problems in terms of behavior tha t can be measured in some way. 2. The treatment techniques are ways of altering an individual s current en vironment to help that individual function more fully. 3. The methods and rationales can be described precisely. 4. The techniques are often applied in everyday life. 5. The techniques are based largely on principles of learning specifically operant conditioning and respondent conditioning 6. There is a strong emphasis on scientific demonstration that a particular technique was responsible for a particular behavior change. 7. There is a strong emphasis on accountability for everyone involved in a behavior modification program

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION : I. MC GREGORS THEORY X AND THEORY Y A salutary and simple reminder of the natural rules for managing people , which under the pressure of day-to-day business are all too easily forgotten. 2 FUNDAMENTAL APPROACHES IN MANAGING PEOPLE : 1. THEORY X ( AUTHORITARIAN MANAGEMENT STYLE ) : - Management assumes employees are inherently lazy and will avoid work if they can and that they inherently dislike work. - Management believes that workers need to be closely supervised and comprehensive systems of controls developed. - According to this theory, employees will show little ambition without an enticing incentive program and will avoid responsibility whenever they can. - Managers rely heavily on threat and coercion to gain their employee s compliance. - Beliefs of this theory lead to mistrust, highly restrictive supervisio n, and a punitive atmosphere. - Manager believes that his or her employees do not really want to work, that they would rather avoid responsibility and that it is the manage r s job to structure the work and energize the employee. - The average person dislikes work and will avoid it he/she can. - Most people must be forced with the threat of punishment to work towards organ izational objectives. - The average person prefers to be directed; to avoid responsibility; is relativ

ely unambitious, and wants security above all else. 2. THEORY Y ( PARTICIPATIVE MANAGEMENT STYLE ) - Management assumes employees may be ambitious and self-motivated and exerc ise self-control - It is believed that employees enjoy their mental and physical work duties. - Managers believe that employees will learn to seek out and accept responsibil ity and to exercise self-control and self-direction in accomplishing objectives to which they are committed. MC GREGORS HUMAN SIDE OF ENTERPRISE : McGregor simply argues for managers to be open to a more positive view o f workers and the possibilities that this creates. He thinks that Theory Y manag ers are more likely than Theory X managers to develop the climate of trust with employees that is required for human resource development. It is here through h uman resource development that is a crucial aspect of any organization. This would include managers communicating openly with subordinates, mini mizing the difference between superior-subordinate relationships, creating a com fortable environment in which subordinates can develop and use their abilities. This climate would include the sharing of decision making so that subordinates h ave say in decisions that influence them. This theory is a positive view to the employees, meaning that the employer is under a lot less pressure than someone w ho is influenced by a theory X management style. Effort in work is as natural as work and play. People will apply self-control and self-direction in the pursuit of orga nizational objectives, without external control or the threat of punishment. Commitment to objectives is a function of rewards associated with their achievement. People usually accept and often seek responsibility. The capacity to use a high degree of imagination, ingenuity and creativi ty in solving organizational problems is widely, not narrowly, distributed in th e population. In industry the intellectual potential of the average person is only par tly utilized. II. MASLOWS HIERARCHY OF NEEDS : Abraham Maslow developed the Hierarchy of Needs model in 1940-50s USA, a nd the Hierarchy of Needs theory remains valid today for understanding human mot ivation, management training, and personal development. Indeed, Maslow s ideas s urrounding the Hierarchy of Needs concerning the responsibility of employers to provide a workplace environment that encourages and enables employees to fulfill their own unique potential (self-actualization) are today more relevant than ev er 1.Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc. 2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, limits, stabil ity 3. Belongingness and Love needs - work group, family, affection, relationships 4. Esteem needs - self-esteem, achievement, mastery, independence, status, domin ance, prestige, managerial responsibility 5. Self-Actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, se eking personal growth and peak experiences. HIERARCHY OF NEEDS MODEL INCLUDING AESTHETIC NEEDS : 1. Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep 2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, limits, stabil ity 3. Belongingness and Love needs - work group, family, affection, relationships 4. Esteem needs - self-esteem, achievement, mastery, independence, status, domin ance, prestige, managerial responsibility 5. Cognitive needs - knowledge, meaning

6. Aesthetic needs - appreciation and search for beauty, balance, form 7. Self-Actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, se eking personal growth and peak experiences. III. ALDERFERS ERG THEORY was created by Greg Alderfer to align Maslow s motivation theory more cl osely with empirical research. is based on the work of Maslow, so it has much in common with it but als o differs in some important aspects. Alderfer classifies needs into three categories, also ordered hierarchically: Growth needs (development of competence and realization of potential) Relatedness needs (satisfactory relations with others) Existence needs (physical well-being) ^ Alderfer categorized the lower order needs (Physiological and Safety) into the Existence category. He fit Maslow s interpersonal love and esteem needs into th e Relatedness category. The Growth category contained the self-actualization and self- esteem needs. ^ Alderfer also proposed a regression theory to go along with the ERG theory. He said that when needs in a higher category are not met, then individuals redoubl e the efforts invested in a lower category need. For example if self-actualization or self-esteem is not met, then individuals w ill invest more effort in the relatedness category in the hopes of achieving the higher need. Differences from Maslow s Hierarchy Unlike Maslow s hierarchy, the ERG theory allows for different levels of needs t o be pursued simultaneously. The ERG theory allows the order of the needs be different for different people. The ERG theory acknowledges that if a higher level need remains unfulfilled, the person may regress to lower level needs that appear easier to satisfy. This is known as the frustration-regression principle. IV. HERZBERGS MOTIVATION - Herzberg s Theory of Motivation has been used by corporations as a way to mot ivate employees for nearly five decades. Lately, higher education has adopted it s tenets as a way to push students to higher levels of achievement - These attempt to explain the factors that motivate individuals through identif ying and satisfying their individual needs, desires and the aims pursued to sati sfy these desires. - This theory of motivation is known as a two factor theory. It is based upon t he notion that motivation can be split into hygiene factors and motivation facto rs. HERZBERGS TWO FACTOR THEORY : ( also known as Herzberg s Motivation - hygiene theory) Herzberg theorized that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction act in dependently of each other. states that there are certain factors in the workplace that cause job sa tisfaction, while a separate set of factors cause dissatisfaction. Two-factor theory distinguishes between: 1. Motivators (e.g., challenging work, recognition, responsibility) that gi ve positive satisfaction, arising from intrinsic conditions of the job itself, s uch as recognition, achievement, or personal growth,and 2. Hygiene factors (e.g. status, job security, salary, fringe benefits, wor k conditions) that do not give positive satisfaction, though dissatisfaction res ults from their absence. These are extrinsic to the work itself, and include asp ects such as company policies, supervisory practices, or wages/salary.

Hygiene Factors - Hygiene factors are based on the need to for a business to avoid unpleasantnes s at work. If these factors are considered inadequate by employees, then they ca n cause dissatisfaction with work. Hygiene factors include: - Company policy and administration - Wages, salaries and other financial remuneration - Quality of supervision - Quality of inter-personal relations - Working conditions - Feelings of job security Motivator Factors - Motivator factors are based on an individual s need for personal growth. When they exist, motivator factors actively create job satisfaction. If they are effe ctive, then they can motivate an individual to achieve above-average performance and effort. Motivator factors include: - Status - Opportunity for advancement - Gaining recognition - Responsibility - Challenging / stimulating work - Sense of personal achievement & personal growth in a job V. MC CLLELADS THEORY OF NEEDS Approach is not particularly associated with a theoretical perspective, but identifies three needs important in the workplace. 1. Power Needs (nPOW) : Power stories reflect influencing others, defeating an opponent or competitor, w inning and argument, or attaining a position of greater authority. Persons with low need for power may lack the assertiveness and self-confidence necessary to o rganize and direct group activities effectively. A high need for power may be expressed as "personalized power" or "socialized po wer." o People with high personalized power may have little inhibition or self-c ontrol, and they exercise power impulsively. Correlated with these are tendencie s to be rude, excessive use of alcohol, sexual harassment, and collecting symbol s of power (e.g., big offices, desks, fancy cars, etc.). o Socialized power need is most often associated with effective leadership . These leaders direct their power in socially positive ways that benefit others and the organization rather than only contributing to the leader s status and gain. 2. Achievement Need (nACH) : Achievement is reflected in stories about attaining challenging goals, setting n ew records, successful completion of difficult tasks, and doing something not do ne before. High need achievers prefer a job in which success depends on effort and ability rather than on chance and factors beyond their control (locus of control). o They prefer tasks that enable them to exercise their skills and initiati on in problem solving. o They want frequent and specific feedback about performance so they can e njoy the experience of making progress toward objectives 3. Affiliation Need (nAFF) : Affiliation themes are revealed in stories about establishing or restoring close and friendly relationships, joining groups, participating in pleasant social a ctivities, and enjoying shared activities with family or friends. It reflects behaviors toward others that are cooperative, supportive, and friend ly and which value belonging and conformity to the group.

MOTIVATION PROCESS: Refers to the process that cause people to behave as they do. can be broadly defined as the forces acting on or within a person that cause the arousal, direction, and persistence of goal-directed, voluntary effort. Motivat ion theory is thus concerned with the processes that explain why and how human b ehavior is activated. The broad rubric of motivation and motivation theory is one of the most frequent ly studied and written-about topics in the organizational sciences, and is consi dered one of the most important areas of study in the field of organizational be havior. Motivation can be described in terms of : Its strength Its direction MOTIVATION STRENGTH: The degree to which the person is willing to expend energy to reach one goal as opposed to another. Reflects his/her underlying motivation to attain the goal. BIOLOGICAL NEEDS Focuses on drive theory that produce unpleasant states of arousal. Homeostasis is a goal-oriented behavior that attempts to reduce or eliminate an unpleasant state and return to a balanced one. LEARNED NEEDS Expectancy theory suggests that behavior is largely pulled by expectations of a chieving desirable outcomes-positive incentives- rather than pushed from within . MOTIVATION DIRECTION : Most goals can be reached by a number of paths, routes and objectives that convi nced the people that the alternative they offer provide the best chance to atta in the goal.