TATA INSTITUTE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES SCHOOL OF HEALTH SYSTEMS STUDIES

COURSE TITLE: SFC-4 Research Methodology II

(Qualitative Methods)

COURSE TEACHER: Dr. Rajshri Mahtani

NO. OF ASSIGNMENTS: 1

LAST DATE OF SUBMISSION: 8 Oct. 2010

STUDENTS ENROLLMENT NO. 2010HO019

INDEX 1. QUESTION 1 2. QUESTION 2 3. QUESTION 3 4. QUESTION 4 5. QUESTION 5 3 7 11 13 17

1. CHARECTERSTICS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY
There are six characteristics of QLR as follows:
I.

II.

III.

IV.

V.

VI.

Purpose of qualitative research is to understand the meaning of subject of study and not focus on its frequency occurrence: Here we need to understand the meaning of subject of our research without considering the frequency of occurrence of that subject. Purpose of qualitative research is inductive in nature so as to reduce the gap between theory and data: There are two types of gaps GAP 1 where there is no existing theory GAP-2 where there is existing theory but do not apply in context of field reality. We will use induction method to reduce these gaps. In order for induction to succeed the gap between the researcher and research must be reduced: In order to achieve the goals of induction data must interpret field reality by generic process which is non-hierarchical and facilitative relationship. Every qualitative research will have multiple stakeholders and multiple methods of data collection: Multiple stakeholders will come up with multiple perceptions which will give us non-hierarchical data. If all the four characteristics are fulfilled then the nature of data is voluminous, narrative and textured. : This characteristic gives us the knowledge building steps 1) Analyzed to identify the domain of the subject of study 2) Patterns in the domain of subject of study 3) Process of subject of study 4) Explanations for the subject of study. The process of qualitative research is iterated and not linear on the basis of saturation so as to respond appropriately to filed reality: This iteration is done till the saturation stage is achieved through the principles of divergence.

LINKAGE BETWEEN CHARACTERISTICS

CH I

CH V
CH VI CH II

CH IV
CH III

LINKAGES BETWEEN CHARACTERSTICS, ASSUMPTIONS, VALUES AND PROCESS MODEL

Characteristics of qualitative research methodology Assumptions of qualitative research methodology Values of qualitative research methodology Process model of qualitative research methodology Example

I Purpose of qualitative research is to understand the meaning of subject of study and not focus on its frequency occurrence

II Purpose of qualitative research is inductive in nature so as to reduce the gap between theory and data

III In order for induction to succeed the gap between the researcher and researched must be reduced

IV V VI Every If all the four The process of qualitative characteristics qualitative research will are fulfilled research is have multiple then the iterated and not stakeholders nature of data linear on the and multiple is voluminous, basis of methods of narrative and saturation so as data textured to respond collection appropriately to filed reality

I Meaning is a result of subjective experience (es).

IV Knowledge is shaped by the lines of enquiry and by the context of study

III, V Give up your normative stance and instead adopt an interpretive position The researcher is perceived as an instrument that uncovers the field reality I, III, IV Non hierarchical Interpretive Striving for equidistance III Development of a working design research strategy, choice of sample, choice of method of data collection and choice of analysis techniques VII Exploration and divergence

II The only way to know the subjective meaning is through the dual process of understanding how meaning is created and enacted II, VI Nonnormative Reflection

V Witnessing the self

I Begins with research concern not necessarily located in theory

II Conceptualizatio n of the research concern use of conceptual mapping technique

IV Data collection through from multiple stake holders and multiple methods

V Data analysis focusing on knowledge generation

VI Development of grounded field based theory

If one is studying increased violence in young blood he/she will be analyzing all young persons irrespective of how many times they created nuisance. Here we are focusing on increased violence (meaning of subject of study) and not the no. of times he/she created crime (freq. of occurrence).

Researcher would be doing conceptualization to get the lines of enquiry which will be used to get information about the subject of study. E.g. what are the reasons of violence, what type of violence, who are indulging in violence etc. There are some theories about the subject but are not relevant to the present context as the scenario is changing rapidly. So Gap II will be filled by this research.

While collecting data he/she will be nonhierarchical, interpretive and should be equidistance so as to reduce the gap between the researcher and the researched. Researcher will choose young persons of age 16 to 28 as primary stake holders and their parents, teachers, peers, neighbours, colleagues etc. as secondary stake holders and will conduct unstructured interview, focus group discussions or life history method to collect data.

Multiple stake holders and multiple methods of data collection as mentioned in third characteristic will be used to explore the data through principles of divergence.

Data collected by above method will be layered and will give one that much knowledge which will be reflecting the meaning of subject of study helpful for building the hypothesis.

All the above methods will be done carefully until saturation is achieved i.e. till no more new data can be collected. After collecting the data, it is analyzed to develop grounded field based theory corresponding field reality.

2. Conceptualization
a) It can provide a strategy to deal with the methodological challenges of qualitative research. A concept map can be used to frame a research project, reduce qualitative data, analyze themes and interconnections in a study, and present findings. A concept map is a schematic device for representing a set of concept meanings embedded in a framework of propositions (Novak 1998) Conceptualization is done using theory, field and self experience which integrates diverse stream of knowledge. Conceptual map is a diagram which represents the text. Text explains the map. i) SUBJECT OF STUDY: Stress in 1st year MASTER DEGREE students of TISS Mumbai. ii) RESEARCH CONCERN: What are the causes of stress in 1st year MASTER DEGREE students and what are their effects on them. iii) CONCEPTUAL MAP:

CONCEPTUAL MAP
BEHAVIOURAL EFFECTS y Isolation y Defensive behavior y Panic y Violence y Self-destruction y Weeping y Competitive behavior

WHAT

WHAT

PHYSICAL EFFECTS y Breathlessness y Chronic headache y Sleeplessness y Loss of appetite y Chest pain y Nausea y Palpitation y Fever y Increased susceptibility to acute infections

WHAT

WHO
WHAT WHAT

WHAT

DEMOGRAPHICAL PROFILE OF THE STUDENT

y y y WHAT y y WHAT SCHOOL OF HEALTH SYATEM STUDIES(SHSS) SCHOOL OF SOCIAL WORK(SSW) SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES(SSS) SCHOOL OF MANAGEMENT AND LABOUR STUDIES(SMLS) SCHOOL OF HABITAT STUDIES(SHS)

SOCIAL EFFECTS
y WHAT Drug abuse

Isolation

y y

WHAT

MENTAL EFFECTS y Worry y Fear y Anxiety y Apprehensi on y Depression y Jealous

Jamsetji Tata Centre For Disaster Management(DM) Centre for Media and Cultural Studies(CMCS)

HOW

WHY WHAT WHAT

INTELLECTUAL EFFECTS WHAT

Academic performance

SOURCES OF STRESS y Exam pressure y Difficulty in adjustment y Problems with staff (academic or non academic) y Problem with peers y Problem with roommates y Family problem y Dinning facilities y Hostel facilities y Long academic hours 8 y Pattern of course outline

TEXT STRESS:Stress is the body's reaction to a change that requires a physical, mental or emotional adjustment or response. Stress can come from any situation or thought that makes you feel frustrated, angry, nervous, or anxious. Stress is caused by an existing stress-causing factor or "stressor." So, we want to find out the sources and effects of stress in 1st year master degree student of Tata Institute of Social Sciences Mumbai of the following schools and centers:SCHOOL OF HEALTH SYATEM STUDIES (SHSS) SCHOOL OF SOCIAL WORK (SSW) SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES (SSS) SCHOOL OF MANAGEMENT AND LABOUR STUDIES (SMLS) SCHOOL OF HABITAT STUDIES (SHS) Jamsetji Tata Centre For Disaster Management (DM) Centre for Media and Cultural Studies (CMCS) These are the students who are vulnerable to stress due to difficulty in adjustment, new environment, hostel facilities, dining facilities, roommates. Stress can occur due to problem with staff (academic or nonacademic), peers, family problems. Academic reasons for stress can be long academic hours, course pattern or exam pressure. This all can lead to physical, social, mental, intellectual, behavioral symptoms of stress. Physical symptoms are Breathlessness, Chronic headache, Sleeplessness, Loss of appetite, Chest pain, Nausea, Palpitation, Fever, Increased susceptibility to acute infections. Mental are Worry, Fear, Anxiety, Apprehension, Depression, and Jealous. Social are Drug abuse, Isolation. Intellectual are Academic performance, Presentation Skills etc. Behavioral effects are Isolation, Defensive behavior, Panic, Violence, Self-destruction, Weeping, Competitive behavior. These all are inter-related to each other, can occur simultaneously or can also come after one another. b) i) RESEARCH OBJECTIVES y To identify the sources of stress. y To explore the reasons of stress. y To understand the effects of stress. y To study the effects of stress. ii) FOCUS OF RESEACH STUDY Stress in 1st year master degree students of TISS Mumbai. iii) TITLE A study of effects of stress on 1st year master degree students of TISS Mumbai. iv) AREA OF STUDY
9

Research area will be Tata Institute of Social Sciences Deonar Mumbai. v) LINES OF INQUIRY y Who are the students under stress? y Why they are under stress? y How the stress is occurring? y What are the effects of stress? c) WHY QUALITATIVE RESEARCH? Stress is a state which is not quantified. It can only be studied through qualitative research methodology. Moreover we do not want to find out the number of students undergoing stress rather we want to study the reasons and effects of stress. So we used qualitative research methodology. e.g. we can conduct focus group discussions/in-depth unstructured interview with hostellers about the hostel and food facilities etc. Likewise in-depth unstructured can be conducted with day scholars to know the problem they are facing in travelling. We can conduct focus group discussions about the problems regarding academics. By using these methods of data collection we will reach saturation through principles of divergence.

10

3. THEORETICAL SAMPLING
This was developed by Glaser and Strauss in 1967. They described it as: Theoretical sampling is a process of data collection for generating theory whereby the analyst jointly collects, codes, and analyzes his data and decides what data to collect next and where to find them, in order to develop his theory as it emerges. This process of data collection is controlled by the emerging theory. In theoretical sampling, we select individuals, groups, and so on according to their expected level of new insights further developing theory in relation to the state of theory elaboration so far. Sampling decisions aim at the material that promises the greater insights viewed in the light of the material already used and the knowledge drawn from it. The possibilities of multiple comparisons are infinite, and so group must be chosen according to theoretical criteria. (Glaser and Strauss 1967)

How to use theoretical sampling in qualitative research methodology Theoretical sampling begins with the defining the context of study which has six dimensions as follows: 1) Geographical dimension 2) Time dimension : contemporary or evolutionary 3) Economic dimension : income or purchasing power of certain economic groups 4) Social dimension : i) caste ii) class iii) religion iv) ethnicity v) gender vi) age vii) culture viii) language etc. 5) Political dimension 6) Psychological dimension Defining the context of study help us to identify, choose and then select our specific research setting. This is the first time we identify our primary stake holder/holders. On the basis of primary stake holder we go on identifying our secondary stake holders that are associated with primary stake holders and then engaging into the process of sample selection through the principles of divergence and saturation. Divergence It includes every possible element of range and eliminates repetitions. Saturation It is the state of achieving no gap between concepts and field reality by divergence. 1. Context of Study
11

Mental condition of care givers of dementia patients a) Geographical Dimension Patients of Dr. Kartik Rao Hospital Andheri b) Time Dimension Recorded patients of year 2008-2009 c) Socio-economic Dimension All socio-economic status 2. Research Setting We will go to Dr. Kartik Rao hospital to get the list of patients who were registered with the hospital during year 2008-2009. From there we will identify the caregivers of the dementia patients which will be our primary stake holders. From the primary stake holders we will identify secondary stake holders i.e. who others in the family or relatives or neighborhood or friends or colleagues of the primary stake holders. We can include hospital staff also (medical or nonmedical with which caregivers interact). We will conduct unstructured personal interviews with all the stake holders because we are dealing with mental condition of care givers of dementia patient. For this focus group interview cannot be conducted. Through this unstructured interview we will reach saturation through principles of divergence.

12

4) a) Indepth unstructured interview This is an individual data collection method used in qualitative research methodology. It involves one to one interaction between the researcher and the researched. This is an nstructured process as there is no specification of questions asked or order of the questions or structure of the questions. Only general nature of the questions are in mind related to the research topic. Theres no time limit for the interview. Data is collected from an individual as a unit of analysis. Why we use it? To understand the individual perception, opinion, attitude, behavior, reasoning, values, beliefs etc. about a certain issue. How to use it? 1. It is like a natural conversation in which questions are asked spontaneously. 2. Multiple sessions of interview are conducted. 1st interview should star t with small introduction and 2nd should begin with polite recognition and appreciation of 1st. 3. There should be equitable distance between all stake holders to reduce bias. 4. Two techniques are used:i. Funneling ii. Ladder Funneling:Starting from broad perspective and narrowing down to research concern is known as funneling. This technique should be used for sensitive issues. Laddering:Used for insensitive issues when your conceptual map is structured with parallel satic map with no more lines of inquiry. After every interview MEMOING should be done to identify data gap and inconsistency. This data gap is to be filled in next interview. Advantages:1. This type of data collection demonstrates that success in itself is empowering. In this interview oppressed are liberated to behave like an oppressor. It is a continuous process of action and reflection and action and reflection and so on.value of witnessing the self. 2. Questions allow divergence and exploration. 3. All values put into action and demonstrate non- hierarchy in this type of interview 4. Helpful in exploring in an unrestricted manner. 5. Finding the interest of the respondent in a specific aspect of the issue. e.g.for knowing the behavior of pregnant women towards ante-natal care we can conduct unstructured interview. This not only will give us her own beliefs and opinions about check-ups in pregnancy but also the influence of other stake holders (family members) on her check-ups. This method will be best suited for knowing behavior of pregnant women as she may be reluctant to answer in front of her family members but in individual interview she might reveal. So we will conduct an individual unstructured interview with a pregnant woman to know her behavior about her health check-ups.
13

b). Focus Group Discussion This is a method which originated from market research into social sciences and to health sciences. It is a group based method of data collection. This technique is used to understand individuals opinion, behavior, perception etc. in context of groups opinion and behavior i.e. 1. To study the participants' perceptions, feelings, and attitudes towards the subject of study 2. To place the above within the context of group interaction and group influence. 3. To understand the thought processes used by participants as they consider the issues discussed. 4. To discover how shifts in opinions occur and the factors influencing them. It acknowledges the researchers active role in creating the group discussion for data collection purposes in a permissive, non-threatening environment. Structure of FGD y Participant selection 1. 2. 3. 4. y Typically composed of 7-15 participants. It is an artificial group of participants who are unfamiliar with each other, But who have terrain, characteristics in common that relate to the topic of the study; Selected on specific criteria based on the subject of study.

Role of facilitator & observer This is the only qualitative research method which requires a guide as all other methods require a higher degree of flexibility so no guide is necessary. Role of the facilitator (moderator) is 1. All participants should be prepared for the FGDs before hand. 2. Participants are invited to "discuss" and "share their ideas with others". 3. "Warm-up Phase: a few minutes of "small talk" in the beginning creates a comfortable, friendly environment. 4. Create a permissive environment that nurtures different perceptions and points of view, without" pressurizing participants to take sides, or reach a biased consensus. 5. The moderator and observer should have background information on the participants. 6. Open-ended questions are used to allow participants to determine the direction of the response. 7. Allow issues to emerge naturally. 8. Begin from the general and funnel to the specific. General questions establish the context. 9. Close FGDs by summarizing the key issues discussed, and thanking the participants for their contributions. y 1. 2. Role of observer Preparing a summary of the FGD on group basis and not individual Reading it to the group for their consensus. This method is less used as it requires analytical powers of moderator and observer. Skills required Moderating,
14

y 1.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Listening, Observing, Analyzing, Creating a relaxed comfortable atmosphere Dealing with unpredictability Flexibility No personal opinions No influencing responses e.g. focus group discussions with children about hygiene related activities like washing hands before taking food, after going to toilet etc. as an moderator group of children is encouraged to discuss about these issues, are they aware of these, how they came to know abt these, why are these necessary. This FGD is done to initiate and promote health related activities among children as its an important factor of preventing various diseases like cholera, worm infestation etc.

c) Ethical considerations to be applied while using participant observation In Participant Observation the researcher is, to a greater extent, immersed in the day-today activities of the people being studied. The objective is usually to record conduct under the widest range of possible settings. Information is often the result of interaction between the researcher and the informants. In this way, participant observer differs from other researchers. So, participant observation covers a wide range of ethical issues that are complex and often unpredictable. Following ethics should be practiced by a participant observer:Methodology Researchers should fully explain the purpose of research and setting for Participant Observation, what potential interactions are involved, how data will be gathered, the kinds of issues that might be discussed more formally, and detail as much as possible the anticipated process. It is fine to acknowledge the limitations of predicting ahead of time what will happen during the course of the research, but details that can be anticipated should be stated. Seek permission from group leaders or spokespersons, where appropriate, but especially if they can help to broadcast to a community the researchers identity, purpose, method. However, researchers should also be careful to avoid situations where such public endorsements/announcements to the community can create pressure to participate. Participants should remain free to avoid all interaction with the researcher. Informed consent Informed consent, from persons capable of such consent, should be obtained as in all research. As much as possible, the researcher should obtain informed consent from each individual participant with whom the researcher will be interacting. It is especially important to remain aware that some participants might not be fully informed despite general announcements in public. As the researcher gains awareness of the level of information individual participants have about the researchers identity, purpose and method, he/she should make every possible effort to disclose such information individually. This requires informing participants about the

15

overall purpose of the research and its main features, as well as of the risks and benefits of participation. Consent may be given in written format, verbally and audio-taped, or videotaped. Responsibility to the participants The investigators responsibility to the participants includes issues such as ensuring i) Confidentiality, ii) Avoidance of harm, iii) Reciprocity and feedback of results. i) Confidentiality:The investigator may not report private data that identifies participants. One of the safest ways to ensure anonymity is not to record the names of the participants at all and to provide an information sheet that asks for verbal rather than signed consent. Categories of sensitive information requiring anonymity are the following: 1. sexual attitudes, 2. preferences or practices; 3. use of addictive substances; 4. illegal conduct; 5. information that could damage an individual's financial standing, 6. employability, 7. reputation; 8. medical record information that could lead to stigmatization or discrimination; 9. any information about an individual's psychological well-being or mental health. ii) Harm to participants The risk of harm to a participant should be negligible. The sum of potential benefits to the participant and the importance of the knowledge gained should outweigh the risk of harm to the participant and thus support a decision to carry out the research. Qualitative interviews on sensitive topics may provoke powerful emotional responses from a participant. An appropriate referral source for professional help should be ready, should referral be necessary. Such referral may include authorities responsible for responding to illegal conduct. iii) Reciprocity of results Ideally there should be reciprocity in what participants give and what they receive from participation in a research project. The investigator is indebted to participants for sharing their experiences. Reciprocity may entail giving time to help out, providing informal feedback, and making coffee, tutoring or being a good listener. The reciprocity should fit within the constraints of research and personal ethics, and within the framework of maintaining one's role as investigator. Participants should receive feedback on research results, because this is a form of recognition and gratitude to participants for their participation.

16

5) Process of qualitative analysis INDUCTION STEPS IN QLR ANALYSIS

develop grounded

based theory develop web of hypothesis generate hypothesis build concepts

use of constant comparitive method

CROSS CASE ANALYSIS use of integrated matrices
WITHIN CASE ANALYSIS use of multiple matrices WITHIN CASE ANALYSIS use of check list matrix

develop case narratives engage with field reality

generate multiple data by multiple methods

Subject is always shaped and coloured by the context which has layered meaning in qualitative research. Analysis in quantitative research uses biostatistics to analysis data whereas qualitative research analysis is a parallel process to know what is an inductive process and manages words, language, and the meanings these imply. This work exists in its capacity to create rich descriptions and understandings of social life. In this first case narrative are developed which is the integrating data to relevant a single unit of analysis. After developing case narrative we start analysis by coding category or looking at how concepts evolve (change) over time (MATRICES). Then outcomes are analyzed to build causal relationship (causal chain).

17

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Uwe Flick, An introduction to qualitative research, Sage publications London, India, 2009. 2. Jerry W. Willis, Foundation of qualitative research, Sage publications London, India, 2007. 3. Michael Murray & Kerry Chamberlain, Qualitative health psychology Theories & Methods, Sage publications London, India, 1999. 4. Dr. Rajshri Mahtani & Mr. Deepak Mili, Compendium of Readings on Qualitative Research in the Health Sector: Focus on Health care, hospital-based care, epidemiology and public policy, 2010 5. E-sources (Google, Wikipedia, Google books, Article scholar etc.)

18