Major themes

1) Effects of Industrial Revolution - Pros and Cons 2) Liberalism - what it is and how it shaped Europe - how it evolved 3) Romanticism - what it is and how it shaped Europe 4) Nationalism - what it is and how it shaped Europe

Specifics
1) Revolutions of 1848 2) Unification of Italy and Germany

World History
Units 3 and 4
19th c. Europe: Liberalism in West, conservatism in East, nationalism everywhere

Industrial Revolution
Industrialization (1750-1850) o Change in economys tructure; resources away from agriculture manufacturing, industry, services. Before:  In Europe (?) 10% in towns, most were agriculture  Wealth of Europe not notable until Industrialization  All of Europe industrialized by 1900 o Why it happened: aided by increased pop. (fr. Marrying early, dying later = increased fertility rate) o Tremendous effects on society (how people 1) worked; 2) lived; 3) related to ea. other  Shift towards industry y E.g. cotton (textiles); coal + iron (mining); railway + shipping (transport) o Specific example: Spinning Jenny allowed for cotton spinning to be done by machine = huge rise in cotton production, overpower India y 25% in industry (1760) 50% (1840)  Movement to urban cities y Employees always gathered near power supply o Before: near water, so countryside o After: following steam engines = urban cities = rise in urban pop.  Reorganization of production o Skilled tasks broke into simple, unskilled tasks (faster, cheaper)  Artisans suffered y Skills lost, lower wages  Exploitation of workers o Factory conditions = unhealthy; o Labour became more depersonalized (wage labour = valuable for Karl Marx : term proletariat; your time, not quality of work; unskilled tasks; little employer did not own means of employee relationship) production, only labour o Women were not more independent despite work o More children became labourers and were exploited Benefits  Increased standard of living y Increased job opportunities 

y More regular employment y Falling prices Worker resistance was discouraged  State favoured business; unions illegal (1799-1824)  Luddites

Restoration and Revolution

 Restoration (1813-1840) o Major powers wanted to est. stability (no revolutionary upheavals): balance of power; collective security; return to old regime  Very conservative period (lots of reactionaries); slow change in institutional structure  Congress system established. y (West) Quintuple alliance maintains status quo (F,B, R, A, P) y (East) Holy alliance upholds Xn principles (peace, justice, religion) (in reality, quash rev. movements) (R, A, P)

Specific cases  Spain o Restoration = absolute rule  Ferdinand 12th abolished Constitution of 1812; nullified laws brought by parliament; brought back inquisition  Military revolts (until 1820) brought Constitution back = constitutional monarchy  (1823) French forces helped Ferdinand abolish c. monarchy  (1840) Spanish Civil War = definitive c. monarchy Prussia Main revolutionaries = o Reform led by 2 dynamic ministers secret societies, military o democratic principles in a monarchical regime Italy o (1820) Kingdom of Naples, uprising  Since posed threat to Austrian security, w/ R, P backing =uprising crushed  (1831) a number of outbreaks y Govt of small states in N. Central Italy + Papal sates = endangered o Austrians intervened to restore order Greece o (1821) Rebellion against Ottoman Empire  Much sympathy for them (supported by F, B, R) b/c Xn vs Muslims  1830 = Independence Belgium o Revolted against Netherlands, gained Independence France o (1814-1824) Louis 18th = c. monarchy o More equality

 

 Participation of bourgeois + upper class in politics  All people = civil rights; voting = males w/ property 1820s = Ultra Royalists (rxnaries returning to France from exile)  Wanted monarchical rule y + return land taken from privileged classes (1824-1830) Charles X succeeded, supported Ultras  1830 July Ordinances = dissolved parliament, suspended freedom of press y Immediate rebellion; govt overthrown; king = exiled Louis Phillipe (his cousin) ascended; the bourgeois monarch

Romanticism (1789-1848)
 Not a political ideology, but a way of looking at life. Influenced socialism, liberalism, conservatism, nationalism; no single philosophical base; new perspective on human nature, whats good, bad, beautiful Rxn against Enlightenment principles o Emphasized feeling, diversity, free expression o Heart was guide to meaningful life o Used to justify revolution where status quo prevented free expression; encouraged lower classes to assert selves against privileged

Liberalism
  Most revolutions during period = made in name of liberalism Culminated in: liberal constitutions (equality of all; no feudalism..more free use and sale of land; lands taken away from Church..h/e only rich benefited from that); centralization (elimination of state intervention, in econ esp.destruction of guilds) o Role of govt = protect freedom of individual, so they could pursue happiness, self interest o Ppl = rational beings; sovereignty in ppl not monarch (c. monarchy) o Economic freedom; laissez- faire

The British example  Britain enshrined liberalism o Limited monarchy with unwritten constitution o Sound justice system o Free speech o Elected govt w/ property requirements for voting  House of Commons was mixed representative body under aristocratic control; did not reflect growth of urban cities in the number of seats y Reform Act 1832 made parliament more representative; allowed for males whose wealth not based on land o Considered not liberal enough; William Lovett drew up Peoples CharterChartists universal manhood suffrage, end of property

 

qualifications; movement continued in 1840s/50sfirst widespread and sustained effort of working class self-help o Did not experience a revolution since bloodless one (1680s) o Greater freedom in economics: eliminate privileges and benefits (including ones for poor)  Before: wage subsidies for working poor; welfare for young children, aged, sick; local charities y Some argued outdoor relief distorted labour market, pushed down wages o Led to Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834  Allowed for destitute into workhouse (only really desperate would enter) o Expansion of central state in 1830s, 40s  The Factory Act 1833, limited hours of labour for children in textile factories ; 1847 = Ten Hours Act  Other acts in public health, mines, prisons, schools  Centralized system for registering births, deaths o Free trade ; freeing of econ. Activity = central to liberalism  World trade under rapid expansion in mid 1800s y Britain led drive towards freer trade: repealed Corn Laws (tariffs on imported grain); ended Navigation Acts (limited flow of trade, favouring British ships) y At times became forceful: 1840 Opium War, Britain declared war after China banned imports Before 1848, few nationalist movements were successful (except Greece, Belgium) Strongest nationalist movements in Europe from Habsburgs and Ottoman Empires o Habsburgs: Germans, Hungarians, Bohemians, Italians o Ottoman: Bulgarians, Romanians, Serbs o Russian: Poles, Finns o Britain: Irish

Nationalism
 Nationalism = not connected w/ particular political ideology; can be conservative, socialist, monarchist, republican o Up to 1848, nationalist generally united w/ liberals against ruling powers  Sometimes contradictory: individual rights were at core of liberalism vs. group loyalty = nationalism (liberalism and nationalism combined b/c of same enemies)  Toward end of century, nationalism would combine w/ conservatism to reject individual freedom Revolutions ultimately failed: Liberals unable to est. and consolidate political power, conservatives retained control o 1870 = United Germany, Italy but from skilled diplomats under ambitious kings, not product of revolution led by liberal or republican nationalists Uprisings in 1848; Springtime of the Peoples

ENGLAND No uprisings in England: upper and middle classes united in desire for stability; already embarked on program of political and social reform o RUSSIA None in Russia: autocracy strong, potential revolutionary forces (middle/industrial working class) =sparse, weak) o FRANCE (workers + intellectuals) Began in France February Revolution: Louis Phillipe rep. upper/upper middle class, discontent among lower middle class and workers and republicans who wanted more participation in political life  Banned political assembly = led to protests / insurrections / barricades  Army ordered to fire on protesters, but refused (repeated pattern of 1789)  Louis Phillipe abdicates y Revolutionaries agree on republic  Inspired Europe: within a month, Austrian Empire = uprisings  1848 Elections = elected Louis Napoleon Bonaparte y 1851 abolished constitution, self declared emperor o AUSTRIA (Vienna: students + intellectuals; Hungary: aristocrats) Initially successful: 1848, Ferdinand I dismissed Metternich, granted constitution to Austria, Hungary got its own, then Ferdinand fled capital  Constitutional bodies voted to abolish feudal rights, end serfdom, give peasants equality under law  Even though emperor abdicated, Habsburgs still controlled y Had support of army y Nationalities were played against each other y Liberals kept quiet by promise of constitution o GERMAN STATES: (intellectuals) revolution directed against Austria, sought Prussia, demanded constitution govt  Frederick 4th (1840-1861) promised constitution  National Assembly of elected reps met in Frankfurt y By the time liberal constitution drawn up, princes already back in power o Frederick 4th refused crown from illegal body o ITALY and PAPAL STATES (lands in Italy under Pope, French protection): Giuseppe Mazzini (future leader) and Garibaldi (military skill) led republication movement in Rome  b/c Pope Pius, once liberal, more and more conservativefled and returned w/ protection from France, Spain, Austrian etc. = end of Rome Republic Reason for failure: inability of revolutionaries to remain united; could not agree on shape of new regime o Intellectuals, workers: sough democracy, socialism o Liberals: suspicious of too much democracy, feared socialism desired political power (their freedom); protection of property o Also: nationals that won freedom denied it to others o Peasants remained loyal to rulers and church Lessons learned: o

Liberals stood for rational discourse, freedom, c. govt = put its faith in mass uprising that would overthrow regimes and ppl would group into nations and live together in peace  Evident post-1848 that intellectuals would not by themselves build a nation o Nationalists learned that creating new state required strong military force  Many became willing to sacrifice some ideals for realism (e.g. supported not liberal Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck) UNIFICATION OF ITALY: o 1848 1849, war between Piedmont and Austria, Piedmont lost badly but remained c. state = gained admiration of Italian nationalists  Camillo di Cavour = Prime Minister of Piedmont in 1850s = practical, Piedmontese patriot, prepared to use all means to achieve goal = absorb north-central Italy (under Austrian control) intro Piedmont y Understood importance of industrialization = reorganized economy, encouraged financial growth, stimulated building of railways (important for centralization) y Supported Italian nationalists (desired their support) y Knew could never oust Austria alone therefore desired greater powers support o Following Crimean war, won seat at peace talks, able to raise question of Italian unification o Allied with France; wage war on Austria together, divide spoils of war o Austria declared war 1859 following provocation, soon ended when fear Piedmonts rapid success would inflame nationalist sentiment in Italy; also pressure from French Catholics who fear war would threaten Papal states  Post Austrian withdrawal, Italian nationalists uprisings, est. govt in Parma, Lucca and Modenasoon all of Italy north of Papal States (minus Venetia) = Piedmonts  Italian unification = 1866 Italy obtained Venetia; 1870 Prussian war = Rome UNIFICATION OF GERMANY: o Prussia = center of German unification (Austria never, fearful of breaking apart empire)  1848 rev. failed, but had constitution, and king = somewhat liberal (Wilhelm I) y 1862 deadlock btwn king and parliament Wilhelm calls on Otto von Bismarck (Prussian aristocrat), believed in monarchy (no republican, liberal, socialist ideals); reform is good as long as from monarch; saw Germany as extension of Prussia o Solved deadlock by encouraging king to ignore it; collect taxes as before  Demonstrates that King = decisive power o Pursued expansionist foreign policy  United German states against Austria  Liberals + conservatives swept along by feeling of national might and glory (some dropped liberalism) o

Some German states wanted to maintain autonomy (e.g. religious differences; felt closer to Austria than Prussia) Felt must defeat Austria for Prussia to achieve German unification (accomplished through Realpolitik)  Military: ensured superiority over Austrian forces  Diplomacy: isolated Austriaformed alliances w/ Italy, France, Russia  Began Austro-Prussian War 1866 (quick 7 week war, decisively victorious for Prussia) y = creation of North German Confederation (22/39 German Sovereignties) under Prussian king y Weakened Austrian empire; forced to give Hungarians self-govt (dual monarchy); other miniorities looked towards greater powers for support y Defeat for France since creation of strong power on its borders To unify rest of Germany, Bismarck = must defeat France (would not allow union); also, must fear southern states to join Germany (b/c they didnt want to atm) opportunity arose during succession to Spanish throne 1970  Bismarck manipulated a telegraph btwn Napoleon III + Wilhelm I (Prussia) to evoke nationalistic sentiment in France and Prussia y Began Franco-Prussia war (1870); ended in French defeat; S. Germany sided w/Prussia o All German states joined together; ended French primacy on continent o Revolutionary outbreak in Paris; Napoleon III flees to England; municipal elections led to Commune (dominated by rad. Democrats, socialists) ; battle fought btwn govt and Commune in Paris = put social revolution in minds of ruling classes all over Europe (fear)

Darwinism
  1859 1914 : scientific socialism study of individual and social behaviour Belief that people, via intellect (apply science + reason), progressed from barbarity to civilization; Newtons mechanical model of the universeunchanging, Gods plan o Challenged by Malthus : nature not benign/ progress not inevitable b/c population would always outrun limited resources (struggle, scarcity)

Also by Darwin; natural selection = not necessarily movement towards civilization and good  Applied to SOCIAL DARWINISM (politics, ethics, econ) y Herbert Spencer: freedom = when everyone can do w/e they want to do as long as not infringe on anothers freedom; deplored govt intervention laissez faire y Support racial theories; tech = evidence of superior race justified imperialism as civilizing lower races y Realpolitik = admired b/c based only on power; progress of ppl measured by strength of army/ industry ; use war to achieve goals Led to new thoughts on religion ; archaeology showed that Bible = written by a number of ppl, not revealed truth; evolution challenged traditional faith Agnoticism

Population and Migration   Rapid pop. Increase ; higher life expectancy, birth rates decline Mass migration when adverse econ 1870-1914