EARTHING

PRESENTED BY

PROF. V. G. PATEL
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STANDARDS FOR EARTHING

IS 3043 (Code of practice for earthing). IS 2309 (Protection of building against lightning). IS 7689 (Protection against static electricity). BS-7430 - 1990:- deals with code of Practice for earthing. IEEE 80 - 2000 (Grid layout and guide for safety in the sub-station grounding). In general, empirical formulae of Standard IEEE 80 are being used by most of the utilities for the design of grounding system in the absence of the
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required software tool to do so. Used for some solution / guidance of for design of earth-mat in difficult conditions. The quantitative analysis of effects of lightning surges is beyond the scope of the standard. Though the grounding recommend provide high degree of protection against steep wave point but leaves the subject considering human safety at frequency greater than 50 Hz. BS-7430 - 1990:- deals with code of Practice for earthing and does not deal with the special problems encountered with solid state electronic components and equipments.
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NFPA -780 - Standard for installation of lightning protection system (1997). It does not address either selection or installation of important lightning sub-systems like lightning detectors, strike counters, grounding electrode designs, etc. IEEE-837 - For test regime IEC- 61312 - It deals with protection against lightning electro magnetic impulse & Lightning earth current distribution assumed in the standard vastly differs from the currents observed in actual lightning, experiments conducted.
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IEEE 142 - The standard to recommended practice for grounding Industrial and commercial power systems. It does not consider and refer IEC 61312 assumptions. IEEE 1100 - Recommendation to powering and grounding electronic equipments & not compatible to IEEE 142 since electronic equipment grounding criteria considers high frequency, RF and Video freq. It does not cover aspects of grounding against lightning in detail.
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EARTHING
What is earthing ? Why it is required ? Definitions Permissible values Various types / methods of earthing Methods of improvement of earth resistance (especially for sub-station in rocky area and for tower footing high resistance problems). Measurement of earth resistance Earth resistivity and its measurement Step Potential and Touch Potential Lightning Conclusion
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WHAT IS EARTHING ?

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Earthing means an Electrical connection to the general mass of earth to provide safe passage to fault current to enable to operate protective devices and provide safety to personnel.
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EARTHING
EARTHING MEANS MAKING CONNECTION TO THE GENERAL MASS OF THE EARTH. EARTHING MEANS TO PROVIDE A GROUND PATH FOR UNWANTED FAULT CURRENT AND LEAKAGE CURRENT FROM ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT OR INSTALLATION VIA EARTHING CONDUCTOR.

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EARTHING
EARTHING MAY BE DIVIDED IN TO TWO PARTS : EQUIPMENT EARTHING OR BODY EARTHING SYSTEM EARTHING OR NEUTRAL EARTHING
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(I) Equipment earthing. This type of earthing is also called safety earthing or body earthing. Electricity is dangerous and death can occur even with 230 volt shock. The equipment earthing is an essential safety measure. The basic objectives of equipment earthing are: To ensure freedom from exposure to dangerous electrical shocks to persons working in the substation.
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To provide current carrying capability for flow of earth fault current of specified magnitude and duration (thus permitting over current protection) without any fire, damage or explosive hazard. According to norms and measured, all the exposed metal parts must be earthed to ensure safety of personnel.
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EQUIPMENT EARTHING
EQUIPMENT EARTHING MEANS NON CURRENT CARRYING PARTS OF THE EQUIPMENT TO BE EARTHED FOR SAFETY MEASURES.

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(ii) Neutral point earthing. It is also known as system earthing. The neutral point earthing is most important feature of system design. In every substation, neutral grounding is important because:  The earth fault protection is based on the method of neutral earthing.  The system voltage during earth fault depends on neutral earthing.  Neutral earthing is provided basically for the purpose of protection against arcing grounds, unbalanced voltages with respect to earth, protection from lightning and for improvement of the system.
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SYSTEM EARTHING OR NEUTRAL POINT EARTHING

SYSTEM EARTHING DEALS WITH THE EARTHING OF CURRENT CARRYING PART OR CONDUCTOR OR NEUTRAL OF THE SYSTEM.

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SIGNIFICANCE OF SYSTEM EARTHING

FAULT LEVEL PROTECTION SYSTEM SYSTEM VOLTAGE AT THE TIME OF FAULT EQUIPMENT SIZING COST OF THE SYSTEM SYSTEM CONTINUITY AND RELIABILITY

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11KV GEN.

11/138KV GT dY1 132KV TR. LINE

11/6.6KV UAT Dd0

ET

11KV/240V ET

6.6/0.415KV SST Dy11

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STN C1 & F

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STN D & E

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11/138KV GT Yd1

132/66KV TR. YY0

132KV TR. LINE 66KV TR. LINE

66/11KV TR. DY

CONSUMERS 11/0.415KV TR. DY

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EARTHING TRANSFORMERS
EARTHING TRANSFORMERS ARE USED WHERE SYSTEM NEUTRAL IS NOT AVAILABLE, PARTICULARLY WHEN THE SYSTEM IS DELTA CONNECTED. EARTHING TRANSFORMER MAY BE OF EITHER THREE PHASE ZIGZAG WINDING TYPE OR STAR OPEN DELTA TYPE. IN BOTH THE TYPES THE USUAL APPLICATION IS TO ACCOMPLISH RESISTANCE TYPE EARTHING OF AN UNEARTHED SYSTEM.

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EARTHING TRANSFORMERS
IN STAR OPEN DELTA TYPE TRANSFORMER SUITABLE LOADING RESISTER IS CONNECTED TO OPEN DELTA SECONDARY WHICH PROVIDES A PATH FOR ZERO SEQUENCE CURRENT. THE EARTHING TRANSFORMERS ARE DESIGNED FOR THE 30SECS. OR 60 SECS.

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Design of neutral earth resistor should be such that it limits the earth current to full load current of the transformer.
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METHODS OF THE SYSTEM EARTHING

SOLID EARTHING RESISTANCE EARTHING REACTANCE EARTHING GROUND FAULT NEUTRALIZER EARTHING EARTHING TRANSFORMERS

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GROUNDING PRACTICE
Normal Voltage Grounding practice and reasons
Solid Low earth fault current. No sustained earth fault. Easy fault detection. Easy protection. High safety.
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Up to 600 V

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2.2 kV to 15 kV

Low resistance grounding or reactance grounding To limit fault currents To prevent damage to machine from over voltage.

22 kV to 33 kV

Solid earthing Earth fault currents limited by fault resistance No rotating machines are connected at this voltage.

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Main advantage of earthed system:

(a) To limit the difference of electric potential between all uninsulated conducting objects. (b) To provide for isolation of faulty equipment and circuits when a fault occurs. (c) To limit over voltages appearing on the system under various conditions.
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In effectively earthed system, Xo X is less than 3 and Ro X is less than 1. Under line fault conditions, the voltages of other two healthy phases will never be more than 80% of line to line voltage of the system. This is also called as

COEFFICIENT OF EARTHING.
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Why it is required ?

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Common household appliances are - Washing machine - Television - Geyser (Instant/Immersion/Storage) - Air conditioner - Radio/sound system - Domestic floor mill - Room heater - Electric lighter - Cooking range
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Mixer/Grinder/Juicer Lighting Electric iron Microwave oven Refrigerator Fan (Ceiling/Table/Pedestal/Exhaust) Toaster Hot plate Computer Air cooler
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The most important and common point for all these appliances is

RELIABLE AND GOOD EARTHING

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Voltage Exposure: Electrical accident statistics clearly indicate that many fires and personal injuries are caused as a result of current carrying parts coming in contact with metallic parts, which are expected to remain non energized. Proper earthing or grounding can avoid these mishaps.
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The impedance of the grounding conductor must be low enough to accept the full magnitude of earth fault current without creating a voltage drop large enough to be dangerous.The grounding conductor must be capable of conducting the full fault current without excessively raising the temperature of the ground conductor or causing the expulsion of sparks or across that could initiate a fire or an explosion.
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Objectives of Earthing
To ensure that no part of equipments, other than live parts, assume dangerous potential. To allow sufficient current to flow safely for proper operation of protective devices. To suppress dangerous potential gradients on the earth surface which may cause incorrect operation of control & protective devices and also may cause shock or injury to personnel. Provide stability of voltage, prevent excessive voltage peaks during disturbances and protect against lightning surges.
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The functional requirements of earthing system are:

To provide earth connection for the neutral points of transformer, reactor, generators, capacitor banks,filter banks etc. To provide discharge path for lightning over voltages coming via rod gaps, surge arresters, shielding wires, etc.
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To ensure safety of operating staff by limiting voltage gradient at ground level in substation. To provide low resistance path to the earthing switch earthed terminals, so as to discharge the trapped charge to earth prior to maintenance and repairs. To ensure safe touch potential.
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Why do we install an earthing system?

In principle, a safe grounding design has the following two objectives:
To provide means to carry electric currents into the earth (both in magnitude and duration) under normal and fault conditions without exceeding any operating and equipment limits or adversely affecting continuity of service. To assure that a person in the vicinity of grounded facilities is not exposed to the danger of critical electric shock.
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A shock risk arises whenever accidental contact is made between the live conductor and exposed metal work. Fire risk in electrical installations also can arise due to earth fault current, particularly if the earthing and bonding arrangements are not capable of carrying a sustained fault current without excessive heating. AS FAR AS ELECTRICITY
IS CONCERNED, EFFICIENT EARTHING IS A MUST.
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Effective earthing primarily depends on Dimension & number of electrodes. Earths conductivity - sole factor that goes long way in achieving effective earthing. It is possible to increase earths conductivity by enhancing absorption power & increasing its richness with charge carrying ions.
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Before discussing further in detail regarding earthling, let us understand some of the terminologies (definitions) related to earthling.

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EARTH: A connection to the general mass of earth by means of an earth electrode. EARTHED: An object is said to be when it is electrically connected to an earth electrode. EARTH CURRENT:The current flowing to earth. EARTH ELECTRODE:A metal plate, pipe or other conductor connected to the general mass of earth EARTHING LEAD:The conductor by which the connection to the earth electrode is made. DEAD:Dead means at or about earth potential and disconnected from any live system. BOND:To connect together electrically two or more conductors or metal parts.
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As an Electrical Engineer, one should know the I.E. Rules pertaining to earthing. Salient point of Earthing and I.E. Rules are as under: Rule 33 In case of Medium, High and Extra High Tension installations, a consumer has to provide his own earthing system over and above the earthing terminal provided by the supplier. Rule51(D) All metal work associated with the installation other than that designed to serve as a conductor, be connected with earth. Rule61(2) All metallic part pertaining to apparatus and equipments shall be earthed by owner by two separate and distinct connections with earth. 42 29 March 2011 V G PATEL

Rule 61(4)Before supply is made ON all earthing system shall be tested to ensure efficient earthing . Rule 61(5)All earthing system shall be tested for resistance on dry day during the dry day season not less than once every two years. Rule 61(6)A record of every earth test made and the result thereof shall be kept. Rule 66(a)Wherever conductors are enclosed in metal sheathing, the metal sheathing shall be earthed. Rule 66(b)The resistance of the earth connection should be low enough to blow fuse or trip breaker in theMarch 2011 installation concerned. 29 V G PATEL 43

Rule 88(2)Wherever guard wires are provided, these guard wires shall be connected with earth. Rule 92 (2)The earthing lead for any lightning arrestor shall not pass through any iron or steel pipe, but shall be taken as directly as possible from the lightning arrestor to a separate earth electrode subject to the avoidance of bends wherever practicable.

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EARTHING & GROUNDING Both terms seem almost alike, but there is difference between the two, e.g. the electrical system of an aircraft in flight is having a ground bus. So, where equipment cannot refer to earth potential while referring to voltage exposure magnitudes, the term grounding is used. In aircraft, the main body of the aircraft is the reference ground as far as voltage exposure magnitude is concerned and this has nothing to do with earth. So grounding is the proper term here. In short, what is earthed can be called as grounded, but what is grounded, may not have
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anything to do with earth. Earthing is called Grounding in USA. Now, one should clarify difference between system grounding and equipment grounding. System grounding means a system of current carrying conductors in which at least one conductor or point (neutral in case of star winding of transformer or generator) is intentionally grounded,either directly or through some impedance / resistance. Where as equipment grounding or earthing relates to the manner in which non-electrical conductive material, which either encloses energized conductors or adjacent thereto, is to be interconnected and grounded.
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Objectives can be summarized as:[1]For the safety of personnel from electric shock. [2]For the safety of equipment and personnel against lightning and voltage surges. [3]For reducing the voltage stresses on line and equipment with respect to earth and under various operating and fault conditions and also for controlling the earth fault currents for protective relays. [1] & [2] is known as equipment earthing. [3] is known as system earthing.
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PERMISSIBLE VALUES

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Types of Installation Large Power Station Major Sub station Small Sub station General Domestic Installation Tower footing

Maximum permissible resistance 0.5 Ohms 1.0 Ohms 2.0 Ohms 8.0 Ohms 10.0 Ohms

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VARIOUS TYPES / METHODS OF EARTHING

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EARTH ELECTRODES
Basically all ground electrodes may be divided into two groups ; the first group comprises underground metallic piping systems, metal building frame-works , steel piling and other underground metal structures installed for purposes other than grounding . The second group comprises made electrode specifically designed for grounding purposes. The metal building frames are normally attached by long anchor bolts to their concrete foundation footing. The anchor bolts in concrete serve as electrodes, while the metal building frame is simply a grounding conductor.
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Continuous underground water system may have a resistance to earth of less than 3 ohms where as other first group electrodes may have less than 25 ohms. For safety grounding and for small distribution systems where the ground currents are of relatively of small magnitude, such electrodes are usually preferred because they are economical in first cost. In such case frequent measuring of earth resistance is advisable. The second group comprises made electrode specifically designed for grounding purposes. The metal building frames are normally attached by long anchor bolts to their concrete foundation footing.
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The anchor bolts in concrete serve as electrodes, while the metal building frame is simply a grounding conductor. However, normally pipe electrodes and plate electrodes are more commonly used and are arranged as shown in the figures. Plate earthing is normally used for large power stations and transmission lines where fault current is very high, whereas pipe earthing is used for small power stations and sub-stations.

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Made electrodes selection depends upon type of soil and depth available. Grids, buried strips, etc. are used where lesser depths are available. Also lesser depth grids are frequently used for substation or generating station to provide equipotential areas throughout the entire station where hazard to life and property would justify the higher cost. Buried plates have not been used extensively in recent years because of the higher cost compared to rods or strips. Also when used in small numbers, they are least efficient type of made electrodes.
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Buried cable electrodes used to ground transmission line towers and structures. When multiple electrodes are used, spacing of less than 3 meters do not provide the most economical use of materials. Driven electrodes are normally rods. Few deep rods are normally used than multiplicity of short rods, since the soil resistivity generally decreases with depth due to the increased moisture content. Below 22 % moisture, the resistivity increases sharply. Above 22% moisture, it remains almost constant.
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Concrete below ground level is semi-conducting medium of about 3000 Ohm cms resistivity which is slightly lower than the average resistivity. Consequently wire or rod electrodes when covered with concrete results into lower resistancy due to reduction of the resistance of the material closest to electrode which serves the purpose of chemical treatment concrete foundations forced with steel bars provides ready-made grounding electrodes. It is only necessary to bring out an adequate electrical connection from main reinforcing bars.
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Purpose of chemical treatment for concrete foundations forced with steel bars provides readymade grounding electrodes. It is only necessary to bring out an adequate electrical connection from main reinforcing bars. Such type of footing electrode will offer resistance of less than driven electrodes (form 0.25 to 0.80 ohms). Steel rods in concrete found greatly superior than made electrodes for rocky soil. Majority of steel towers of high voltage transmission lines are provided grounds by such type.
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Types of Electrodes
Metal Plates (Copper,Cast Iron or Galvanized Iron) rectangle / square / circular
At least 60*60 cm (but not >1.2*1.2 mtr) 2-6 mm thick C.I plates not < 12 mm & cu not < 3.15 mm thick med. & few HT installation, confined to station grounds

Metal Pipes/Rods normally of Galvanized Iron, Copper, Stainless steel &Copper coated MS Rods
Gen. 13, 16, 19 mm in dia & length varies from 1220 2440 mm Expose greater surface area compared to plates

GI tapes / Copper Tapes of 25mm or 50mm width and 2, 3 or 5 mm thickness

used in rocky soils where penetration not feasible.
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Types of Electrodes
Plates (Cast Iron or Copper) Square
--60*60 cm --C.I plates - 6.3 mm & Copper - 3.15 mm thick. Plate to be buried vertically with top edge minimum 1.5 mtr from ground surface.

Metal Pipes/Rods of Galvanized Iron

--38 mm dia & 2.5 m long pipes (minimum). --63 mm dia. & 3 mtr long pipes now a days standardized by consultants.
(Expose greater surface area compared to plates)
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Around plate, an alternate layers of salt and charcoal of 15 cm thickness is formed. For copper plate copper wire of sufficient thickness and for GI plate GI wire of sufficient thickness is bolted and brought to ground level in a 19 mm dia. GI pipe and terminated in a cement-concrete structure[300 mm x 300 mm x 300 mm having wall thickness of 12.5 mm] and GI hinged cover is provided on GI frame on concrete work which is flushed to ground level. A suitable funnel is provided for pouring water to keep surrounding area of earth plate moist. Fortnightly 4-5 buckets of water should be poured OR a permanent water tap should be provided on concrete work (kundi).
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