Master of Business Administration-MBA Semester I Subject Code MB0043 Subject Name Human Resource Management 4 Credits

(Book ID: B1132) Assignment Set- 2 (60 Marks)

Note: Each question carries 10 Marks. Answer all the questions.

Ques.1 Explain Wage Administration policy. What are the ways by which wages and salaries are managed in India? Ans:

Wage Administration Policy

The term compensation management, or alternatively, wage and salary administration has come to be accepted as the designation for the field of endeavor concerned with the establishment and implementation of sound policies and methods of employee compensation. It includes such areas as job evaluation, development and maintenance of wage structures, wage surveys, wage incentives, wage changes and adjustments, supplementary payments, profit sharing, control of compensation costs, and other related pay items. The term wage is commonly used for those employees whose pay is calculated according to the number of hours worked. Thus, the weekly pay check will fluctuate as the number of hours actually worked varies. The word salary applies to compensation that is uniform from one period to the next and does not depend upon the number of hours worked. Salaried often implies a status distinction, because those who are on salary are generally white collar, administrative, professional, and executive employees, whereas wage earners are designated as hourly, non-supervisory, or blue collar. Wage earners in some organizations do receive full wage if they are absent for such reasons as sickness, whereas salaried employees, especially at the lower levels, often receive overtime pay when they work over the standard work week.

The ways by which wages and salaries are managed in India.

The basic purpose of wage and salary administration is to establish and maintain an equitable wage and salary structure. Its secondary objective is the establishment and maintenance of an equitable labor cost structure i.e., an optimal balancing of conflicting personnel interests so that the satisfaction of employees and employers is maximised and conflicts are minimised. The wage and salary administration is concerned with the financial aspects of needs,

motivation and rewards. Managers, therefore, analyse and interpret the needs of their employees so that reward can be individually designed to satisfy these needs. The word 'salary' is defined in the Oxford Dictionary as fixed periodical payment to a person doing other than manual or mechanical work. The payment towards manual or mechanical work I referred to as wages. The word pay refers to the payment for services done which would include salary as well as wages. Wages are commonly understood as price of labor. In ordinary parlance, any remuneration paid for services is etymological wage. Benham defines wage as a sum of money paid under contract by an employer to a worker for services rendered. Labor was always looked upon as a commodity governed by the law of supply and demand. Certain theories were propounded for determination of wages but these could not stand the test of time. A few theories are discussed below: Subsistence theory: This theory, also known as 'Iron Law of Wages', was propounded by David Ricardo (17721823). According to this theory, wages tend to settle at a level just sufficient to maintain the workers and his family at minimum subsistence levels. The theory applies only to backward countries where laborers are extremely poor and are unable to get their share from the employers. Standard of living theory: This theory is a modified form of subsistence theory. According to this theory, wages are determined not by subsistence level but also by the standard of living to which a class of labourers becomes habituated. Residual claimant theory: Francis A. Walker (18401897) propounded this theory. According to him, there were four factors of production/ business activity viz., land, labour, capital and entrepreneurship. Wages represent the amount of value created in the production which remains after payment has been made for all these factors of production. In other words, labour is the residual claimant. The wage fund theory: According to this theory, after rent and raw materials are paid for, a definite amount remains for labour. The total wage fund and the number of workers determine the average worker's share in the form of wages. Demand and supply theory: According to this theory, wages depend upon the demand and supply of labor. Marginal productivity theory: This is an improved form of demand and supply theory. Wages are determined by the value of the net product of the marginal unit of labour employed. Purchasing power theory: According to this theory the prosperity, productivity and progress of industry depend on there being sufficient demand to ensure the sale of its products and pocketing of reasonable profits. A large part of the products of industry is consumed by workers and their families and if wages are high, demand will be good. However, if wages and the purchasing power of the workers are low, some of the goods will remain unsold Output will go down, which will result in unemployment. The bargaining theory of wages: John Davidson propounded this theory. According to him, wages are determined by the relative bargaining power of workers or trade unions and of employers. When a trade union is involved, basic wages, fringe benefits, job differentials and individual differences tend to be determined by the relative strength of the organization and the trade union. The Tribunals and Wage Boards have generally followed the principles laid down in the Fair Wages

Committee's Report on fixing wages. The Committee, in its report, has given a considerable thought to wage differentials and has stated that the following factors should be taken into consideration for fixation of wages: 1. The degree of skill. 2. The strain of work. 3. The experience involved. 4. The training involved. 5. The responsibility undertaken. 6. The mental and physical requirements. 7. The disagreeableness of the task. 8. The hazard attendant on the work, and 9. The fatigue involved.

Ques.2 Texas is a medium size, plastic manufacturing company. In this Company, workers have developed grievances against management. For past 2 years, in spite of making Profit, Company is not paying bonus to the workers. It is expected that, if the grievances are not dealt, it might lead to severe consequences. Imagine this situation and explain the grievance handling procedure, list each steps of the procedure. Suggest few measures to avoid grievances.

Ans.

Grievances Meanings

The definition of a grievance often varies from company to company and from author to author. The broadest interpretation of the term would include any discontent or dissatisfaction that affects organizational performance. As such, it can be stated or unvoiced, written or oral, legitimate or ridiculous. The only major restriction in this definition is that the discontent must affect worker performance. The word grievance is used commonly to indicate various forms and stages of an employees dissatisfaction. It means either dissatisfaction or a complaint or a grievance. While dissatisfaction could be defined as anything that disturbs an employee, a complaint is spoken or written dissatisfaction brought to the attention of the supervisor or his immediate head. In the language of the labour management relations, a grievance is a complaint formally presented by the employee or employees to the management. Dale Yoder defines it as "a written complaint filed by an employee and claiming unfair treatment". Prof. Jucious defines grievance as any discontent or dissatisfaction, whether expressed or not and whether valid or not, arising out of anything connected with the company that an employee thinks, believes or even feels unfair, unjust or inequitable. Prof. Pigors and Meyers define grievance as dissatisfaction. According to them, dissatisfaction of an employee is anything that disturbs the employee, whether expressed or not. The International Labour

Organization (ILO) classifies a grievance as a complaint of one or more workers with respect to wages and allowances, conditions of work, interpretations of service stipulations, covering such areas as overtime, leave, transfer, promotion, seniority, job assignment and termination of service. The National Commission of Labour states that complaints affecting one or more individual workers in respect of their wage payments, overtime, leave, transfer, promotion, seniority, work assignment, and discharges would constitute grievances. The Grievance Handling Procedure Principles suggested by the Indian Institute of Personnel Management for addressing the grievance are as follows: a) A grievance should be dealt within the limits of the first line supervisor. b) The appellate authority should be made clear to the employee so that if he cannot get satisfaction from his immediate supervisor, he should know the next step. c) The grievance should be dealt with speedily. d) In establishing a grievance procedure, if the grievance is against an instruction given by a superior in the interest of order and discipline, the instructions must be carried out first and then only employee can register his protest. Grievance Handling Procedure Initial step The greatest opportunity for the settlement of a complaint or grievance lies in the initial step of the procedure. If there is no formal procedure and the firm announces an open door policy, then it is possible that the supervisor may get bypassed by the worker who would take his grievance directly to the higher levels of management. But such bypassing not merely undermines the supervisors authority, which loses face, but also creates an atmosphere of win or lose in which both the worker and supervisor will try to prove the other wrong. Intermediate step As the figure indicates, the next step on the management side of the procedure is to submit the dispute to middle management. Involving the supervisors middle and senior line managers in the grievance process helps in two ways. Initially, the social barriers between the various categories are, to some extent, broken by personal contact and mutual understanding. Secondly, the problem solving approach integrates the various levels in the organization into a team to jointly overcome the problem which concerns not only the worker but the manager as well. However, it is important to ensure that the line management assumes prime responsibility for the settlement of a grievance. In many organizations, the Personnel Department is injected into the procedure as a decision making power. On the union side, intermediate levels are represented by higher personnel in the union hierarchy. In most of the organizations, the business agent, a fulltime

negotiations specialist of the union, takes over the intermediate and sometimes the final step. The presence of a business agent may explain why management is often out man oeuvre by the union. Business agents are specialists in union management negotiations, and it is also their fulltime job. The line manager often considers grievance processing a minor, incidental, and distasteful duty. This lack of specialization and interest on the part of line management has led to the situation in which the staff personnel department is given authority to make decisions about grievances. Final Company union step Usually, the final step to be undertaken by the company and union is a discussion of the grievance between representatives of top management and top union officials. For management, it may be the President in important grievances, a Vice-president, or a high level Industrial Relations Executive but, for the union, it may be the President of the local union, the Union Executive Committee, or a representative of the International Union. It is difficult to secure an integration of interests at this high level.
Few measures to avoid grievances:-

Grievances arise due to various factors. It is important from the point of view of the manager to know the root cause of the employee's dissatisfaction. A grievance is always a symbol of some malfunctioning or maladjustment and an able and skilful manager can always find out the real or submerged reasons for a grievance. Several studies have been conducted in various establishments and it has been generally found that causes of employee grievances could be grouped under different major headings. Some of the causes that need to be considered are avoiding grievances:1. Promotions 2. Amenities 3. Continuity of Services 4. Compensation 5. Disciplinary action 6. Fines 7. Increments 8. Wages 9. Acting Promotion 10. Recovery of dues 11. Safety appliance 12. Superannuation 13. Supersession 14. Transfer 15. Victimization And 16. Conditions of work.

Ques.3 Define competency. How competency is linked to Human resource system? Ans:

Meaning of competency

A competency is an underlying characteristic of a person/organization which enables to deliver performance in a given job, role or a situation1. Thus the performance of an organization or an individual will depend on the relevant competencies they possess and higher the level of competencies, superior will be the performance. Competencies allow focus process-How things are done? not simply on outcomes.

Classification of competencies
Competencies can be broadly classified into three categories namely organizational competencies, job related competencies and personal competencies. Organizational competencies are unique factors that make an organization competitive. According to C.K.Prahlad and Hamel who wrote the famous book Competing in the future, organizational competencies- a) Provide potential access to a wide variety of markets b) Make a significant contribution to perceived customer benefits of the end product c) Are difficult for competitors to imitate.2Organizations need to focus their efforts in the area of their competencies and strengthen them and outsource the other activities. This is very important as these competencies are fundamental to the success of the organization. Some of the examples for organizational competencies include Sonyminiaturization, Phillips-optical media, Honda-engines, and Intelmicrochip. Job related competencies are those competencies which are required for performing a specific job. These are the competencies someone must demonstrate to be effective in his job/role, task or duty. Thus these competencies are job or role specific and vary from job to job. A competency model can be used to develop specific job related competencies and come out with a competency dictionary. These competencies are organization specific as roles and responsibilities may vary from organization to organization even though the job title may be the same. Job related competencies may become the criteria for most of the HR functions like selection, Training and development, performance appraisal, compensation etc. Personal competencies are aspects of an individual they include the abilities of individuals to perform the activities within an occupation or function to the standard expected in employment. It includes the various behavioral competencies apart from the knowledge and skill level of an individual. These competencies include. Personal competencies like developing oneself, taking initiative, delivering results, showing commitment, and adaptability. b. Interpersonal competencies like influencing, relationship building, advising, team orientation, service orientation, cultural awareness, communication, and openness. c. Information oriented competencies like strategic thinking, business understanding, conceptualizing, innovation, processing, analyzing and

comprehending. d. People management competencies like leadership, directing, building teams, facilitating performance, motivating, guiding people, and transferring knowledge.
How competency is linked to Human resource system? The four steps may be for competency linked to Human resource system:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Developing a Competency model Competency Mapping Linking Competencies to Compensating factors Designing compensation on the basis of actual competencies

Developing a competency model

The basic need for a competency based compensation management is a competency model. A competency model is one which identifies the various competencies required for performing a job and describing these competencies in the form of indicators, which can be quantified. Each competency can be quantified on a scale on the basis of its relative importance with respect to each job. This serves as a reference for all competency management activities in the organization. Competency model is organization specific as each organization may have its own way of defining and quantifying competencies and competencies may be unique for each organization. We have been working with few organizations on issues related to competency management and this paper is based on the experience in developing the competency model and its applications. We adopted following procedure to develop standard competencies. 1. We started with job/role analysis to identify the competencies require to perform the job. Job descriptions and job specifications can throw a light on competency requirements for satisfactory performance of the duties and responsibilities, which are listed in them. If these are not available then job analysis is to be carried out. This gives us the preliminary list of job specific competencies. 2. Job holders and immediate superiors may have better understanding of the jobs and thus they can easily identify the critical competencies. Thus we gathered further information with discussions and brainstorming sessions involving them. This helped us in refining the list of preliminary competencies developed in the first step. .

Competency Mapping

Once the dictionary is ready, then the actual mapping process needs to be carried out. To do the mapping, the following steps were followed by us in mapping out competencies: 1. A structured questionnaire was designed for the employee and his immediate superior. The same questionnaire is administered to both for

getting the rating. 2. The employee whose competency is to be mapped is asked to rate his/her own competency level in the questionnaire. 3. The immediate superiors ratings of the employee are also collected in the same way. 4. A weighted average of the ratings is computed to get the final score. 70% weight was given to the superiors rating and 30% to the employees self rating.

Linking the Competencies to Compensation Factors

The next step in the competency based compensation model is to link the compensation to competency mapping ratings of the employee. This is done so by computing the Compensation Factor which is defined as the weighted average of the competency ratings an employee has obtained. This compensation factor can then be used to design compensation strategies according to the organizations compensation policy. It can also be used to fine tune the policy and adjust for internal and external equities which are explored in the sections given below. Further computations and adjustments might be required to the compensation factor depending on situations, which will be explained as and when those situations are taken up for discussion. Computing the Compensation Factor F: Let us assume that for a given level of employees m competencies have been identified. Let xp, where p = 1 to m represent the average criticality ratings of each of the competencies identified. Let the matrix C, of the order 1 X m, represent the row vector of criticality ratings of competencies. Let yij, where i = 1 to m and j = 1 to n, m is the number of competencies and n is the number of employees, represent the competence rating exhibited by jth employee on ith competence. Let the matrix R, of the order m X n, represent the vector of employee ratings on each competency where m is the number of competencies and n is the number of employees. Since competencies vary across organizational units like departments or hierarchical levels, the number n typically represents the number of employees in a given unit. Let Cp where p = 1 to m represent the sum of the criticality ratings. Let the matrix F of the order 1 X n represent the row vector of each employees compensation factor. Then we can say that F 1 X n = (1/Cp )* C 1 X m * R m X n --------------------- (1) The above equation actually gives out the compensation factors, which are the weighted average of the employees ratings. The row vector F can now be used to design the compensation packages of the employees of the unit and/or the hierarchical level. The next section uses this model to demonstrate how various compensation packages can be designed using the compensation factor vector.

Designing Compensation Packages:

The compensation models vary across organizations. Two typical cases are very frequent. First is the case where the organization makes changes to the Basic salary component of the employee. Next is the case where the organization does not change the basic frequently, but has an Incentive component to reward performances of employees which are highly satisfactory. Below we explore both the cases sufficiently and provide illustrations with the help of live data wherever necessary. It must be noted that while the competency mapping data is live, several assumptions and adjustments have been made to the compensation data, to keep the Non-Disclosure Agreement sacred.

Ques.4 Think of a situation in which an employee is to be dismissed from the organization, what will be the fair steps of dismissal followed by the organization?

Ans: Dismissal and Discharge of an Employee According to Article 311 of the Indian Constitution, which says that no person shall be dismissed or removed from service until he has been given a reasonable opportunity to show cause as to why the proposed action should not be taken against him?" The Model Standing Orders, too, lay down that, "before an employee is dismissed, he should be given an opportunity to explain the circumstances against him." The following steps are followed for dismissal of an employee: a) Charge Sheet is Framed and Issued: The first step in the procedure is to frame a written charge sheet which is based upon a written complaint against the employee in question, and which contains details of the offence with which he is charged and the allegation of misconduct made against him, and indicating the time limit within which a reply to the charge sheet should be submitted to the authorities. The employee is called upon to show because why a disciplinary action should not be taken against him. The contents and implications of the charge sheet may be explained to him in his own language and in the presence of some reputable witness, before a copy of it is handed over to him. If he refuses to accept it, it should be sent to his residential address "registered post with

acknowledgement due". If the employee refuses to take delivery of the registered letter, or when it has been returned undelivered, it should be published in a local paper to ensure its wide publicity. b) Receipt of Explanation: The employee may submit his explanation within the prescribed period of time, or he may ask for an extension of time for its submission. In the latter case, the request should be considered in good faith in accordance with the rules of natural justice. c) Issue of Notice of Enquiry: If the explanation is received from the employee is found to be unsatisfactory, a notice of enquiry, mentioning the time, date and place, has to be given to him in which the name of the person or officer who would conduct the enquiry would also be mentioned. The employee is required to be present at the appointed time and place, together with his witness, if he has any. d) The Holding of Enquiry: On the appointed day and at the appointed place and time, the enquiry is held by the Enquiry Officer in the presence of the employee. The contents of the charge sheet and an explanation of the procedure to be followed at the enquiry are communicated to the worker. If he pleads his innocence, the enquiry proceeds but if he pleads guilty, unconditionally and in writing, the enquiry is dropped. e) The Findings: Once the enquiry is over, the Enquiry Officer has to give his findings, which should invariably contain the procedure which was followed, the partys statements, the documents produced and examined, the charges made and the explanations given and the evidence produced. The officer should then record his own findings on each of the charges and the grounds on which he has come to a particular conclusion. He should specifically mention which charges have been proved and which have not been proved. He then submits his findings to the authorities empowered to take a disciplinary action against the employee. He, however, is not required to make any recommendations. a) On receiving the report, the executive authorized to take a decision thereon passes an order of punishment. b) Communication of the order: A copy of the orders is then handed over to the employee. Discharge of an Employee The following conditions must necessarily be satisfied before an employee is discharged from service by way of punishment for misconduct. a) The misconduct of the employee is of such a nature as to indicate that his discharge or dismissal would be an appropriate punishment and that this kind of punishment has been provided in the Standing Orders. b) An enquiry must be held by the employer into the misconduct which an employee has been charged with. This enquiry should be held only after a charge sheet has been preferred against him, and he has been given due notice of the time, place and date of enquiry. c) The officer should be held in such a manner as to ensure that it would

be fair and proper and in conformity with the principles of natural justice. The worker must be given an adequate opportunity to defend himself and to present witness in support of his contention or case. d) The officer holding the enquiry should not be one who may be disqualified on the ground of bias, personal interest, or on the ground of his having been on eye witness to the misconduct with which the employee is charged. e) At the conclusion of the enquiry, the findings, based on recorded evidence, should be recorded by the enquiry officer. f) The findings must necessarily be based on recorded evidence and should not be perverse. g) The order of dismissal or discharge against the employee must be passed in good faith. h) The order must be duly communicated to the employee against who it has been passed.

Ques.5 Suggest few measures to improve employee morale. Ans:

Measurement of Employee Morale

Signs of low morale are generally not noticed till it is obviously, low or when something goes amiss. By the time the management recognizes the fact that morale has deteriorated, it is faced with one crisis or another. Perceptive managers are, therefore, constantly on the lookout for clues to any deterioration in the morale of the employees. Dale Yoder and others pointed out the following as signals of low morale: 1. Employee unrest. 2. High rate of absenteeism. 3. Tardiness. 4. High employee turnover.

5. Grievances. 6. Need for discipline 7. Fatigue and monotony.

Improving Morale
There are a number of measures which can be used to control the warning signals of low morale. The following are the positive measures to be taken to bring job satisfaction to the employees and reconcile individual interests with the interests of the organization. 1. Creation of whole jobs. 2. Job enrichment. 3. Building responsibility into a job. 4. Modifying the work environment. 5. Flexing working hours. 6. Job sharing. 7. Rotation of jobs. 8. Profit sharing. Morale can also be improved by adapting several other measures such as employee contest, special recognition and awards to long service employees, film shows to employees during their lunch hour, free coffee during rest pauses, and training the supervisors in how to handle people. 1. Under this method, complete jobs are assigned to the workers. The complexity of a job should be increased so that it may appeal to their higher needs. 2. Job enrichment tries to deal with dissatisfaction by increasing job depth. Under this, individual employees may be given responsibility for setting their own work pace, for concerning their own errors, and/or for deciding on the best way to perform a particular task. 3. Employees should be encouraged to take risk decision. 4. This can be achieved by: i) Developing work groups ii) Developing the social contacts of the employees iii) The use of music iv) Regular rest breaks. 5. Flex time permits employees to arrange their work hours to suit their personal needs and lifestyles. This is particularly suited to situations with fluctuating workloads. Flex time employees are responsible for coordinating their functions with other employees and thereby have more responsibility and autonomy. 6. Two workers divide a fulltime job between themselves splitting not only the hours of work but also the salary. 7. This reduces employee's boredom which arises out of the monotonous nature of his work. 8. Morale can be improved by effective profit sharing schemes. In addition to its economic aspects, profit sharing has also psychological aspects relating to friendly move by the management in providing the workers an opportunity to participate in the profits.

Ques.6 Explain Victor Vrooms Expectancy theory of motivation.

Ans: Motivation

The personnel function is really all about motivation. It is agreed that unless individuals are motivated to make sufficient potential to perform effectively, they may not achieve the level of performance that is desired from them. Managerial people are always facing the problems of motivating their subordinates to release their potential most effectively and thereby permit the desired goals of the organization and the needs of employees to be achieved. Knowledge of the motivational process provides the basis for understanding why people do what they do. Motivation is positively correlated with concepts of (1) level of aspiration, (2) degree of commitment, and (3) inclination towards action. It is rightly said, "You can buy a man's time, you can buy a man's physical presence at a given place, but you cannot buy his enthusiasm, initiative and loyalty." Motivation aims at transforming the ability to do into the will to do. Motivated employees are in a state of tension. To relieve this tension, they engage in activity. The greater the tension, the greater shall be the activity to bring about relief.
Victor Vrooms Expectancy theory of motivation

The expectancy theory of motivation is suggested by Victor Vroom. Unlike Maslow and Herzberg, Vroom does not concentrate on needs, but rather focuses on outcomes.

Whereas Maslow and Herzberg look at the relationship between internal needs and the resulting effort expended to fulfill them, Vroom separates effort (which arises from motivation), performance, and outcomes. Vroom, hypothesises that in order for a person to be motivated that effort, performance and motivation must be linked. He proposes three variables to account for this, which he calls Valence, Expectancy and Instrumentality. Expectancy is the belief that increased effort will lead to increased performance i.e. if I work harder then this will be better. This is affected by such things as:

Having the right resources available (e.g. raw materials, time) Having the right skills to do the job Having the necessary support to get the job done (e.g. supervisor support, or correct information on the job)

Instrumentality is the belief that if you perform well that a valued outcome will be received i.e. if I do a good job, there is something in it for me. This is affected by such things as: Clear understanding of the relationship between performance and outcomes e.g. the rules of the reward game Trust in the people who will take the decisions on who gets what outcome Transparency of the process that decides who gets what outcome

Valence is the importance that the individual places upon the expected outcome. For example, if I am mainly motivated by money, I might not value offers of additional time off. Having examined these links, the idea is that the individual then changes their level of effort according to the value they place on the outcomes they receive from the process and on their perception of the strength of the links between effort and outcome. So, if I perceive that any one of these is true: My increased effort will not increase my performance My increased performance will not increase my rewards I dont value the rewards on offer

...then Vrooms expectancy theory suggests that this individual will not be motivated. This means that even if an organization achieves two out of three, that employees would still not be motivated, all three are required for positive motivation. Here there is also a useful link to the Equity theory of motivation: namely that people will also compare outcomes for themselves with others. Equity theory suggests that people will alter the level of effort they put in to make it fair compared to others according to their perceptions. So if we got the same raise this year, but I think you put in a lot less effort, this theory suggests that I would scale back the effort I put in. Crucially, Expectancy theory works on perceptions so even if an employer thinks they have provided everything appropriate for motivation, and even if this works with most people in that organisation it doesnt mean that someone wont perceive that it doesnt work for them. At first glance this theory would seem most applicable to a traditional-attitude work situation where how motivated the employee is depends on whether they want the reward

on offer for doing a good job and whether they believe more effort will lead to that reward. However, it could equally apply to any situation where someone does something because they expect a certain outcome. For example, I recycle paper because I think it's important to conserve resources and take a stand on environmental issues (valence); I think that the more effort I put into recycling the more paper I will recycle (expectancy); and I think that the more paper I recycle then less resources will be used (instrumentality) Thus, this theory of motivation is not about self-interest in rewards but about the associations people make towards expected outcomes and the contribution they feel they can make towards those outcomes. Other theories, in my opinion, do not allow for the same degree of individuality between people. This model takes into account individual perceptions and thus personal histories, allowing a richness of response not obvious in Maslow or McClelland, who assume that people are essentially all the same. Expectancy theory could also be overlaid over another theory (e.g. Maslow). Maslow could be used to describe which outcomes people are motivated by and Vroom to describe whether they will act based upon their experience and expectations.