PV COMBI SYSTEMS AND SPECIAL DESIGNS FOR BUILDINGS YIANNIS TRIPANAGNOSTOPOULOS Physics Department University of Patras Physics Department,

University of Patras, Patra 26500 GREECE Tel/Fax: +31 2610 997472 e-mail: yiantrip@physics.upatras.gr

INTRODUCTION Various solar energy systems with optimized energy output, cost and aesthetic integration, have to be applied in buildings and contribute in the energy supply combined with environmental protection. Undoubtedly, the most important issue related with energy and buildings is bioclimatic architecture which plays an important role in obtaining the optimized physical lighting and the biggest possible limitation of heating needs in the winter and cooling needs in the summer. The energetically passive function of the building must be combined with the study of energy systems installation, systems that can cover hot water and electricity needs and contribute to the other energy needs of the building. As far as new buildings are concerned, their design must provide them with the possibility of passive and active energy systems combination, for the avoidance of augmented cost and wrong integration of the systems in buildings architecture. Solar energy systems appear to be the most interesting among renewable energy sources (RES) for the built environment. The facades and the horizontal or inclined roofs of buildings are appropriate surfaces for the application of solar thermal collectors and photovoltaic panels for heat and electricity production respectively. Solar thermal collectors can be considered practical devices to cover thermal energy needs in DHW, space heating and cooling, etc. Although they can cover satisfactorily the thermal load of several buildings in countries with favorable weather conditions, they are not widely applied. Despite of the achieved system cost improvements, the cost payback time of the solar thermal collectors is not sufficiently low, considering that these systems have low or no subsidies. Combi-solar thermal systems have been suggested to maximize the use of thermal output, providing thermal energy for space heating during winter, space cooling during summer and hot water for domestic use all year round. New types of solar energy devices that were developed in Solar Energy Laboratory at University of Patras can lead to improved solar collectors towards to a greater application of solar energy systems.

2. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS Solar Energy Systems can be applied in a very harmonic way on buildings for covering the needs of heating, cooling, electricity and lighting. The facades and the horizontal or inclined roofs of houses, hotels, athletic centers and buildings of other various types constitute appropriate surfaces for an expanded use of photovoltaic panels and thermal solar collectors. Every type of building can be designed according to the principles of bioclimatic architecture for the minimization of the energy needs and the environmental impact of the building. Apart from design, its equally important to use new heatinsulating materials and special glasses, that reduce effectively thermal losses of buildings during the winter and the energy consumption for cooling during the summer and that are already considered as necessary structural materials for the improvement of energy behavior of buildings, giving at the same time a new visage to them. In such an aspect, the prospective energy savings in the buildings sector (especially in new buildings) can be more than 50% of the energy consumption of standard buildings and become a regular procedure for built environment construction. The installation of devices and active solar energy units is related with their cost increase and their harmonization with buildings architecture and the environment. In the Physics Department of University of Patras, some new types of solar energy systems with efficient energy output were developed, which are referred to thermal collectors and hybrid photovoltaic/thermal systems. In both systems we used booster reflectors to increase the energy output from them. 3. BOOSTER REFLECTORS

Buildings that are placed in low latitude locations usually have horizontal roofs where the installation of units of solar energy utilization, like solar collectors and photovoltaic panels, is easy. The installation of solar devices on the rooftops of buildings differs from the installation on the inclined roofs or the facades of buildings because, even if we can succeed better energy orientation (south), the sun height difference between seasons determines their placement in a certain distance to avoid shading. These booster reflectors can contribute to the increase of the thermal energy output, considering a specific temperature level of collector operation or to increase the temperature level for the efficient collector operation. This improvement is correlated to the additionally absorbed solar radiation, substituting partially the thermal losses of the collectors. These installations can be effectively applied to residential multiflat buildings, office buildings, hotels, hospitals, athletic centers and industrial buildings. The additional solar input to the collector aperture surfaces from spring to fall makes the suggested installation suitable for effective collector operation in higher temperatures, adapting therefore the temperature level for the cooling requirements. The shading of a series of solar devices reduces the output of solar thermal collectors but mainly, the output of photovoltaic panels. On
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horizontal roofs, PV have both of their surfaces exposed to the environment, while PV placed on inclined roofs or facades have only one since their back surface is covered. The positive result of parallel series of PV is their conservation in a relatively low temperature that leads to a better electrical output. Literature for booster reflectors The combination of flat reflectors to flat plate collectors has been introduced by Shuman in 1911 [1] to improve the operating temperature of the system. The next work came half a century later by Tabor in 1966 [2], who studied the use of booster reflectors placed at collector eastern and western side. Ten years later McDaniels et al. [3] and Seitel [4] presented calculations for the increase of solar radiation on the aperture of solar collectors due to booster reflectors, while Bannerot and Howell [5] gave results for grooved collectors and Grassie and Sheridan [6] published simulation results for performance improvement by using booster reflectors. In the next years, Grimmer et al [7], Baker et al [8] and Mannan and Bannerot [9] studied several parameters on the booster reflector concept. Following them, Rudloff et al [10] calculated the performance increase of booster reflectors and showed that it corresponds to the additional cost from the reflectors and Larson [11,12] presented results for the effect of reflector slope to the achieved concentration. In the same period Taha and Eldighidy [13] studied the effect of the optimized orientation of solar collectors and the contribution of the reflectors. In the following years Chiam [14,15] studied the effect of reflectors on the horizontal collector sides and Jones [16] on the reflectors between parallel rows of solar collectors. Garg and Hrishikesan [17] presented analytical formulas for the prediction of reflected solar radiation at three locations and Faiman with Zemel [18] combined flat reflector with a flat plate thermosiphonic device. The same period, the experiments of Perers et al [19] and Brunstrom with Karlsson [20] showed that booster reflectors increase the annual thermal output by 30% (for system operation at about 50C). In addition, Perers and Karlsson [21] studied 2D and 3D collector-reflector geometries and their results confirmed that the use of reflectors results again to a 30% annual performance increase. Narashima Rao et al [22] presented algorithm for the calculation of the additional solar radiation on collector aperture area. Perers et al [23] gave again theoretical and experimental results for the effective use of several reflectors. Kumar et al [24] provided results for systems with reflectors mounted on all sides of flat collectors, while Ballentin and Wilk [25] for the lower horizontal collector side. Recently, Ronnelid and Karlsson [26] calculated the additional solar radiation from V-corrugated reflectors, improving the system performance by 10% and Hussein et al [27] presented similar results regarding several design parameters.
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Experiments with booster reflectors In our laboratory we have studied the effect of booster reflectors to solar collectors, starting with the combination of flat reflectors with flat plate thermosiphonic systems [28] and later to flat plate collectors with black and colored absorbers [29]. Aiming to determine the effect of stationary reflectors to flat plate collectors, we tested one collector unit operating at maximum thermal output (ambient temperature level) and a second unit at stagnation (no fluid flow). We used also two other systems of similar collectors, which were combined with flat stationary reflectors [30].

Fig. 1

Cross section of the installation of the collectors with the stationary booster reflector.

The positive effect of flat reflectors of increasing the thermal output was experimentally determined by using four flat plate collectors properly installed in order to get comparative results. Two collectors were combined with a stationary flat reflector in front of them to get additional solar radiation by reflection. The other two of them were of same type and were operating as reference collectors. The stationary collector-reflector system was tested daily during the year in low water input temperature and also in stagnation operation. The results showed that the increase of thermal output is satisfactory from spring to fall in low temperatures operation and can be significant for operation in high temperatures. The results show that the booster reflectors can increase the thermal output of solar collectors, which is low during winter due to the low sun altitude, but sufficiently high the rest seasons. The cost of the booster reflectors is overcome by the additional amount of the thermal energy output, resulting therefore to a reduction of the system payback time and making these systems more attractive for application. We installed two rows of flat plate collectors on the roof of Physics Department building, (facing South and the one row behind the other), with the first row of collectors without and the second row with booster reflector. In Fig.1 we show the cross section of the installation, presenting the geometry, the incoming and the reflecting solar rays, the slope of the collector, and of the reflector and the angle between collector and reflector. In addition, we include the collector width L, the reflector width R and the distance D
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between the parallel collector rows. The collectors have high emissivity absorber (black paint, =0.95 and =0.9), one glass cover and thermal insulation. Thermocouples were placed at several positions (water input and output, four positions on the absorber). We used a typical glass mirror as flat reflector and during the experimental tests we circulated cold water in the two collectors, leaving the other two to operate without water flow. Thus, we achieved the collector operation at low temperature and also at stagnation condition. We selected collector slope =38.25, equal to the latitude of Patras and reflector slope =28.3, equal to the maximum sun altitude for Summer solstice at Patras. The collector width was L=0.6 m, the reflector width R=0.78 m, the angle between the collector and reflector =113.45 and the distance between the two collectors D=1.16 m. We measured water input temperature i (C), water output temperature o (C), ambient temperature a (C), absorber temperatures S1, S2, S3, S4 (in oC, from the bottom to the top), solar radiation G (Wm-2), wind speed Vw (ms-1) and mass flow rate m . The four temperatures of the absorber surface of each collector at absence of water flow were used to determine the stagnation temperature of the collectors. For the collected data we T calculated the mean daily efficiency d as function of the ratio Tm / Gm ( m = Ti , m T, m and Ti , m , T, m , Gm , mean daily values). The mean daily performance was calculated by the relation d = Qd / Qs , with Qd the daily thermal output of the collector and Qs the daily incoming solar radiation on the collector aperture. For the calculation of d the reflected radiation was not considered in the calculation of Qs , aiming to make clearer the effect of the booster reflector to the system performance. For the stagnation operation we have d =0 and the calculation of Tm / Gm is based on the formula Tm = TS ,m Ta ,m with TS , m = (TS1, m + TS 2 , m + TS 3 , m + TS 4 , m ) / 4 . The pairs of and Tm / Gm d were used to define the linear correlation of the collector daily performance. In Fig.2 we present the diagrams [30] of the mean daily performance of the tested flat collectors for the winter (14 Dec), Spring (16 Mar), Summer (14 Jul) and Fall (18 Oct). These results contribute to a maximum ( Tm / Gm = 0 KW-1m2) increase of 24% for Spring, 38% for Summer, 31% for Fall and 11% for Winter, resulting to a 25% mean annual value. For operation in higher temperatures ( Ti >40C) the improvement is significant, confirming the results of other authors [19-21]. For operation at Tm / Gm = 0.05 KW-1, which could correspond to Ti =50C, T =25 C and Gm =500 Wm-2 1 (dotted lines in Fig.2) the performance increase is much more higher, being above 30% for winter, 80% for Spring, 50% for Summer and 75% for Fall (60% as mean annual increase). These results show the positive effect of booster reflectors and considering an additional cost of about 20% for the reflectors, we have a net performance gain of 40%.

WINTER
Mean Daily Performance nd
1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 -0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06
-1

SPRING
FLAT FLAT +REF. Mean Daily Performance nd
1.1 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0.08 0.1 -0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06
-1

1.1

FLAT FLAT +REF.

0.08

0.1

m / G m ( CW m )

m / G m ( CW m )

SUMMER
Mean Daily Performance nd Mean Daily Performance nd
1.1 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 -0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

AUTUMN
FLAT FLAT + REF.
1.1 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

FLAT FLAT +REF.

m / G m ( CW m )

-1

-0.02

m / G m ( CW m )

-1

Fig.2 Experimental results of mean daily efficiency of the studied systems (FLAT and FLAT+REF) for the four seasons [30]. The results show that the combination of flat plate collectors with booster reflectors is satisfactory regarding thermal output, increasing by ~25% the annual yield for system operation at ambient temperature level and doubling it (~50%) for operation at about 50 o C. This performance is due to the fact that the increase of solar input on collector aperture provides an additional energy amount that can replace the thermal losses from the collector to the ambient, mainly when the system is operating at higher temperatures. Considering the stationary collector-reflector installation, the contribution of booster reflector is low during winter because of the low sun altitude, but it is high during the rest seasons. We estimate that the addition of booster reflectors to solar collector installations increase system cost by about 20%, in case of typical collectors, which is relatively lower if improved performance collectors (selective absorber, double glazing, TIM thermal protection, vacuum tubes, CPC type collectors, etc) are considered. This additional cost is
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not high and can be overcome by the increase of thermal output for system operation higher than 10 oC above ambient. The performance improvement is significant enough for higher operating temperature of the collector, as for 50 oC or higher, contributing therefore to become more attractive and cost effective for several solar energy applications (space heating and cooling, desalination, industrial heat, etc). Finally, the application of booster reflectors can be considered interesting for the buildings with horizontal roof, mainly in southern countries, as the residential multiflat buildings, hotels, hospitals, athletic centers, industries, etc. References for booster reflectors [1] Meinel .. and Meinel M.P. Applied Solar Energy. AddisonWesley Publ. Co (1997). [2] Tabor H. Mirror boosters for solar collectors. Solar Energy 10, pp. 111-118 (1966). [3] McDaniels D.K., Lowndes D.H., Mathew H., Reynolds J. and Grey R. Enhanced solar energy collection using reflector-solar thermal collector combinations. Solar Energy 17, pp. 277-283 (1975). [4] Seitel S. Collector performance enhancement with flat reflectors. Solar Energy 17, pp. 291-295 (1975). [5] Bannerot R.B. and Howell J.R. Moderately concentrating flat plate solar energy collectors. ASME 75, pp. 2-11 (1975). [6] Grassie S.L. and Sheridan N.R. The use of planar reflectors for increasing the energy yield of flat plate collectors. Solar Energy 19, pp. 663-668 (1977). [7] Grimmer D.P., Zinn K.G., Herr K.C. and Wood B.E. Augmented solar energy collection using different types of planar reflective surfaces. Solar Energy 31, pp. 497-501 (1978). [8] Baker S. McDaniels D.K., Kaehn H.D. and Lowndes D.H. Time integrated calculation of the insolation collected by reflector-collector system. Solar Energy 20, pp. 415-417 (1978 [9] Mannan K.D and Bannerot R.B Optimal geometries for one and two faced symmetric side wall booster mirrors. Solar Energy 21, pp. 385-391 (1978). [10] Rudloff F.A., Swanson S.R., Boehm R.F. Computer simulation results for planar reflectors and flat plate solar collectors. ASME 79 WA/Sol - 37, pp. 1-8 (1979). [11] Larson D.C. Concentration ratios for flat plate solar collectors with adjustable flat mirrors. Energy 4, pp. 170-175 (1980). [12] Larson D.C. Optimization of flat plate collector-flat mirror systems. Solar Energy 24, pp. 203-207 (1980). [13] Taha I.S. and Eldighidy S.M. Effect of off-south orientation on optimum conditions for maximum solar energy absorbed by flat plate collector augmented by plane reflector. Solar Energy 25, pp. 373-379 (1980).
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[14] Chiam H.F. Planar concentrators for flat plate collectors. Solar Energy 26, pp. 503509 (1981). [15] Chiam H.F. Stationary reflector-augmented flat plate collectors. Solar Energy 29, pp. 65-69 (1982). [16] Jones JR R.E. Radiation on reflector augmented flat plate collectors. Solar Energy 23, pp. 527-531 (1984). [17] Garg H.P. and Hrishikesan D.S. Enhancement of solar energy on flat plate collector by plane booster mirrors. Solar Energy 40, pp. 295-307 (1988). [18] Faiman D. and Zemel A. Low profile solar water heaters: the mirror booster problem revisited. Solar Energy 40, pp. 385-390 (1988). [19] Perers B., Halletun H., Karlsson B. and Brunstrom C. Field testing of high performance flat plate collectors with external reflectors. Proc. Int. Conference NORTHSUN 88, pp. 445-450 (1988). [20] Brunstrom C. and Karlsson B. External reflectors for large area flat plate collectors. Proc. Int. Conf. NORTHSUN 88, pp. 363-367 (1988). [21] Perers B., Karlsson B. External reflectors for large solar collector arrays, simulation model and experimental results. Solar Energy 51, pp. 327-337 (1993). [22] Narashima Rao A.V., Chalam R.V., Subramanyam S. and Sithararama Rao T.L. Energy contribution by booster mirrors. Energy Convers. Mgmnt 34, pp. 309-326 (1993). [23] Perers B., Karlsson B.and Bergkvist M. Intensity distribution in the collector plane from structured booster reflectors with rolling grooves and corrugations. Solar Energy 53, pp 215-226 (1994). [24] Kumar R., Kaushik S.C. and Garg H.P. Analytical study of collector solar gain enhancement by multiple reflections. Energy 20, pp 511-522 (1995). [25] Bollentin J.W. and Wilk R.D. Modeling the solar irradiation on flat plate collectors augmented with planar reflectors. Solar Energy 55, pp 343-354 (1995). [26] Ronnelid M. and Karlsson B. The use of corrugated booster reflectors for solar collector fields. Solar Energy 65, pp 343-351 (1999). [27] Hussein H.M.S., Ahmad G.E., Mohamad M.A. Optimization of operational and design parameters of plane reflector tilted flat plate solar collector systems. Energy 25, pp 529-542 (2000). [28] Tripanagnostopoulos Y. and Yianoulis P. Solar water heaters with booster mirrors. Proc. Int. Conference WREC III, pp. 1908-1910 (1994). [29] Tripanagnostopoulos Y., Souliotis M. and Nousia Th. Solar collectors with colored absorbers. Solar Energy 68, pp. 343-356, (2000). [30] Tripanagnostopoulos Y. and Souliotis M. Booster reflector contribution to performance improvement of solar collectors. Proc (CD-ROM) WREC2005 , Aberdeen 22-27 May (2005).

SOLAR COLLECTORS WITH COLORED ABSORBERS

The issue of aesthetic integration of solar collectors in building architecture and the environment is important and constitutes a reason for the limited application of these devices in the built environment. In an extended use of solar energy, the majority of the exterior surfaces of buildings will be covered with absorbing surfaces of solar collectors and their color (the monotony of black color) is a basic factor that has to be taken under consideration, especially in the case of traditional communities. As an alternative solution and instead of black color, collectors with different colors have been proposed (blue, redbrown, green etc) and although their absorption ability is a little lower (20%), their use offers an interesting colorful aspect to the exterior of buildings (Tripanagnostopoulos et al, 2000, Kalogirou et al, 2005) Colored solar absorbers can contribute in the expansion of solar energy systems utilization and sensitize or even motivate architectures to include these systems in their designs. Although the developed in our laboratory solar collectors with colored absorber are obviously of lower efficiency than the collectors with black absorbers, they could be considered suitable for aesthetically sensitive applications, providing interesting solutions to the architects to overcome the monotony of black collectors. Study of colored collectors Flat plate collectors with black, blue and red-brown absorber were constructed and tested in our laboratory and theoretical results regarding colored collectors with absorbers of variable absorptivity and emissivity showed the effective use of booster reflectors to the increase of thermal efficiency. In the second work, additionally to the collectors of typical form, unglazed collectors with colored absorber were also studied giving interesting results. Flat plate unglazed colored collectors are cheaper than typical glazed collectors, but the increased absorber thermal losses limit their effective use in low temperature applications, as water preheating for domestic or industrial use, water heating of swimming pools, space heating, etc. In Fig. 3 the yearly efficiency of typical form flat plate solar collectors using glazing and thermal insulation (GL/INSUL) and of flat plate unglazed solar collectors with back thermal insulation (UNGL/INSUL) are presented. These results are calculated for coloured collectors with construction same to that of the experimental models of flat collectors that were tested in our laboratory, regarding collector inclination = 40 and operation in Patras (latitude 38N). The yearly efficiencies are given for collectors with absorbers of absorptivity = 0.95, = 0.85 and = 0.75 and being all of emissivity = 0.9, as function of the water input temperature Ti .

The comparison of the yearly efficiency of typical form collectors (GL/INSUL) shows that for a usual input temperature, as it is Ti = 40C, the colored collectors with =0.85 (dark colored absorbers) and =0.75 (light colored absorbers) have a 20% and 40% lower yearly efficiency, respectively to that of the collector with black absorber ( =0.95).

Fig. 3 Yearly efficiency of colored glazed and unglazed solar collectors For the unglazed type collectors (UNGL/INSUL) and for a temperature 20C Ti 30 C the colored collectors have about 15% (dark color = 0.85) and 25% (light color, = 0.75) lower yearly efficiency compared to that of the unglazed black collector ( = 0.95). In addition, for low values of Ti the unglazed collectors have a higher yearly efficiency compared to glazed collectors of the same value of . In Fig.4 the calculated monthly efficiencies of the above collector types, for inclination = 40 and operation in Patras considering input water temperature Ti = 20C, are presented. From these results we can see that the unglazed collectors are of higher efficiency than typical form collectors during the period from April to October, due to the lower optical losses from the absence of glazing and the positive convention effect from the ambient air to the absorber surface. Considering the effect of using colored absorbers instead of black absorber, dark tone absorber ( = 0.85) gives satisfactory results in both glazed (GL/INSUL) and unglazed (UNGL/INSUL) solar collectors, for all months.

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Fig. 4 Monthly efficiency of colored glazed and unglazed solar collectors Regarding cost, we estimate that for applications with priority in aesthetic view, colored collectors could be more interesting and an additional cost of about 20% (to increase the collector area) can overcome their lower thermal output compared to same type collectors with black absorber. The use of blue collectors in white buildings close to the sea, of red brown collectors for buildings with inclined roof and traditional architecture and of other colored collectors (green, yellow, violet, mixed colors, etc) on modern buildings could change the view of them, resulting to a wider use of solar thermal collectors. Regarding optical annoyance from reflected light, the use of glass coatings that diffuse reflected light is the most appropriate solution, while we can consider worthy the use of uncovered (UNGLAZED) collectors for low temperature applications (swimming pools, preheating of water, etc). In this perspective, uncovered collectors can be combined with colored surface for an even more interesting integration of solar collectors in facades and inclined roofs of buildings. In the horizontal roof applications, it is effective to use flat booster reflectors between the rows of collectors with colored absorbers and increase the thermal output of them (Tripanagnostopoulos et al, 2000,). References for colored collectors Tripanagnostopoulos Y., Souliotis M. and Nousia Th. Solar collectors with colored absorbers. Solar Energy 68, pp. 343-356, (2000). Kalogirou S, Tripanagnostopoulos Y., Souliotis M. Performance of solar systems employing collectors with colored absorber. Energy and Building 37, 824-835, (2005).

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HYBRID PHOTOVOLTAIC/THERMAL SOLAR SYSTEMS

Photovoltaic (PV) convert a small percentage of solar radiation into electricity, 5%-15% depending on the type of PV, with the greater percentage converted into heat. The solar radiation increases the temperature of PV modules, resulting in a drop of their electrical efficiency, but their installation on horizontal roofs of buildings permits their natural cooling. In the facades and inclined roofs, cooling of PV rear surface is under research, which will also have positive result in protecting building overheating during summer. The temperature of PV modules increases by the absorbed solar radiation that is not converted into electricity causing a decrease in their efficiency. This undesirable effect can be partially avoided by heat extraction with a fluid circulation. In hybrid PV/T solar systems the reduction of PV module temperature can be combined with a useful fluid heating. Hybrid PV/T systems can provide electrical and thermal energy, thus achieving a higher energy conversion rate of the absorbed solar radiation. They consist of PV modules coupled to heat extraction devices, in which air or water of lower temperature than that of PV modules is heated whilst at the same time the PV module temperature is reduced. In PV/T system applications the production of electricity is the main priority, therefore it is necessary to operate the PV modules at low temperature in order to keep PV cell electrical efficiency at a sufficient level. This requirement limits the effective operation range of the PV/T thermal unit for low temperatures, thus, the extracted heat can be used mainly for low temperature applications such as space heating and natural ventilation of buildings, and air or water preheating. Air-cooled PV/T systems have been recently applied in buildings, integrated usually on their inclined roofs or faades. By these systems building space heating needs during winter can be covered and also building overheating during summer is avoided. Water-cooled PV/T systems are practical systems for water heating, but they are not yet improved enough for widely commercial applications. Natural or forced air circulation is a simple and low cost method to remove heat from PV modules, but it is less effective at low latitudes where ambient air temperature is over 20oC for many months during the year. In BIPV applications, unless special precautions are taken, the increase of PV module temperature can result to the reduction of PV efficiency and to the increase of undesirable heat transfer to the building, mainly during summer. In air cooled hybrid PV/T systems an air channel is usually mounted at the back of the PV modules. Air of lower temperature than that of PV modules, usually ambient air, is circulating in the channel and thus both PV cooling and thermal energy collection can be achieved. Therefore, by air cooling the PV electrical efficiency is kept at a sufficient level and the thermal energy collected can be used for the building thermal needs.

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Regarding water heat extraction, the water can circulate through pipes in contact with a flat sheet, placed in thermal contact with the PV module rear surface. In PV/T systems the thermal unit for air or water heat extraction, the necessary fan or pump and the external ducts or pipes for fluid circulation constitute the complete system. To increase the system operating temperature, an additional glazing is used, but this results in a decrease of the PV module electrical output because an amount of solar radiation is reflected away, depending on the angle of incidence. Hybrid PV/T systems can be applied mainly in buildings for the production of electricity and heat and are suitable for PV applications under high values of solar radiation and ambient temperature. In these devices, water or air is circulated in thermal contact with the PV, exchanging heat (Fig. 5). When air is used, the contact with PV panels is direct, while in the case of use of fluids, the contact is made through a heat exchanger. These devices are not yet applied in an international scale and their applications until now are mostly for demonstration reasons and mainly have to do with air hybrid PV/T on the facades of buildings.

Fig. 5 Cross section of the basic PV/T experimental models for water and air heating, without and with extra transparent cover. a. PV/WATER type, b. PV/WATER + GL type, c. PV/AIR type, d. PV/AIR + GL type To the direction of developing hybrid PV/T systems, experimental models have been constructed, using water or air as the heat removal fluid (Tripanagnostopoulos et al, 2000, 2001a, 2001b, 2002a, 2002b). Hybrid PV/T using air can be applied in our country for space heating of building during winter and for cooling during summer by the creation of strong upward air stream. Water hybrid PV/T can be used in our country during the whole year, for the pre-heating of water, since the temperature of water in the water supply network is up to 20 C, even during summer months.

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Hybrid PV/T systems are appropriate for installation in buildings with thermal and electricity needs, like houses, apartment buildings, hotels, hospitals, athletic centers and industries. They can be placed on the facades, inclined or horizontal roofs of buildings instead of separate PV panels and solar thermal collectors - in a more practical utilization of the existing surfaces. Literature for PV/T systems Theoretical and experimental studies are referred to hybrid PV/T systems with air or/and water heat extraction from the PV modules. Kern and Russell (1978) present the design and performance of water and air cooled PV/T systems, while Hendrie (1979) and Florschuetz (1979) include PV/T modeling in their works. Numerical methods predicting PV/T system performance are developed by Raghuraman (1981), computer simulations are studied by Cox and Raghuraman (1985), a low cost PV/T system with transparent type a-Si cells is proposed by Lalovic et al (1986-87) and results from an applied air type PV/T system are given by Loferski et al (1988). Next years, Bhargava et al (1991), Prakash (1994), Garg and Agarwal (1995) present same aspects of a water type PV/T system and Sopian et al (1996) and Garg and Adhikari (1997) present a plenty of results regarding the effect of design and operation parameters on the performance of air type PV/T systems. Because of their easier construction and operation, hybrid PV/T systems with air heat extraction are more extensively studied, mainly as an alternative and cost effective solution to building integrated PV systems (BIPV). Following the above referred studies, test results from PV/T systems with improved air heat extraction are given by Ricaud and Roubeau (1994) and from roof integrated air-cooled PV modules by Yang et al (1994). Regarding building integrated PV/T systems Posnansky et al (1994), Ossenbrink et al (1994) and Moshfegh et al (1995) include in their works considerations and results on these systems. Later, Brinkworth et al (1997), Moshfegh and Sandberg (1998), Schroer et al (1998), Brinkworth (2000), and also Brinkworth et al (2000) present design and performance studies regarding air type building integrated hybrid PV/T systems. We also could refer the work of Eicker et al (2000) who give monitoring results from a BIPV PV/T system that operates during winter for space heating and during summer for active cooling and of Bazilian et al (2001a), who evaluate the practical use of several PV/T systems with air heat extraction in the built environment. The building integrated photovoltaics is going to be a sector of a wider PV module application and the works of Hegazy (1999), Lee et al (2001), Bazilian et al (2001b), Chow (2003) and Ito with Miura (2003) give interesting modeling results on air cooled PV modules. Water heat extraction is more expensive than air, but as water from mains remains usually under 20C in low latitude countries, which have high air temperatures during summer,
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the water heating can be used during all seasons. The liquid type hybrid PV/T systems are less studied than air type systems and the works that follow the first period of PV/T system development are the study of Bergene and Lovvik (1995) who give a detailed analysis on liquid type PV/T systems, of Hausler and Rogash (2000) with the study of a latent heat storage PV/T system, Elazari (1998), presenting the performance and economic aspects of a commercial type PV/T water heater and Kalogirou (2001), studying a PV/T water heater for the conditions of Cyprus. Later, Huang et al (2001) present an integrated PV/T system with hot water storage and Sandness and Rekstad (2002) give results for PV/T collectors with polymer absorber. Finally, the dynamic 3D and steady 3D, 2D and 1D models for PV/T prototypes with water heat extraction by Zondag et al (2002), the systems with water circulation in channels attached to PV modules, also by Zondag et al (2003), the modelling results by Chow (2003) and the study on domestic PV/T systems by Coventry and Lovegrove (2003), are some of the recent works on water cooled PV/T systems. The electrical and thermal output of hybrid PV/T systems can be increased by using reflectors of low concentration, either of flat type as presented by Sharan et al (1985), AlBaali (1986), and Garg et al (1991) or of CPC type as proposed by Garg and Adhikari (1999), Brogren et al (2000), Karlsson et al (2001) and Brogren et al (2002). Economic aspects on PV/T systems are given by Leenders et al (2000), while consideration of the environmental impact of PV modules by using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology has been been extensively used at University of Rome La Sapienza. Apart of their studies on photovoltaic systems, Frankl et al (2000) presented LCA results on the comparison of PV/T systems with standard PV and thermal systems, thus confirming the environmental advantage of PV/T systems. Study of PV/T systems Design and performance improvements of hybrid PV/T systems with water or air as heat removal fluid, have been carried out at the Physics Department of the University of Patras, Greece . The investigated models include a number of modifications that contribute to the increase of thermal efficiency, to the decrease of PV module temperature and to the improvement of the total energy output of the PV/T system. Design concepts, prototype construction and test results for water and air-cooled PV/T systems (Tripanagnostopoulos et al 2002a) are referred to PV/T systems with and without additional glass cover. A PVICS system to heat and store water (1998) and the dual type PV/T system operating either with water or air heat extraction (2001a), have been suggested as alternative PV/T systems. Regarding air type PV/T systems, experimental results with modified designs are presented in several works (2000, 2001b, 2002b). Also, results from a life cycle analysis are given (2003), where water cooled PV/T systems are compared with standard PV
15

modules and give an idea about the environmental impact of the studied systems. In addition, economic aspects and performance results for water-cooled PV/T systems that could be applied in houses, multiflat residential buildings, hotels, etc, are included in the work of Tselepis and Tripanagnostopoulos (2002). A low cost modification was investigated in University of Patras, by which satisfactory air heating, reduced PV module temperature and low increase of the opposite channel wall temperature can be achieved (Tripanagnostopoulos et al, 2000). This modification consists of a thin flat metallic sheet (TFMS) placed inside the system air channel and along the air flow, which doubles the heat exchanging surface area and reduces the heat transfer to the back side of the PV/T system. Considering PV/T solar systems installed on horizontal building roof, the parallel rows keep a distance from one to the other in order to avoid PV module shading. University of Patras investigated the use of stationary flat diffuse reflectors (Fig.6) placed between the PV modules from the higher part of the one row of them to the lower part of the next row (2001a, 2002a). This installation increases solar input on PV modules almost all year, resulting to an increase of electrical and thermal output of the PV/T systems. The diffuse reflectors differ from the specular reflectors, as they avoid the illumination differences on module surface and the reduction of the electrical efficiency, because they provide an almost uniform distribution of reflected solar radiation on PV module surface.

Fig. 6 PV/T systems with booster diffuse reflectors: a. Horizontal building roof system installation b. PV/T + REF experimental system with indication of diffuse reflected solar rays

16

We tested the PV/T models regarding the effective electrical efficiency el of it as a function of concentration ratio C . Actually the obtained value of el is rather the system performance than the system efficiency. In the steady state tests of PV/T systems with booster diffuse reflector we can use in all experiments the proper collector - reflector geometry to achieve the same effective concentration factor Ct with homogeneous illuminance of PV module surface (we take C = Ct ). The angle between the reflector and the PV module plane and the diffuse reflector must be adjusted in order to measure the total incoming solar radiation that gives a value of C (for homogeneous additional solar radiation) of about 1.35, for a net solar radiation intensity the PV module. The value

value during Summer, when the effect of the diffuse reflector on thermal and electrical performance of the PV/T system is more important and used in following tests.

C 1.35 can be considered as an approximation of a mean

850 Wm-2 on the plane of

Steady state experiments were performed during noon ( 2 hours), with systems oriented to the sun in order to ensure constant value of the incoming solar radiation intensity and using in calculations the collected data extracted from the outdoor tests under almost constant conditions. Solar radiation intensity variation must not exceed 20 Wm-2, with diffuse solar radiation up to about 25% of the total incident solar radiation, ambient air temperature variation 1 K and wind speed variation 0.5 ms-1 in the range of 1-2 ms-1. The other parameters are the incoming solar radiation G on aperture area, the aperture area A of the tested systems, the fluid mass flow rate m = dm / dt (0.02 Kgs-1), the fluid temperature rise ( To Ti ) and the fluid specific heat c p (4180 Jkg-1K-1 for water, 1007 Jkg-1K-1 for air). The steady state thermal efficiency th of the hybrid PV/T systems is calculated by the relation: th = mc p ( To Ti ) / AG . The variation of thermal efficiency th relative to the fluid input temperature Ti , the ambient temperature T and the incoming solar radiation G is determined experimentally as a function of the ratio T / G with T = Ti T . The function th = f ( T / G ) is used for the performance determination of thermal collectors. It can be also used for the hybrid PV/T systems, as the thermal part of them corresponds approximately to a thermal collector. In stagnation operation (th = 0 )we used the water heat exchanger temperature ( Twhe ) or air channel temperature ( Tair ), as the systems were operating without fluid flow. These temperatures were used to determine the corresponding ratio T / G , with T = Twhe Ta or T = Tair Ta . During the tests the PV electrical output was connected to a load, simulating real system operation. With the tested PV/T systems at thermal equilibrium under ambient conditions, we determine the values of current I m (in A) and voltage Vm (in V) at maximum power point of PV module operation from the collected I (in A), V (in V) data. The values of I m and Vm and the

17

net incoming solar radiation G are used to find the PV module electrical efficiency el for system aperture area Aa using the relation: el = I mVm / A G . In hybrid PV/T systems we can consider the total efficiency tot , which corresponds to the sum of the electrical efficiency el and the thermal efficiency th of the system, for certain operating conditions. Studying the effect of booster diffuse reflectors on the hybrid experimental models we calculated thermal and electrical efficiency from the net incoming solar radiation G on the PV module surface (without the additional solar input from the diffuse reflector). In concentrating solar devices the concentration ratio C is determined by the ratio of the system aperture area to the absorber surface area. In our work the calculation of thermal ( th ) and electrical ( el ) efficiencies is based on G and not on the amount C G , in order to get the effective values of the corresponding efficiencies, considering that the additional solar input from the reflector affects th and el rising their values by the increase of fluid output temperature To (or Twhe , Tair ) and I m , Vm respectively. The increase of system electrical and thermal output (included in the effective values of th and el ), provides a clearer comparison of the results from the tested systems with and without diffuse reflectors. The study of the experimental PV/T model (PV/WATER) with diffuse reflector includes tests with variable percentage of the additional solar radiation from the diffuse reflector, with respect to its electrical efficiency as a function of the pc-Si PV module temperature. We consider a concentration factor C that corresponds to a homogeneous increase of the incoming solar radiation on PV module surface, with value C =1 for net solar input (without additional solar radiation from the diffuse reflector) and C =1.1 for an effective 10% additional solar input, etc, up to C =1.5 for 50 % additional solar input on PV module. Higher values of factor C are not usually achieved in practice, because of the use of diffuse reflector in the collector - reflector geometry of Fig.6. Thermal performance of hybrid PV/T systems with booster diffuse reflector depends on the fluid input temperature, ambient temperature, incident net solar radiation and the concentration factor C . The aim of this work is to give comparative results, so the hybrid PV/T systems were tested under almost same incident net solar radiation G and concentration factor C , in a small range of ambient temperatures T and wind speed Vw . In practice the additional solar radiation is not uniformly distributed on PV module surface and we consider an effective concentration factor Ct that corresponds to solar radiation profile from bottom to top of PV module surface. We can calculate el for C = 1.0 to C =1.5 (with step 0.1). In Fig. 7 the results from these tests, using fitting lines for the values of el of the corresponding concentration factor C are presented. These results correspond to PV module of pc-Si type. The solar radiation from the diffuse
18

reflector affects the PV module electrical performance but in calculations we use the net solar radiation on PV module (effective nel ) to get the electrical output from the proposed combination in comparison with that without using diffuse reflector (results for C = 1 ).
0.18 0.17 C= 1.0 C= 1.2 C= 1.1 C= 1.3 C= 1.5

Electrical efficiency el

0.16 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.09 35 40 45 50 55

C= 1.4

60

65

70

PV Temperature ( C )

Fig. 7 Results of PV/T system electrical efficiency l for the diffuse reflector e C =1 to C = 1.5 (step 0.1) and for variable pc-PV module concentration factors operating temperature. The tests can be performed with concentration factor up to C = 1.5, where the obtained maximum value was an upper limit for the used type of diffuse reflector. The results of Fig. 7 show that an electrical efficiency increase of about 25% for PV operating temperature T pv = 40 C to about 35% for T pv = 70 C is achieved, comparing the effect of using stationary booster diffuse reflector with its practical possible maximum value of concentration factor ( C = 1.5) to the plain PV system ( C = 1.0). From the results of Fig. 7 we also calculate a mean electrical efficiency drop of 0.08 % per K of PV temperature increase. In Figs 8 and 9 the thermal efficiency results and in Figs 9 and 10 the electrical efficiency results give an idea about the performance of the studied hybrid pc-Si PV/T systems with water or air heat extraction and regarding the combination with additional grazing or/and diffuse reflector.

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1.0 0.9
th

PV / WATER PV / WATER +GL PV / WATER +REF PV / WATER +GL +REF

Thermal efficiency n

0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1

0.0 -0.02 -0.01 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10

/ G ( KW m )

-1

Fig. 8 Thermal efficiency results of systems PV/WATER, PV/WATER + GL, th PV/WATER + REF and PV/WATER + GL + REF, as function of T / G operating values.
1.0 0.9 PV / AIR PV / AIR +GL PV / AIR +REF PV / AIR +GL +REF

Thermal efficiency th

0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.00

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05

0.06
-1 2

0.07

0.08

0.09

0.10

/ G ( KW m )

Fig.9 Thermal efficiency results of systems PV/AIR, PV/AIR + GL, PV/AIR + REF th and PV/AIR + GL + REF, as function of T / G operating values.

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0.18 0.16

PV / WATER PV / WATER +GL PV / WATER +REF PV / WATER +GL +REF

Electrical efficiency el

0.14 0.12 0.10 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02

0.00 -0.02 -0.01 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10

/ G ( KW m )

-1

Fig.10 Electrical efficiency l results of systems PV/WATER, PV/WATER + GL, e PV/WATER + REF and PV/WATER + GL + REF, for the corresponding T / G values of Fig. 9 experiments.
0.18 PV / AIR 0.16 PV / AIR +GL PV / AIR +REF PV / AIR +GL +REF

Electrical efficiency el

0.14 0.12 0.10 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0.00 0.00

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05
-1

0.06
2

0.07

0.08

0.09

0.10

T / G ( KW m )

Fig. 11 Electrical efficiency l results of systems PV/AIR, PV/AIR + GL, PV/AIR + e REF and PV/AIR + GL + REF, for the corresponding T / G values of Fig. 11 experiments.

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The use of PV/T systems with additional glazing is interesting mainly for the increase of system thermal output, because the PV electrical efficiency is reduced or remains the same in case of using both glazing and booster diffuse reflector. The use of stationary booster diffuse reflectors with PV/T systems on horizontal building roof installations is an effective application. This combination increases PV/T system cost by 4%-5%, but results to an improvement of the electrical output (for C = 1.35) by 15%-16%. The results depend on the location of the installation and the achieved concentration factor during winter (for Patras) is low ( the operation of systems. In Spring, Summer and Autumn the corresponding concentration factor is higher (

C < 1.35), while the weather conditions are not favorable (cloudy sky) for

the favorable weather conditions during this period. The PV/T system with booster diffuse reflectors of C =1.35 can achieve a percentage increase of electrical efficiency up to 19.2 %, considering total additional cost of about 14 % to the use of plain PV modules. This is a significant improvement considering the use of stationary reflectors and the additional thermal output of the system. From the results obtained, we observe an important increase of thermal and electric energy attribution due to use of diffuse booster reflectors. The maximum thermal output for water is 75% (instead of 55% without reflectors) and for air is 60% (instead of 45%, without reflectors). In relation with temperature, for 65 C, the PV panel with reflectors produces output that reaches 13% instead of 10% of the PV without reflectors that means an increase of 30%, which is proportional to the increase of solar radiation. As far as the electricity production is concerned, this seems to show an increase of 50% for operating temperature at 65 C, given that the energy output is 15% compared to 10% of the output of the system without the reflectors. In the above calculation we do not include the additional solar radiation from the reflections, to get a better idea for the positive effect of the reflectors. The perspective of hybrid PV/T applications will have a positive contribution to the expansion of solar energy device market and PV in particular since they can offer greater utilization possibilities of PV through hybrid PV/T, without the need of a big subsidy. It is estimated that in this way, PV can become more popular, while a possible replacement of 10% of thermosiphonic collectors can lead to annual purchases from 1.0 MWp to 1.8 MWp, depending on the PV technology. This will result to the same quantity of heated water, produced by a typical thermal device, using a slightly bigger surface of PV. In this case, if we have in mind that solar energy systems are used for the reduction of electricity use, we can consider that heating water equals electric energy. Apart from this, the additional electricity produced can be provided to the grid. We can underline that the

C 1.5), resulting to an efficient operation of PV/T systems considering

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most effective production of electricity is succeeded when the PV/T operating temperature is low, and that means greater energy output but small rise of water temperature. Other aspects for PV/T systems In PV/T systems the cost of the thermal unit is the same either the PV module is crystalline-silicon (c-Si), poly-crystalline silicon (pc-Si) or amorphous-silicon (a-Si). Thus the ratio of the additional cost of the mounted thermal unit per PV module area cost is different and is almost double in case of using a-Si compared to c-Si or pc-Si PV modules. Smaller size PV and PV/T systems, using aperture surface area of about 3-5 m2 and water storage tank of 150-200 l, can be installed on one-family houses. Larger size systems of about 30-50 m2 and 1500-2000 l water storage are more suitable for multi-flat residential buildings, hotels, hospitals, industries, etc. The complete PV/T systems include the necessary additional components (Balance Of System, BOS, for the electricity and the BOS system for the heat) and therefore the final energy output is reduced by about 15% due to the electrical and thermal losses from one part to the other The European Union has set as a target that 12% of total energy and 22% of electricity will be produced by renewable sources of energy from the year 2010 on. To this direction, possible applications of solar energy systems, integrated in buildings for energy production, are studied. The facades, horizontal and inclined roofs of various buildings (houses, apartment buildings, hotels, hospitals, athletic centers etc) are appropriate surfaces for the installation of various types of solar energy collectors that could cover the energy needs in heating and electricity. Solar devices, developed in the Physics Department at the University of Patras, like the integrated collector-storage systems (ICS), the collectors with colored absorbers and the hybrid PV/T systems, can play an important role in the expansion of solar energy systems utilization, since they constitute improved systems regarding cost and aesthetic issues.

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Bazilian M., N.K. Groenhout and D. Prasad, Simplified numerical modeling and simulation of a photovoltaic heat recovery system. In Proc. 17th PV Solar Energy Conference 22-26 Oct Munich, Germany, pp 2387-2390 (2001) Bergene T. and Lovvik O.M., Model calculations on a flat-plate solar heat collector with integrated solar cells. Solar Energy 55, pp 453-462 (1995) Bhargava A.K., Garg H.P. and Agarwal R.K. Study of a hybrid solar system solar air heater combined with solar cells. Energy Convers. Mgmt. 31, pp 471-479 (1991) Brinkworth B.J., Cross B.M., Marshall R.H. and Hongxing Yang, Thermal regulation of photovoltaic cladding. Solar Energy 61, pp. 169-179 (1997) Brinkworth B.J. Estimation of flow and heat transfer for the design of PV cooling ducts. Solar Energy 69, pp 413-320 (2000) Brinkworth B.J., Marshall R.H., Ibarahim Z. A validad model of naturally ventilated PV cladding. Solar Energy 69, pp 67-81 (2000). Brogren M., Nostell P. and Karlsson B. Optical efficiency of a PV-Thermal hybrid CPC module for high latitudes. Solar Energy 69, pp 173-185 (2000) Brogren M., Karlsson B., Werner A. and Roos A. Design and evaluation of lowconcentrating, stationary, parabolic reflectors for wall-integration of water-cooled photovoltaic-thermal hybrid modules. In Proc. Int. Conf. PV in Europe 7-11 Oct. Rome, 2002; 551-555 Chow T.T., Hand J.W., Strachan P.A. Building-integrated photovoltaic and thermal applications in a subtropical hotel building. Appl.Therm. Eng. 23, pp 2035-2049 (2003) Chow T.T. Performance analysis of photovoltaic-thermal collector by explicit dynamic model. Solar Energy, 2003; 75: 143-152. Coventry J.S., Lovegrove K. Development of an approach to compare the value of electric and thermal output from a domestic PV/thermal system. Solar Energy, 2003; 75: 63-72. Cox C.H. III and Raghuraman P., Design considerations for flat - platephotovoltaic/thermal collectors. Solar Energy, Vol. 35, pp. 227-241, 1985. Eicker U., Fux V., Infield D. and Mei Li. Heating and cooling of combined PV-solar air collectors facades. In Proc. Int. Conf. 16th Europ. PV solar energy. 1-5 May Glasgow, UK, pp 1836-1839 (2000) Elazari A. Multi Solar System Solar multimodule for electrical and hot water supply for residentially building. In Proc. 2nd World Conf. On Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conversion , 6-10 July, Vienna, Austria, pp 2430-2433 (1998) Florschuetz L.W., Extention of the Hottel -Whillier model to the analysis of combined photovoltaic / thermal flat plate collectors. Solar Energy, Vol. 22, pp. 361-366, 1979. Frankl P., Gamberale M., Battisti R., Life Cycle Assessment of a PV Cogenerative System: Comparison with a Solar Thermal and a PV System. In Proc. 16th European PV Solar Energy Conf., 1-5 May, Glasgow, U.K. 2000; 1910-1913.
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Garg H.P., P.K. Agarwal and A.K. Bhargava, The effect of plane booster reflectors on the performance of a solar air heater with solar cells suitable for a solar dryer. Energy Convers. Mgmt. 32, pp. 543-554 (1991) Garg H.P. and Agarwal P.K., Some aspects of a PV/T collector/forced circulation flat plate solar water heater with solar cells. Energy Conv. Mgmt., Vol. 36, pp.87-99, 1995. Garg H.P., and R. S Adhikari, Conventional hybrid photovoltaic / thermal (PV/T) air heating collectors: steady state simulation. Renewable Energy 11, pp. 363-385 (1997) Garg H.P.,and R.S. Adhikari, Performance analysis of a hybrid photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) collector with integrated CPC troughs. Int. J. Energy Res. 23 pp. 1295-1304 (1999) Hausler T. and Rogash H., Latent heat storage of photovoltaics. In Proc. 16th Europ. PV Solar Energy Conf., 1-5 May, Glasgow, U.K. Vol III, pp 2265-2267, 2000. Hegazy A.A. Comparative study of the performances of four photovoltaic/thermal solar air collectors. Energy Convers. Mgmt 41, pp 861-881 (2000) Hendrie S.D., Evaluation of combined Photovoltaic/Thermal collectors. Proc. of Int. Conf. ISES, Atlanta, Georgia, USA, May 28 June 1, Vol.3 pp. 1865- 1869, 1979. Huang B.J. Lin T.H. Hung W.C. and Sun F.S., Performance evaluation of solar photovoltaic/thermal systems. Solar Energy, Vol. 70, pp. 443-448, 2001. Ito S. and Miura N. Usage of a DC fan together with photovoltaic modules in a solar air heating system. In Proc (CD-ROM) ISES World Congress Goteborg, Sweden, 14-19 June (2003) Kalogirou S.A., Use of TRNSYS for modelling and simulation of a hybrid PV-Thermal solar system for Cyprus. Renewable Energy, Vol. 23, pp 247-260, 2001. Karlsson B., Brogren M., Larsson S., Svensson L., Hellstrom B., Sarif Y. A large bifacial photovoltaic-thermal low-concentrating module. In Proc. 17th PV Solar Energy Conference 22-26 Oct Munich, Germany, pp 808-811 (2001) Kern E.C. Jr and Russel M.C., Combined photovoltaic and thermal hybrid collector systems. Proc. of 13th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists, Washington DC, USA, pp. 1153 1157, 1978. Lalovic B., A hybrid amorphous silicon photovoltaic and thermal solar collector. Solar Cells, Vol. 19 pp. 131-138, 1986-87. Lee W., M., Infield D.,G., Gottschalg R. Thermal modeling of building integrated PV systems In Proc. 17th PV Solar Energy Conf. Munich, 22-26 Oct pp 2754-2757 (2001) Leenders F. Shaap A.B, van der Helden B.G.C. Technology review on PV/Thermal concepts. In Proc. 16th European PV Solar Energy Conference, 1-5 May, Glasgow, U.K., 2000; pp1976-1980. Loferski J.J., Ahmad J.M. and Pandey A., Performance of photovoltaic cells incorporated into unique hybrid photovoltaic / thermal panels of a 2.8 KW residential solar energy

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