CLASSICAL HORSE RIDING: A SYSTEMS THEORY APPROACH

by

JOHANNES MARCHAND LOOTS

Submitted in Partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree

DOCTOR TECHNOLOGIAE

in the Department of Animal Sciences

FACULTY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

TSHWANE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

Supervisor: Dr B. Sutherland

Co-supervisor: Prof D. du Toit

January 2006

ii DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the thesis submitted for the degree doctor Technologiae, at the Tshwane University of Technology, is my own original work and has not previously been submitted to any other institution of higher education. I further declare that all sources cited or quoted are indicated and acknowledged by means of a comprehensive list of references.

___________ J.M. Loots Date: January 2006

Copyright Tshwane University of Technology 2006

iii DEDICATION

Dedicated to my wife, Maureen, in grateful recognition for her valuable and continual support during the completion of this work, and for her being the most precious person in my life.

iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Dr Ben Sutherland for his support, assistance and being what he is, a trusted colleague and friend.

! !

Prof Danie Du Toit for his help and advice in the completion of this thesis.

My wife Dr M. Loots for all her patience, practical advice and patiently going through the text with a fine comb.

Reverend Brian Cross for his friendship, support, valuable discussions and help in finding literature in unusual places.

Prof Franois Bredenkamp for his patience and the teaching of relevant aspects of philosophy.

Mrs Yvette Steyn for her unfailing support and faith in the work presented here.

Mrs Henriette Westmore for her help in the final preparation and printing of the thesis.

The late Major Piet (Rossi) Rossouw who taught me about the real essence of horsemanship.

Staff of the library at TUT, especially Mrs Francina Mahlangu, for all their patience in finding sometimes hard to get material.

Professor Amanda Lourens and her staff for clearing up some technical problems.

All the riders I had the privilege to work with, and from which I probably learned more than they did from me.

My own horses, who calmly and without any complaint endured my learning process on their backs, and who taught me what beauty in riding really entails. My appreciation also to other horses at different riding schools who assisted me in the testing of many of the theories which were described in this study.

vi

ABSTRACT

The present study is an endeavour into the realms of the philosophy of riding, both ancient and modern. The philosophy of the art of classical riding is to be found in relevant manuscripts, while one of the main aims of the present study was to construct a philosophy of riding in current scientific context.

Classical riding as an art originated in ancient Greece, mostly during the time of the great philosophers Socrates and Plato. The oldest extant published material on horse riding came from the pen of an ardent admirer of Socrates, General Xenophon. His approach to horsemanship was that of gentleness and the presentation of the horse in its full splendour whilst being ridden. Integration not only formed the basis of Greek thinking, but was also to be found in Xenophons work. Classical riding was associated with elements prominent in Greek culture, such as a pursuit of excellence, the unity of all things, functionality, beauty, grace and harmony. With the demise of Greek culture the art of classical riding was lost during the period of the dark ages. It was only revived in the Baroque era, especially under the guidance of equine masters in France. Here all the different aspects of the art of classical riding flourished in parallel to the upsurge in different forms of art that followed on the Renaissance. The commencement of the Cartesian and Newtonian world led to the introduction of reductionistic thinking and technology. Not only was life in general severely affected but the welfare of the horse as well. Preceded by a dramatic change in the world of science, introduced by Albert Einstein and the new physics early in the previous century, more humane and integrated approaches to the horse and riding were introduced. This led to the realisation that natural phenomena cannot be explained by mechanistic and reductionistic theories. With the emergence of the systems philosophy there appeared to be a return to Greek philosophical and gnostic thinking.

vii The primary aim of the present study was to investigate whether a relationship could be found between modern systems philosophy and classical riding. The first hypothesis of this study postulated an agreement between ancient and recent philosophies. This part of the study was done, firstly by looking at the fountainhead of classical riding namely Greek philosophical thought, secondly by looking into modern mechanistic worldview, and thirdly investigating its outflow, the systems theory. Of particular interest was the comparison of ancient and modern philosophy in terms of mans approach to the training of the horse and rider, both ancient and modern. While the ancient is based upon ancient philosophy and texts, a current approach to riding had to be constructed from various sources in modern philosophy and natural science. The study was based upon a thorough investigation of relevant literature, from which models befitting to current system theory was constructed. These were then applied to actual riding. For this purpose the author of the present study used himself and twelve riders and their horses as subjects. Unity and wholeness (being connected) are the key issues around which classical riding revolves, with its emphasis on harmony between horse and rider, treating the horse humanely, or exhibiting unconditional surrender to the nature of the horse. These are probably the most important similarities between ancient Greek philosophy and classical riding on the one hand and modern systems philosophy on the other as revealed by the present study. Key features of wholeness are that larger wholes are made up of smaller wholes and that in any system larger wholes determine the function of smaller wholes. A distinct difference between ancient Greek and systems philosophy is the modern view that mind is a process and not a separate entity, such as a soul or spirit. This would seemingly do away with the Greek attempt towards self-knowledge and perfection. However, this concept is still to be found in many philosophic and religious traditions and in the field of bodywork. Other aspects, prominent in classical riding, but not addressed in systems philosophy are beauty, and excellence. The conclusion drawn from an exhaustive analysis of ancient and

viii modern material was that in essence modern systems theory can be applied to the art of classical riding, since the omissions in systems theory can be made up by the emphasis on the unity of things and their interaction. It is postulated that classical ideals can only be attained if there is harmony within participating systems, which will allow unhindered exchange of energy and information between different parts of the organism, between organisms and between organisms and the environment. Restriction of this harmony and exchange in any way will result in a riding performance where only the rudiments of riding are exhibited.

The question of whether the Cartesian mechanistic approach can be applied to the art of riding was probed by looking at modern competitive dressage. The results of this investigation led to the conclusion that, although competitive dressage purports to follow the edicts of classical riding, it in fact does not, since crucial elements of this art are absent in both the training of riders and horses, as well as in the performance of dressage tests.

The second hypothesis of the study revolved around the issue of whether science can play a role in the training of horse and rider in the art of classical riding. In a nutshell this assumption was found to be true. Not only was it possible to apply systems theory concepts to riding, but it was also found that their implementation led to the spontaneous emergence of Greek concepts of beauty and excellence.

From a practical point of view the application of systems theory concepts indicated firstly that training of horses and riders requires a holistic or integrated approach in which it was found that larger wholes control the function and structure of the smaller. A good example of this is the emphasis of the impact of initial and existing conditions in rider and horse on the movement to follow. In this respect scrutiny of the application of systems theory and the principles of the Russian scientist, Nikolai Bernstein, introduced the the use of the concept

ix of coordinative structures (larger wholes) into the training riders and horses in the present study. A central hypothesis to this framework would be that the joints and muscles never work in isolation. This brings to the fore the realisation that if wholes are not functioning properly, the resulting actions from the rider and horse will be negatively affected. Therefore, for classical riding to become truly classical, riders and horses have firstly and foremost to be introduced into the correct use of their bodies, which, inter alia, requires realignment of muscle imbalances commonly found in man and horse.

Since they are universal and generic, affordances may be used to teach riders or horses to execute specific tasks in a natural and less restricted way. As an example the asymmetric tonic neck reflex was used to teach horse bending to the right or left in a natural way, without having to resort to current riding teaching which prescribes the use of force (riders aids) them into the required body position. Another issue that had to be addressed in riders were the inertial and reactive forces from their free moving bodies and the forces associated with the supporting surface of the horse, together with the movement of the horse. It came to the fore that the rider who has the ability to play with the horse's forces, and who has the ability to awaken and maintain this play of forces in keeping with the movement, was the rider that would be able to obtain lightness in his mount. In the present study the unwillingness of riders to yield to the movement of their mounts, and to make use of the forces generated by the moving horse, was found to be a constant problem during the initial stages of their period of training. In the present study these problems were generally solved when riders improved their use and became unified (connected) within themselves.

x TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE DECLARATION DEDICATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ABSTRACT TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF TABLES ii iii iv vi x xix xxi

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6

THE ART OF CLASSICAL RIDING INTEGRATION AS THE BASIS OF CLASSICAL RIDING THE BASIC PHILOSOPHY OF RIDING AIM AND PURPOSE OF THE PRESENT STUDY HYPOTHESIS OF THE PRESENT STUDY ACTUALITY AND VALUE OF THE PRESENT STUDY

2 2 6 8 10 10

CHAPTER 2

METHODS

12

2.1 2.2

INTRODUCTION THE THEORETICAL INVESTIGATION INTO CLASSICAL RIDING AND SYSTEMS THEORY

13

13 13 15

2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3

The nature of the present study Ancient Greek philosophy and classical riding Philosophical trends following the Greeks and their effect on world view, science and riding

15

xi 2.2.4 Classical riding from a Cartesian and systems theory perspective: The scientific aspects of riding 2.2.5 2.3 Literature cited in this study THE USE OF HUMAN AND EQUINE SUBJECTS IN THE STUDY 2.3.1 2.3.2 General Requirements of the researcher in the field of systems theory in classical riding 2.3.3 2.3.4 2.3.5 2.3.6 2.4 2.4 The author of the present study Riders and horses The method of observation in the present study Rider and horse training sessions THE USE OF ENDNOTES LIMITATIONS OF THE PRESENT STUDY GREEK PHILOSOPHY AND THE EMERGENCE OF CLASSICAL RIDING AS AN ART 29 20 21 22 24 25 27 27 18 18 16 17

CHAPTER 3

3.1 3.1.1 3.1.2 3.1.3 3.2 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3

PHILOSOPHY AND THE ART OF RIDING Philosophy of riding Riding as an art Summary and concluding remarks THE ANCIENT GREEK MIND Introduction An overview of Greek thought Greek religion Know thyself Spiritual development and the unity of things Wholeness and unity of things Virtue Reason

30 30 31 34 36 36 38 38 40 43 46 48 50

3.2.3.1 3.2.3.2 3.2.4 3.2.5 3.2.6

xii 3.2.7 3.2.8 3.2.9 3.2.10 3.2.11 3.3 Numbers Joy of life and play Research Happiness and the desire for pleasure The Greek minda summary GREEK PHILOSOPHY AND ISSUES TO BE CONSIDERED BY EQUESTRIANS 59 51 53 54 55 56

CHAPTER 4

THE

EMERGENCE

OF MODERN AND ITS

PHILOSOPHICAL

THOUGHT

CONSEQUENCES FOR THE EQUINE AND EQUESTRIAN ART 63

4.1 4.2

THE PERIOD FOLLOWING THE GREEK ENLIGHTENMENT UP TO THE RENAISSANCE DEVELOPMENT OF THE QUANTITATIVE APPROACH IN WESTERN THOUGHT 65 64

4.2.1

Ren Descartes, the mechanistic philosophy and the mind-body split 66

4.2.2

Consequences of the mind-body split and the mechanistic philosophy 72 72 75

4.2.2.1 4.2.2.2 4.2.2.3

Consequences for life in general Consequences for riding Consequences for animal welfare in general and equitation in particular

78 80 80 85 86 87 91

4.3 4.3.1 4.3.2

THE TWENTIETH CENTURY CHANGE IN WORLD VIEW From reductionism to systems philosophy The general systems theory The ancient view of the world The background to the general systems theory Theory of natural systems

4.3.2.1 4.3.2.2 4.3.3

xiii 4.3.3.1 4.3.3.1.1 4.3.4 Joint function in natural systems The independent variables Principles of dynamic pattern formation in natural systems 4.3.4.1 4.3.4.2 4.3.4.3 4.3.4.4 4.3.4.5 4.4 4.4.1 4.4.2 4.4.3 4.4.4 4.4.5 4.4.5.1 4.4.6 4.5 The forming of patterns in natural systems Dynamic instabilities in open (living) systems Self-organisation in biological systems Collective variables and circular causality Origins of instabilities in a system during riding 108 108 109 110 112 113 113 113 116 120 121 121 122 123 IN HIGHER 124 93 93

GREEK PHILOSOPHY AND THE PHILOSOPHY OF SYSTEMS The soul, mind and matter Unity of things Know thyself Excellence Beauty Non-action Systems theory and classical riding CONTROL OF MOVEMENT

ANIMALSPERSPECTIVE OF THE PRESENT STUDY

CHAPTER 5

CLASSICAL RIDING AND MODERN DRESSAGE 129

5.1 5.1.1 5.1.2

THE ORIGINS OF CLASSICAL RIDING The first horsemen The development of classical riding in ancient Greece

130 130

130 130 131 135

5.1.2.1 5.1.2.2 5.1.2.3

Preamble Xenophon and riding as an art The Greek horse

xiv 5.1.2.4 5.1.2.5 The Greek rider Summarythe classically trained horse of Greek antiquity 5.1.3 5.1.4 Classical riding following the Greek period Concepts of the classical art of riding following the Renaissance 5.1.5 5.1.5.1 5.1.5.2 5.1.5.3 5.1.5.4 5.1.5.5 5.1.5.6 5.1.5.6.1 5.1.5.6.2 CHAPTER 6 Modern competition dressage and classical riding Introduction Modern competition dressage The two equestrian disciplines compared The artistic merit of classical riding and dressage Classical trained and "taught" horses The systems theory, dressage and classical riding Classical riding and the systems theory Dressage and the systems theory MOTOR ACTS 139 147 147 148 148 150 159 162 163 164 167 138 139 136

6.1 6.2 6.2.1 6.3 6.3.1 6.3.2 6.4 6.4.1 6.4.2

INTRODUCTION MOTOR SKILLS Preamble NEUROMUSCULAR COORDINATION Introductory comments Neuromuscular coordination defined USE, THE CONCEPT OF MANNER OF USE AND POISE Use Characteristics of good and bad movement:

168 168 168 170 170 170 175 175

The"manner of use" 6.4.3 6.4.4 6.4.5 " The link between the "manner of use" and functioning Spontaneous and compulsive action Non-doing orletting it happen"

177 178 181 182

xv 6.4.6 The essence of a motor performance: Good manner of use and the concept of poise 6.4.6.1 6.4.6.2 6.4.7 6.4.8 6.4.8.1 6.4.8.2 6.4.8.2.1 6.4.8.2.2 6.4.9 Proper use of the self Poise Summary: The essential characteristics of poise Lack of poise or the phenomenon of misuse The nature of misuse Misuse or lack of poise as a pandemic problem The situation in man Misuse in the horse A pictorial analysis of malposture (misuse) in man and horse 6.5 6.5.1 6.6 6.6.1 6.6.2 6.7 6.7.1 6.7.2 THE WISDOM OF THE BODY Is self-organisation always appropriate? THE ATTAINMENT OF POISE In the rider In the horse SENSORY AWARENESS The rider The horse 207 214 214 222 222 227 227 227 230 184 184 184 193 195 196 196 204 204 206

CHAPTER 7

PRINCIPLES OF MOTOR CONTROL

232

7.1 7.1.1

INTRODUCTION The first feature of classical physiology of the nervous system

233

235 237 243

7.1.1.1 7.1.1.2 7.1.1.3

The rise of new branches in neurophysiology Reductionistic thought in riding The advent of the exploration of the basic processes that underlie behaviour

243

xvi 7.1.2 The second feature of conventional physiology of the nervous system 7.1.2.1 7.1.2.2 7.1.3 The theory of affordances Affordances in riding Use and the control of movement in higher animalsperspective of the present study 7.2 7.3 THE CONCEPT OF A CENTRAL MOTOR PROGRAMME IN T EG RAT IO N AN D IN T ER DEPENDENC Y OF 259 261 245 249 251

NEUROMUSCULAR-SKELETAL ADVANCES 7.3.1

CONTROLPRESENT 263

Operation of the body musculature as an intricately linked web 263 pertaining to self-organisation and 266 266 266

7.3.2

Questions learning

7.3.2.1 7.3.2.2

Self-organisation Learning

CHAPTER 8

MOTOR

ACTS:

BERNSTEINIAN AND 268

DYNAMIC SYSTEMS APPROACH

8.1

THE

DYNAMIC

SYSTEMS

APPROACH

TO

MOTOR 269 269 272 274 276 287 294

CONTROL 8.1.1 8.1.1.1 8.1.1.2 8.1.1.2.1 8.1.1.3 8.1.2 8.1.3 Introduction Coordination from a system theory perspective A central hypothesis for self-organising systems Self-organisation within a dynamic system Attainment of a state of equilibrium The reactivity of movements The mechanism of total development (individuation) from the integration and the whole to the part

312

xvii 8.3 8.3.1 8.3.2 8.3.2.1 8.3.2.2 8.3.2.3 8.3.2.4 8.4 RESOLVING PROBLEMS PERTINENT TO MOTOR CONTROL Degrees of freedom (DF) Context-conditioned variability Variability due to anatomical factors Mechanical variability Physiological variability The management of DF by motor control systems 320 320 323 324 329 330 331

THE APPLICATION OF SMALLER WHOLES IN THE TRAINING OF RIDER AND HORSETHE USE OF 334 334 335

AFFORDANCES 8.4.1 8.4.2 8.4.2.1 The acquisition of skill Acquisition of skill by the rider The incorporation of the whole in training of the rider in the use of parts 8.4.3 8.4.3.1 Acquisition of skill by the horse The incorporation of the whole in training the horse in the use of parts 8.4.4 8.4.4.1 Absolute coordination (AC) Experimental paradigms in the investigation of coordination in systems 8.4.5 A dynamical, functional perspective on motor behaviour: A synthesis

342 343 343 346

349

353

CHAPTER 9

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

360

9.1 9.1.1

INTRODUCTION The first hypothesis of the present study Application of the systems approach to a Greek model of riding

361 361

9.1.1.1

361 361 368

9.1.1.1.1 9.1.2

Unity and harmony The second hypothesis of the present study

xviii 9.1.2.1 9.1.2.2 9.1.2.3 9.1.2.4 9.1.2.5 9.1.2.6 9.2 Integrated movement Poise The whole versus its parts Self-organisation Integrated movement and its control A dynamic systems approach to movement AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE 384 384 385 387 387 369 369 370 371 372 377

CONCLUSIONS PRESENT STUDY

9.2.1 General 9.2.2 Consequences for riding 9.3 9.4 FINAL CONCLUSION FUTURE RESEARCH

NOTES REFERENCES

390 402

xix LIST OF FIGURES

Most of the figures in the present study are accompanied by explanatory notes in order to highlight salient points in these figures. Therefore, only the headings of the figures are listed here. The notes are not included here, but are to be found below each figure in the text.

PAGE Figure 4.1 Figure 4.2 Examples of forceful and harsh riding. Examples of some of the good postures and balanced ways in which riders of the Spanish Riding School use their bodies during movement other than riding. Figure 5.1 Examples of riding to certain preconceived ideas or fashions. Figure 5.2 Figure 6.1 Examples of riding according to classical ideals. Lateral and anterior views of postures of 6 middle-aged male senior executives, showing poor body mechanics and a large variability of in the way in which position of body landmarks are being dealt with. Figure 6.2 Poor postures of dressage horses whilst being ridden. In order to make the posture of the horses more clear, riders were omitted. Figure 6.3 Good postures of horses whilst being ridden (riders omitted). Figure 6.4 Figure 6.5 Postures of free moving horses. A composite representation of all the riders involved in the present study whilst riding a circle to the right. Figure 7.1: Figure 8.1: Figure 8.2 An example of the concept of affordances. Good manner of use in rider and horse. Potential functions representing dynamics with different kinds of attractors. 284 231 260 282 213 214 211 210 157 158 101 99

xx Figure 8.3: A diagram of the thoracic and abdominal cavities in good and bad use. Figure 8.4 The effect of the attitude of the rider's pelvis and lower back upon the biomechanics of the lower back. Figure 8.5 Straightening out the upper back of a patient by the British rheumatologist Dr Wilfred. Barlow. Figure 8.6: Raising the sternum by straightening out the back of a young female by the author of the present study. Figure 8.7: The effect of sustained training on the shape of the spine of riders and their position in the saddle. Figure 8.8. The effect of raising the sternum by indirect means on the position and outline of the rider and the action of the horse. Figure 8.9: An example of muscular-imbalance in a male subject of the present study. The physical outcome is the riders sunken chest, the poking of the head and neck, hollowing of the lumbar back, stiffness in the arms. Figure 8.10: The teaching of the ATNR to riders on the ground as demonstrated by the author of the present study. Figure 8.11: The teaching of the ATNR and mass-spring model approach to riders whilst riding demonstrated by the author of the present study. Figure 8.12: A horse executing a canter right, in which the haunches are flexed and the horse slightly bent to the right, the off (right) fore is leading, depicted in an engraving by Charles Parrocel. Figure 8.13: A gelding executing a shoulder in under the guidance of the author of the present study. Figure 8.14: A combined hybrid mass-spring simple pendulum model of the horse and rider. Figure 8.15: Features of complex systems (adapted and modified from Thelen & Smith, 1996: 52). 355 351 342 341 340 340 315 310 307 304 304 303 301

xxi LIST OF TABLES

PAGE Table 6.1: Physical manifestations in 5 of the subjects in the present study, following riding accidents. The manifestations outlined below were found in all of the subjects. Table 6.2: Table 8.1 A classification of techniques for restoring poise. Problems with the raising of the sternum in riders in terms of certain parameters. Table 8.2: Problems that were encountered in riders prior to whole body training. 319 305 225 229

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Learning is not a purely mental occupation, as many people believe, just as the acquisition of skill is not a purely physical process. Essentially it consists in recognizing in the total situation - environment, mind and body - a relationship in the form of a sensation that in the long run becomes so distinct that we can almost describe it in sensible language (Feldenkrais, 1985: 110).

While doubtless science has a part in equitation, its contribution is quite modest to a pursuit which is and should remain an art (Froissard, 1988: xiv).

Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall, Humpty Dumpty had a great fall; All the king's horses and all the king's men Could'nt put Humpty Dumpty together again (Nursery rhym e).

It is very important to realize that incompetence does not mean lack of the essential action for achieving the end, but consists largely in enacting unnecessary, parasitic acts (Feldenkrais, 1985: 106).

There is nothing more frustrating for a clinician than to effect a wonderful recovery only to have the rider recreate the problem with, for example, an ill-fitting saddle or through serious riding faults. It is also important that riders look at the state of their own spinal health and other physical problems. For example, riders with bad backs or scoliosis can create or recreate back problems in their mounts (Ridgway & Harm an, 1999).

A sort of freedom comes from recognizing what is necessarily so. After that is recognized, comes the knowledge of how to act (Bateson, 1985: 233).

I have often been impatient with colleagues who seemed unable to discern between the trivial and the profound (Bateson, 2000: xxiv).

2 1.1 THE ART OF CLASSICAL RIDING

It had been the Greek general Xenophon's (435-354 BC) good fortune to spend a great deal of his time riding, which made him feel versed in the horseman's artsomething which made him able to: AAAset forth to the younger of my friends what I believe would be the best way for them to deal with horses (Xenophon, 1962: 13).

This "setting forth" of Xenophon is the oldest extant treatise on the art of horsemanship, a treatise on which what is today known as classical riding, is based. Classical riding stemmed from the way the Greeks approached lifean approach which had as its base a sense of wholeness (Kitto, 1979: 169) something which is totally different to the technically accurate, but heavy, tight, domineering or aggressive approach so often found in current horsemanship (Loch, 1997: 1).

1.2

INTEGRATION AS THE BASIS OF CLASSICAL RIDING

Since the time of the Greeks, classical riding was based upon functionality, beauty, grace and harmony (Xenophon, 1962: 56; Cavendish, 1743/2000; Fillis, 1902/1977; Gurinire, 1733/1994; Oliveira, 1988: 118; Podhajsky, 1967; Steinbrecht, 1884/19951), something that requires as its foundation correct motor control and its correlate correct neuromuscular-skeletal integration (Dart's, 1947 tripartite system) (also see Baucher, 1843/1992; Belasik, 1999; Cavendish, 1743/2000; Fillis, 1902/1977; Gurinire, 1733/1994 and Xenophon, 1962 for the way classical trained authors in the equine world view this problem).

In 1743, the Duke of Newcastle, William Cavendish, addressed the art of classical riding in an open letter to "noble horsemen". He was of the opinion that

3 a person cannot ride with address unless he is well versed in the art of riding. He (Cavendish, 1743/2000: 133) then went further and stated that:

Without it nothing can be so ridiculous, so awkward, so irregular, as a man on horseback. His members appear to be dislocated, because they are out of their natural situation, and his posture uneasy, because it is constrained; whereas a good rider sits in his natural place, and his posture is easy, because free and unconstrained. It is in horsemanship, as in other things: regularity is beautiful, while distortion and compulsion must be without grace. There is an elegance moreover in Horsemanship, which looks as if was natural, tho' it proceeds from art.

Cavendish was probably a keen observer, and therefore able, even without the aid of modern knowledge and techniques, to distinguish between good and poor motor control in riders. What he possibly saw in the "dislocated" rider was a fallen Humpty Dumpty, and it was only much later that Alexander (1932/1985: 49-55), Dart (1947) and Belasik (1990: 11) came to the realisation of the large effort required to put a fallen Humpty Dumpty together again.

In the view of Cavendish (1743/2000: 133) an integrated Humpty Dumpty has an easy posture which is free and unconstrained, something which those involved in the study of neuromuscular-skeletal or motor control saw as coordinated movement, and what those involved in "bodywork"2 and referred to as "good use" (Alexander, 1932/1985: 49-69), "poise" (Dart, 1947), or spontaneous behaviour (Feldenkrais, 1985: 6-13).

There is a similarity in the movement in man and animal (Kelso, 1998: 217; Sherrington, 1946: 85), a similarity which probably is governed by the similarity in anatomical structure and generic neuromuscular-skeletal mechanisms (Belasik, 1999: 42-43; Kelso, 1998: 217). Cavendish's unconstrained rider, who sits in his natural place may, therefore, invite a similar response from the horse,

4 a phenomenon which explains many of the riding position connections. For example, Belasik (1999: 76) noted that the way the rider sits on a horse affects how the horse can move. This kind of behaviour in the rider and horse is in line with what is deemed to be proper in motor control (Alexander 1932/1985: 30; Feldenkrais, 1985: 191; Sherrington, 1946: 89).

"Dislocated members", and "uneasy posture", on the other hand, are the outcomes of poor motor control (Loots, 1999: 271-309; Loots, Loots & Steyn, 2002; Sherrington, 1946: 89) or an absence of poise (Dart, 1947). Outward signs of this are problems frequently encountered in rider and horse, such as fixity of positioning of body parts (Bentley, 1999: 25-26; van Schaik, 1986: 20) and its terminal result, faulty posture (Dart, 1947), lack of ease (refer to Albrecht, 1988: 16-18 for a discussion on this topic), excessive muscle tension and poor coordination in movement (Janda, 1978, 1983, 1993; Janda & Schmidt, 1980). In riding this means that riders, who do not have superb command over their bodies, will not be able to minimise involuntary and parasitic actions which may convey unintentional signals to the horse (Skipper, 1999: 71).

In his lectures at Yale University in 1906 under the Hepsa Silliman Memorial endowment, the Nobel prize laureate, Sir Charles Sherrington, emphasised the integrative functioning of the nervous system (Sherrington, 1906: 1-125). This concept is applicable to even simple reflex actions, since integration is found even at the lowest levels of motor control:

A simple reflex is probably a purely abstract conception, because all parts of the nervous system are connected together and no part of it is probably ever capable of reaction without affecting and being affected by various other parts, and it is a system certainly never absolutely at rest. But the simple reflex is a convenient, if not a probable, fiction (Sherrington, 1906: 7).

5 In the simple reflex there is exhibited the first grade of co-ordination. But it is obvious that if the integration of the animal mechanism is due to co-ordination of reflex action, reflex actions must themselves be co-ordinated one with another; for by reflex action there must be co-ordination of reflex actions. This latter is the second grade of co-ordination. The outcome of the normal reflex action of the organism is an orderly coadjustment and sequence of reaction (Sherrington, 1906: 8).

The realisation of the integrative nature of things in the nervous system, as early as in 1906 (Sherrington, 1906), anteceded the profound changes in Western man's world-view, which started to account for the interrelatedness of things. In horsemanship this is reflected in the all-embracing concept of harmony between rider and horse (Albrecht, 1993: 7; Cavendish, 1743/2000: 133: Handler, 1972: 51; Oliveira, 1988: 17-18; Wtjen, 1958: xix). One of the most integrative branches of physiology is the science of motor control, a field which includes the biomechanics of the musculoskeletal system, muscular physiology and neurophysiology (cf. Gurfinkel & Cordo, 1998: 1). This is probably the sphere of physiology in which Barlow (1990: 73) felt that acutely intelligent minds have laboured with most imagination and skill. Despite all these efforts, however, something is still amiss, according to Barlow (1990: 73), who further commented that notwithstanding the fine physiological research and theorising the task of teaching muscular control to individuals in their daily activities has not been greatly facilitated.

The same argument may hold for training in the equine world, since although attempts have been made by some to make riders and trainers aware of the role of bodily awareness and also the use of the mind (Bentley, 1999; Swift, 1985; Swift, 2002; von Dietze, 1999; Wanless, 1987), no serious attempt has as yet been made in the employment of the concept of motor control and the way it may affect riding and its outcomes.

6 1.3 THE BASIC PHILOSOPHY OF RIDING

Equestrian art has had its high moments and low moments throughout the centuries, depending on whether the age was one of enlightenment or one of materialism (Oliveira, 1988: 18). Classical riding originated in the era of Greek enlightenment (Loch, 1990: 29). At present materialistic philosophy

predominates in riding, a philosophy which is mainly oriented towards the outcomes of actions (Capra, 1985: 3-281); the unfortunate result of this being having riders communicating their intentions to the horse by forceful means (Albrecht, 1993: 14; Loch, 1997: 1). Harmony between rider and horse is disregarded, and this does not even seem to scandalise spectators of modern equestrian sport (Albrecht, 1993: 7-8).

In the author's experience the training of individuals in sport and other physical activities is presently largely based on the acquisition of techniques specific to that sport or activity and its specific actions and related competencies (cf. Bompa, 1995; Martin & Coe, 1991 for examples of this kind of approach to the training of athletes), rather than to attend to the process of the activity itself or its learning. Books on equestrian technique abound with how to do things (Froissard, 1988; Jackson, 1981; Loriston-Clarke, 1987; O'Connor, 1990; Podhajsky, 1967; The German National Equestrian Federation, 1985; Wanless, 1987), but they do not in essence take up the issue of what lies behind every action of rider and horse, and their interaction. Attempts to approach riding from the latter point of view are found in some equine literature such as Brger (1985), Rooney (1997) and Schusdziarra and Schusdziarra (1990). Some authors, on the other hand, even go as far as to solely ground the training of the human or horse on the behaviouristic model (Blake, 1979; Schaffer, 2001: 7-9; Schmidt, 1987, 1991). This approach is still to be found in the mechanistic approach in the training of horse and rider where specific exercises are, for example, prescribed to activate the horses hind quarters, or to deal with other

7 specific problems (OConnor 1990: 74-95, 103-126). Perusal of literature on the field of motor learning, as well as those on training of the rider and horse shows that this is indeed the preferred approach to solve problems in human and equine movement (Magill, 1993; Roberts, 1992). In other words, those involved in training and teaching, are more concerned with technical aspect of doing things, rather to concentrate on the dynamics of what is being done or learnt (Gelb, 1981: 96-102).

Recently there are signs of a different approach to riding, the treatment and training of horses (Jackson, 1981; Kiley-Worthington, 1997; Rashid, 2000; Roberts, 1996; Skipper, 1999; Wanless, 1987), a tendency which is running parallel to the ending of mans long association with the mechanistic standpoint, which originated with ideas of the French philosopher Ren Descartes and the English physicist and mathematician, Sir Isaac Newton (Capra, 1985: 41-62; Skipper, 1999: 48). Instead of approaching the universe as a big machine, some came to the realisation that the universe is part of a huge system with one part or action affecting all the others (Capra, 1985: 285-332). From a traditional science perspective, holistic or systems view is still difficult to grasp, since it requires significant modifications of many traditional ideas of present biological science. Yet it is becoming more and more important that the context or system within which it functions is clearly defined, an issue extremely important in classical riding. An approach which may prove useful in this regard is to view riding from the general systems theory standpoint, since this theory at first glance may encompass many of the features of Greek philosophy, and also of classical riding.

A study of rider and horse from a general systems theory perspective has not yet been undertaken in the domain of riding. This is therefore the research objective of the present study. In horse riding an approach such as this becomes more

8 and more meaningful, because interaction between man and horse, and its consequences are coming more to the fore (Kiley-Worthington, 1997; Rooney, 1977). Some riders and trainers, are, for example, now coming to the realisation that the interaction between rider and horse is dynamic. Because of this, they advocate a change in the treatment and training of the horse, as well as a return to the classical method of riding and training (Barbier, 1990; Belasik, 1990, 1994, 1999; Harris, 1985; Jackson, 1992; Kiley-Worthington, 1997; Loch, 1997; Mairinger, 1983; Roberts, 1996; Rooney, 1977, 1992; von Dietze, 1999). That we are dealing with a give and take situation is also realised, since recent research has shown that horses may have profound effects on humans (Hanneder, 2000; Kohanov, 2001, 2003; McCormick & McCormick, 1997; Pauw, 2000; Riede, 1988).

1.4

AIM AND PURPOSE OF THE PRESENT STUDY

In general the present study has diachronic approach, firstly since it grew over time, and secondly because the eventual conclusions will be constructed from a careful analysis of scientific and other knowledge.

The primary aim of the present study is to examine an ancient art, namely classical riding from a modern scientific viewpoint, making use of mainly the general systems theory. Due to the diachronic approach to the study, aspects needed to be examined in order to come to a relevant analysis of the problem proved to be manifold. It became apparent that a study like this would only be possible within a core of knowledge of classical riding and modern systems theory. The reasons for this are firstly, the fact that through the centuries riding, like everything else, was affected by the prevailing world view, and secondly that in the middle 1900s the general systems theory originated from the prevailing socalled mechanistic (Cartesian) philosophy. The inclusion of secondary aims into the study, therefore, became a necessity. These secondary aims were:

9 ! An investigation into ancient Greek philosophy, a philosophy which lay at the basis of classical riding in the ancient world. !

The investigation of classical riding as a phenomenon in its own right, from its ancient Greek origin up to the present.

The study of trends in philosophical thought since the Greek enlightenment, and its influence on man and animal and more particularly its effect on the horse as far as modern training and use of the horse is concerned. The development of what is today the most predominant world view is of particular importance, since this view played a significant role in the development of thinking in natural and behavioural sciences and even riding.

The analogies between ancient Greek world view and modern general systems philosophy. With these as basis, the possible effect of the recent prevailing world view on riding will be examined with particular emphasis on modern competition dressage.

Probably because it is considered to be an art, classical riding has not been subjected to serious scientific consideration. Due to this

shortcoming one of the aims of this study will be to investigate whether scientific principlesboth mechanistic and general systems theorycan be applied to this art, and whether it could be used to help to explain and establish a solid basis of many of premises found in the literature on this ancient art.

10 1.5 HYPOTHESIS OF THE PRESENT STUDY

The hypothesis of the present study is divided into two parts. The first part states that the ancient art of classical riding could today be largely based upon a systems theory approach, since this theory in many respects concurs with what is to be found in the Greek world view. The second part states that riding as an art could, and should be grounded scientifically, an approach which may be useful in the analysis, the prevention of, and the solution to many of the current problems found in riding, training of horses and riders. At the core of the systems approach to classical riding in the present thesis is the field of motor control, a subject which mainly concerns the function of the neuromuscularskeletal system. This system is not only involved in the integration and

synchronisation of all musculo-skeletal action, both static and dynamic, but it also serves as an instrument which links the organism to its environment. With the above hypothesis as basis, the present thesis has two basic points of departure. Firstly the importance of the analysis of the human-equine

relationship from both a mechanistic- and systems theory perspective, as well as outcomes of both these approaches on equitation will be investigated. Secondly, the role and importance of modern scientific principles in equestrian art, and the way in which they can be used to support and develop the art of classical riding and training will form a large part of this study. As far as the latter is concerned the greatest part of the empirical part of the present study will be based upon what the Nobel Prize Laureate, Nikolaas Tinbergen (Tinbergen, 1974) referred to as the old method of "watching and wondering".

1.6

ACTUALITY AND VALUE OF THE PRESENT STUDY

In the field of training of horse and rider several voids are apparent as far as the art of riding, and the lack of proper understanding of the essence and science

11 of riding. The value of this study for equestrian art in general is its contribution to the training principles of rider and horse, aspects that have not previously been attended to.

CHAPTER 2

METHODS

AAAno form of knowledge can be absolutely fixed and applied indefinitely. This means that search for such absolute knowledge is illusory, since all knowledge arises out of the shifting, changing activity of creative perception, free play, unfoldment into action, and its return to experience (Bohm & Peat, 1987: 56).

12

13

2.1

INTRODUCTION

Scrutinising classical riding from one of the current philosophical perspectives is the main objective of this thesis. In view of the quintessence of the present study it was deemed necessary to functionally divide the study into three different parts. These parts will be outlined in the following three sections, the largest part being an in depth theoretical investigation of the issue at hand, namely classical riding from a systems theory point of view. As far as the methodology of the present study is concerned, inquiry into certain scientific theories and approaches will mainly be done by way of an analysis of literature pertaining to philosophy, history, natural science, riding and training of the horse and rider and the relationship between man and horse. In the spirit of the present study the knowledge so obtained will be analysed, integrated, and synthesised in order to construct an integrated whole. This is the literature part of the study.

In the present study human and equine material was used to substantiate what was revealed in analysis of the study material. Therefore the behaviour (mainly the physical) of rider and horse was used as primary data to underlie and construct theories and explanations.

2.2

THE THEORETICAL INVESTIGATION INTO CLASSICAL RIDING AND SYSTEMS THEORY

2.2.1 The nature of the present study

Metaphoric perception is fundamental to all science and it involves bringing together previously incompatible ideas in radically new ways (Bohm & Peat, 1987: 35). The present study, an example of such an endeavour, is an attempt

14 to bring two seemingly incompatible fields of study togetherthe art of classical riding and modern systems theory. In order to reach this objective, a specific method of study was selected, a way that can be explained as follows: In science similarities and differences take place primarily though the mind. With the development of science this aspect of perception gained in importance. Very little of what could be called direct sense perception takes place in, for example, physics today. At one time scientific instruments, such as the telescope and the microscope could have been considered as direct extensions of the senses. Today, however, especially in the field of physics, the connection between experimental apparatus and human experience is becoming more and more remote. At present the realm of physics is that of perception through the mind, where theory dominates over experiment in the development of the scientific perception of nature (Bohm & Peat, 1987: 35-36). The present study, although mainly in the field of biology, takes the same route, which will explain the use of a large volume of seemingly disparate sources in the literature, and its de-emphasis of empirical research methods. The latter argument is exemplified in the field of rock art by Lewis-Williams (1972: 53-54) who pointed out that:

The significance of any representation is in its context. This is unfortunately destroyed by a system of recording that places each representation on a separate card. Although such a system provides information about the vocabulary of the art, it divorces related elements. Furthermore, the information concerning the vocabulary is limited by the denotation of the representations: the full semantic range cannot be explored if the representation is not studied in context.

In essence, therefore, the present study was approached from a hermeneutic standpoint, where the discipline of hermeneutics both in its theoretical attitude toward the practice of interpretation, the interpretation of texts, and secondly in relation to the experiences interpreted in them (Gademer, 1998: 112), and its

15 application in this study to the action of biological organisms (human and equine). In the latter context, the biological action will be treated as though it has a textual and semantic structure (Packer, 1985).

2.2.2 Ancient Greek philosophy and classical riding

Classical riding emanated from ancient Greece (Loch, 1990: 27; Xenophon, 1962: 13-68), and in all probability many of the attributes of this art stemmed from the ancient Greek world view, a view that the originator of classical ridingGeneral Xenophonwas familiar with, since he was a disciple of the philosopher Socrates (see Xenophon, 1950abc). To this end Greek world view and philosophy, and the way in which these could have influenced the approach to riding in ancient Greece and the periods that followed on it, will be examined. Therefore, the first part of the present study dealt with a review of some aspects, of ancient Greek philosophy, relevant to classical riding. A review like this also proved to be necessary, in view of the fact that many of the attributes of modern systems theory, can be related back to Greek thinking (Capra, 1997: 42).

2.2.3 Philosophical trends following the Greeks and their effect on world view, science and riding

The second part of the thesis starts with a brief consideration of the periods that followed the classical, such as the middle ages, the Renaissance, the Baroque and Romantic periods. Consideration of these aspects is necessary in the context of the present study, because of the upsurge in equitation during especially the Baroque period (Loch, 1990: 45). This will be followed by a discussion of some aspects of modern philosophy, and modern scientific methodology with its reductionistic (fragmented) thinking, philosophical thinking that has had lasting effects not only on riding, but also on the welfare of the horse. The effect of this kind of thinking on riding will be further taken up in a

16 separate chapter in which classical and modern competition dressage is compared.

General systems theory arose from modern philosophical thought. The important aspects of this theory, especially those relevant to the present study, are analysed.

2.2.4 Classical riding from a Cartesian and systems theory perspective: The scientific aspects of riding

The second aim of the study was to investigate the possibility that science may play a significant role in the art of classical riding and modern competition dressage.

This was done firstly by an analysis of theories pertaining to the field of what today is known as "motor control", and the way in which it can be applied to riding. As far as general systems theory is concerned, two approaches to motor control fit into general systems theory, and these therefore were mainly investigated. These theories were those of the Russian scientist Nikolai Alexandrowitsch Bernstein (1967) and the dynamic systems theory (Kugler, Kelso & Turvey, 1982; Turvey, Fitch & Tuller, 1982: 239-242). Issues pertaining to the traditional physiological approach to control of movement in organisms were included in the study and discussed, where applicable. In addition to this riders and horses were used to verify many of the points made in this part of the study (section 2.3.4). Other aspects, that could be considered under the heading of general systems theory, such a s so me a n a t o mical and biomechanical themes, will where deemed necessary, be added to the deliberation of the dynamic systems theory. In order to complete the picture, the study should have analysed in depth other aspects related to classical riding, such as muscle-balance, bodywork and the psychology of poise, aspects that were only cursory treated in the present study due to the problem of making

17 the thesis too bulky. The study of dynamic systems theory, is, however, sufficient to explain the use of scientific principles of classical riding.

2.2.5 Literature cited in this study

Due to the nature of the study, the literature cited in the study varied from that obtained in scientific publications, publications written by scientists and philosophers on specific topics, publications by authors with scientific backgrounds (such as those with Doctoral degrees) on: !

Themes revolving around some issues investigated in the present study. These themes were those that to a large extent, have not been researched up to the present (see section 6.4, for example).

Equine mattersthese publications comprised a large number of books and articles written by experts in the field of riding and the training of horses.

Older literature was extensively used in the present study, an action that is contrary to current practice, where researchers are advised to consult mainly the most recent scientific literature. The British philosopher, Professor Mary Midgley had strong opinions in this regard. According to her (Midgley, 1992: 180):

The temptation to assume so [that older research may be mistaken] is naturally strong in academic areas where only the latest papers are read, and an article three years old is assumed to be useless. But in many central departments of human life this system of planned obsolescence does not work, because the essential problems are timeless. People who want to destroy vast tracts of existing thought in order to make conceptual revolutions therefore need to argue. They cannot simply proclaim that what they have not looked at is out of fashion (the present authors emphasis).

18

Midgley (1992: 180) also pointed out that

to tie ones personal attitude to the current findings of a particular science would be a far narrower commitment. It would be a prison indeed. !

In the preparation of the present study older studies were found to be amazing by virtue of their insight and in their conclusions which are still on par with what is currently to be found in literature on systems theory (e.g. Coghill, 1929; Merleau-Ponty, 1942/1965, 1946/2002; Smuts, 1926/1987). It should also be taken into consideration that some forms of research cited tended to create initial interest, then reached a pinnacle and then waned again, an example of this is the research on posture.

All non-scientific publications in the present study were subjected to scientific and philosophic scrutiny.

2.3

THE USE OF HUMAN AND EQUINE SUBJECTS IN THE STUDY

2.3.1 General

Although the main thrust of the present study was to investigate from a mainly philosophical and theoretical point of view, inclusion of human and equine material into the study was deemed necessary. In order to achieve meaningful results with human and equine subjects, the approach proposed by the Swiss psychiatrist and philosopher, Carl Gustav Jung was used. Jungs science consisted in developing a systematised body of knowledge derived from observation and study and discovery of principles and meaning behind the area of his studies, using standard scientific methods of objectivity. Jung and his teacher, Sigmund Freud, have an acceptable current ally in phenomenology,

19 whose proponents consider the various modes of human consciousness as their primary data and construct hypothesis, and theories and explanations based on these (Hoeffer, 2002: 5). In the present study this approach extended to include the physical, since in systems theory physical and mental can be considered as a whole (Capra, 1985: 27, 1997: 107, 257-288, 2003: 32-33; Hazzard, 1971; Kelso, 1995: 289; Laszlo, 1972: 154, 163). Therefore, the outcomes of all the deliberations should be: ! !

Something which has practical value.

Something which can be tested, evaluated on both rider and horse, and be included into the theoretic deliberations, therefore, it has to be something which could be used to substantiate one or more of the conclusions reached in the discussion. This, therefore, is how and why the inclusion of riders and their horses should be comprehended.

Two professors of Psychology Cognitive Science, Ester Thelen and Linda Smith (1996: 344) expressed the opinion that a systems approach liberates the researcher for using groups and legitimises alternative study designs. In particular they encouraged dense, multidimensional studies where in the present study, one can learn how riders and horses react to changes in certain parameters.

The use of human and animal subjects in the present study should in the end be viewed from the standpoint that the purpose of the observation of these subjects was not simply the recording of what occurred, or what was communicated, but rather to use the information gained from rider-horse combinations to continuously revert back to the guiding interests or questions of the present study. In this one has to concede that the hermeneutical experience has a far less degree of certainty than that attained by the methods of natural sciences. Despite this shortcoming qualitative information provided

20 the present investigator with special ways to broaden his experience and selfknowledge, and his horizons (see Gademer, 1998: 110) as far as the issues discussed in the present study. In order for the researcher to understand the practical issues of many of the principles of classical riding and the general systems theory, the author of the present study had to undergo specific forms of training in order to acquire and experience many of the practical aspects outlined in the study. These will be discussed in the following section.

2.3.2 Requirements of the researcher in the field of systems theory in classical riding

Those involved in classical riding such as the Spanish Riding School in Vienna purport to apply unaltered the methods of the Frenchman, Franois de Robichon de la Gurinire (1733/1994, refer to section 5.1.4 for a discussion of Gurinire) since the inception of the school (Podhajsky, 1967: 19). Writings of Gurinire (1733/1994) and others in the field of classical riding (Cavendish, 1743/2000; Henriquet & Durand, 2004; Pluvinel, 1626/1989; Oliveira, 1988) all emphasised principles that should be adhered to in the training of rider and horse (such as harmony between rider and horse). Anything pertaining to principles of motor control, even its practical aspects, however, was not found in the four aforementioned publications, nor in any others bearing on riding matters. Hence, it may be concluded that theories on motor control are currently not considered in the thinking of those in the equine world.

An important necessity of a study such as the present, is a knowledge of the application of dynamic systems theory to riding. The present study was the consequence of the present author's more than twenty years of practical experience in the field of dynamic systems theory, its application in the field of physical rehabilitation of sports people, patients with chronic disease and closed brain injury. His endeavours in this respect are further outlined in section 3.2.3.1. Consequently the author of the present study acted as his own subject.

21 The purpose of this was mainly to test the theoretical constructs drawn from the present study on horseback.

2.3.3 The author of the present study

A study such as the present requires the experience and input of somebody with extensive knowledge about neuromuscular control of the body, both in theory and practice, and more specifically, about its application to the practical world of, inter alia, riding (Abrahams, 1977, 1981; Allen & Tsukahara, 1974; Ayub, 1987; Bernstein, 1967, 1996; Bouisset & Zattara, 1988; Brooks, 1979; Creutzfeld, 1995; 221-369; Dart, 1950; Dutia, 1991; Easton, 1972; Eccles, 1957, 1977: 275-294; Evarts, 1973; Fukuda, 1961; Ghez, 1991: 533-547, 596-607; Grillner & Wallen, 1985; Hanna, 1988; Kelso, 1995, 1998; Kelso & Schner, 1988; Kornhuber, 1974, 1978; Latash, 1993, 1998a; Loeb, 1987; Loots, Loots & Steyn, 2002; Mackay & Murphy, 1979; Magill, 2001; Magnus, 1926ab; Magnus & de Klein, 1912ab, 1913; Massion, Alexandrov & Vernassa, 1998; McCrea, 1986; Plummer, 1982; Prilutsky & Zatsiorski, 2002; Roberts, 1978, 1995; Rooney, 1977; Schmidt & Lee, 2001; Sherrington, 1906; Turvey, 1990; Wiesendanger, 1998). Another reason for this inclusion was a very relevant observation by Hancock (2005: 228), who pointed out that a lack of personal experience in a particular field of study leaves the researcher embarrassingly nave and misinformed. Many of the actions and sensations in classical riding have to be experienced firsthand in order to be fully comprehended. Since many of these experiences of the art of riding cannot be measured with present scientific methods (cf. Lewis-Williams, 1972; Lewis-Williams & Dowson, 1988) they are aspects which have to be examined by an expert who knows what to look and feel for. This expert should be a person who has developed an above average insight as far sensory awareness is concerned. A person with extensive experience in the art of muscle control would be able to identify and understand good and appropriate movement. From this knowledge and understanding the

22 author of the present study was able to devise methods applicable to certain aspects of motor control in riding and training of the horse.

The author of the present study has had more than twenty years of theoretical and practical experience in what can be considered as the essence of good movement (see Chapter 6), due to extensive involvement with the principles of the Alexander Technique (Alexander, 1910/1996, 1932/1985; Barlow, 1990), the Feldenkrais Method (Feldenkrais, 1984, 1985), the Dart method (Dart, 1946, 1947, 1950), Somatics (Hanna, 1988), Ta'i Chi (Galant, 1984; Horowitz & Kimmelman, 1985; Pang & Hock, 1984), Method Putkisto (Putkisto, 1998) and the Mitzvah exercise (Cohen-Nehemia & Clinch, 1982)all techniques put to use in order to achieve poise, and to ameliorate its opposite, such as poor posture and muscle imbalance (cf. Loots, Loots & Steyn, 2002).

When someone possesses a more than average body awareness and motor control, it allows one the experience and feel the actions and their outcomes on horseback. The author of the present study, utilised this awareness to come to a realisation of the processes encompassed in the art of riding. His experiences will be reflected in all the discussions in the thesis, the development of training techniques and their practical applications.

2.3.4 Riders and horses

The subjects used in the present study were individuals selected from a large sample of riders and trainers who requested the author of the present study for his assistance. The selection of these subject were al based upon their availability and their long association with the author. Eleven of these riders were females and their ages ranged from 10 years to 64 years. The solitary male in this study was aged 25 years at the time of the study. The horses included in the present study were all at novice level, and were made up of 2 Lipizzaner mares, one part bred American Saddler mare, 3 Warmbloods (2

23 geldings and one mare), 2 thoroughbreds and the rest were of the Nooitgedacht breed (3 stallions, 2 geldings and 2 mares). More than one horse was occasionally used for some riders, which explains the larger number of horses than riders.

During training sessions the riders and their horses were intensively observed for periods ranging from 4 to 7 years on average once a week for a period of one hour. The reason for this long period of study on the rider/horse combinations is the fact that in all combinations were previously trained in the mechanistic model of riding. In addition, all the subjects were victims of the condition of muscle-imbalance, a condition associated with poor posture and improper movement (see sections 6.4.6, & 6.4.8, Janda 1993, 1994; Loots, Loots & Steyn, 2002; Norris, 2001; Richardson, 1992).

In the present study the empirical part of the study required the use of a research method that had been applied in anthropology, psychology and sociology for many years, and a method that is more and more utilized in the field of human movement study. The general form of research undertaken could be classified under the field of quantitative research, phenomenology, ethnographic-, naturalistic-, interpretive- or subjective research (Thomas & Nelson, 1990: 321).

Albrecht (1993: 8) emphasised the fact artistic horsemanship is not the ability to make horses perform particularly difficult movements, but rather that it is about the attainment of complete accord between rider and horse. In the context of the present study it should be understood to denote the riding of the basic paces, walking, trotting and canter with complete unison between rider and horse. At later stages more difficult work, such as the shoulder in was added to the programme. The methodology implemented in the present study was dictated by the central purpose of the study, which was to investigate the art of classical riding from a systems theory perspective. Riders and horses

24 were therefore primarily used to investigate and clarify certain issues that came to the fore during the study and not to serve, as is commonly found in empirical research, to prove or disprove any particular aspect. In order to determine outcomes of interventions on riders and horses they were exposed to a pretestposttest experimental design. In this case the riders served as their own controls. The validity of what was observed in the rider-horse combinations used in the present study was substantiated by what the author of the present study observed in local dressage competitions (where he on many occasions acted as a judge), and on video tapes of the dressage competition in the last two Olympic Games. The actions of movement patterns of these riders and horses were observed and evaluated. The outcomes of these observations will only be commentated upon in the present study.

2.3.5 The method of observation in the present study The method of analysis of the outcomes of work on the rider and horse combinations had to be appropriate to the purpose of the study, by methods considered to be necessary in view of the perspective of total integration of the present study. Physical analyses of rider and horse combinations therefore, were done without the typical fragmentation of detail. What was observed were their actions, their interaction in the total context of their actions (in this case their movement and physical attitude). The context included aspects such as the rider's world view, the rider's psychology from a movement analysis perspective (cf. Loots, 1999: 198-270), and the "manner of use" (see section 6.4.1 for a description of this term) in rider and horse. The combinations were always analysed in the context of the total pattern of movement. Loots (1999: 198-270) has pointed out that movement and posture can be linked to psychology and other parameters of the rider.

25 2.3.6 Rider and horse training sessions

All riders and their mounts were trained for about an hour once a week for the periods indicated above (section 2.3.4). The training sessions followed more or less a set pattern. During the first 3-4 training sessions riders and horses were allowed to freely do whatever they were able to at that stage, as well as in the way they were accustomed to.

During this initial period they were assessed in terms of their total body integration and all the requirements for good, graceful and beautiful movement. Total body integration implied the following: ! ! ! !

The position of the head and neck.

The position and function of the shoulder girdle. The shape of the back and thorax.

The shape of the lower back and the associated position and use of the pelvic structures.

! !

The position and use of the structures in the legs.

The general manner of use (see section 6.4.2 for definition of this term). In the horse this included aspects such as the general outline and the ability to carry itself.

Although the relative positions of the various body structures were deemed important, the relationship(s) between the various structures were considered equally important. Significant was the amount of interaction and stability between body structures and the absence or presence of structural connection

26 between body parts (being connected or disconnected) (for the purposes of the present study the arms of riders were considered to be functionally part of the upper body). During these initial sessions some adjustments were made in order for the rider to understand the purpose of future sessions. The same kind was also done on the horse.

During this period the riders received in depth explanations of what future sessions would entail. Following the initial assessments the riders were then trained in: ! !

The integration of their bodily structures.

The increase of the awareness of the effect of their riding on their mounts.

The use of subtle body language in the training of their mounts. The most problematic of these three aims invariably proved to be the structural integration of the riders, and it was only when this was accomplished to some extent, that it became possible to proceed to the following two steps. The outcomes of these interventions will be discussed in Chapters 6-8.

The intervention which followed, always had in mind the change in the total movement pattern in rider and horse. Intervention by the author included teaching by handling (to put the rider or horse in a more biomechanically better position, for example, verbal recommendations, or to expose rider and/or the horse to remedial exercises (for those for riders refer to Table 6.2 and for those for horses refer to Baucher, 1843/1992: 99-133; Bromiley, 1987; Denoix & Pailloux, 1996; Tellington-Jones, 1995, 1999; Tellington-Jones & Bruns, 1990; Wanless, 1987). The outcomes of interventions were used for the following purposes:

27

To observe and note the consequences of changing movement patterns in the rider/horse combination.

To clarify issues taken up in the chapters to follow.

2.4

THE USE OF ENDNOTES

Due to the encompassing nature of the present study not all concepts discussed will be familiar. Therefore it was deemed necessary to explain some of the concepts in more detail and to highlight some historical facts. These were made endnotes (denoted as numbers in superscript) in the main text of the study. The endnotes per se are to found in a separate section at the end of the study.

2.5

LIMITATIONS OF THE PRESENT STUDY

In terms of present day methods of research in the natural sciences the present study may seem to have some limitations, limitations that may create opportunities for future research. There are a variety of technological equipment and techniques available to assess the biomechanics of rider and horse during motion. These include video analysis (movement analysis system), force platforms, electromyography, strain gauges, pressure transducers and accelerometers (Clayton, 1997; Clayton & Schamhardt, 2001). All these techniques are based upon the assumption that movement analysis with equipment and techniques such as these are quantitative, and therefore it is more accurate and dependable than the qualitative method (Clayton & Schamhardt, 2001: 55), such as used in modern competition dressage (see Podhajsky, 1983), for example. These techniques all require expensive equipment and knowledgeable personnel, all of which were not available to the

28 author at the time of the study. It should be understood that since all of these techniques yield results about the specific parameters they are testing, that in the context of the present study, none of these techniques will give results of an integrated nature, even when they are used collectively. The problem here is that evaluation of any aspect of classical riding requires an integrated approach, something science has not yet been able to accomplish. It therefore leaves those in classical riding with the situation that final decisions ultimately rest with the observer. It will be shown that a valuable asset to this kind of observation is a thorough understanding of what good movement entails.

CHAPTER 3

GREEK PHILOSOPHY AND THE EMERGENCE OF CLASSICAL RIDING AS AN ART

Equestrian art, perhaps more than any other, is closely related to the wisdom of life (Podhajsky, 1967: 20).

The fine arts produce true beauty only if they stay within the confines of nature. Any digression beyond these boundaries is pun ished by distortions and caricatures and, although fashion sometimes sees beauty in such aberrations, they have nothing in common with true art (Steinbrecht, 1884/1995: 7).

AAAfor the object of education is to teach us to love what is beautiful (Plato, 1986: 165).

One of Plato's critics once stated, " I see particular horses, but not horseness". Plato answered, "That is because you have eyes but no intelligence" (Tarnas, 2000: 8).

Any approach to motor skill acquisition is dependent on underlying philosophical assumptions. These assumptions reflect how we structure and represent the world around us (Canic, 1986: 75).

An important, sizable portion of the riding task lies in coming to grips with oneself (Herberm an, 1980: 26).

Horses will endure no lies AAA. They show off the riders shortcomings. One only has to look, think a bit, add two and two together,and one gets a pretty fair idea of the riders personality (Mairinger, 1983: 123).

At their best, the great religious traditions have never made the mistake of glorifying mere distance, any more than the humanistic traditions did - until lately. For both these great traditions, the meaning of life is now, is here. When religious sages speak of eternity, they dont just mean a very long time which doesnt have an end. They mean timelessness, which is chiefly found in the present moment (Midgley, 1992: 222).

29

30 3.1 PHILOSOPHY AND THE ART OF RIDING

Two of the main tenets of the present study are that firstly training of the horse according to classical principles have a philosophical basis, and secondly that classical riding not only belongs to the realm of art but also to the realm of science. The former aspect will be dealt with in this chapter, while the latter aspect will be considered in chapters 6-8.

3.1.1 Philosophy of riding

Do those who engage themselves in the art of classical riding support the concept that riding has a philosophical basis? Barbier (1990: xi), for example, expressed the opinion that those who have written about training of horses over the last hundred years or so, have been involved in methods and rationales that have little to do with real horses and real life, and because of this were preoccupied with the writing of prescriptions. Barbier's philosophy of riding is closely allied to his personal philosophy of life, since he considered these two to be irrevocably related. According to him people ride the way they are, mentally, emotionally and spiritually; one of the things which may explain why horses perform differently for different riders. In his thirty years of teaching the Russian, Vladimir Littauer, came to the conclusion that the major difficulties in the making of horsemen do not lie in physical, but in mental obstacles (Littauer, 1983: 13). Colonel Alois Podhajsky (1967: 20, 1983: 16), a former director of the Spanish Riding School in Vienna, expressed the opinion that equestrian art is intimately related to the wisdom of life. He also maintained that many of the principles of equestrian art may serve as guidelines for human behaviour, and that through the centuries this knowledge has been applied as a valuable means of education (Podhajsky, 1983: 16). Another rider, trained at the Spanish Riding School, Franz Mairinger (1983: 14), had in mind to make his readers aware of the greatness of creation, and that everything in life follows a pattern and that everything man does, and the way man does it, is forced upon man by the laws

31 of nature. He also postulated that the relationship between horse and rider required something far deeper than mere ownership or performance (Mairinger, 1983: 17-18). With this de Kunffy (1994: 3) concurred, by stating that to be an equestrian in the classical sense, is not just to be a rider, but an expression of the stance the rider takes in relation to life, the essence being the love for the horse. Therefore it is possible that knowledgeable observers are able to discern the depth of art in riding by its appearance, because beauty through harmonious partnership in motion, appeals to the senses as well to the emotions (de Kunffy, 1992; 4).

Erik Herbermann studied under a number of classical riding masters, and was particularly interested in the aesthetic qualities of riding. He considered the physical attributes of the riders' basic 'raw materials' for the equestrian task to be secondary to the mental ones, and he pointed out that poor mental attitudes can be devastating, even when the rider enjoys good health and the physical conformation (Herbermann, 2001: 14).

3.1.2 Riding as an art

One of Germany's most esteemed equine veterinary surgeons, Udo Brger questioned whether horsemanship can be considered an art (Brger, 1986: 19), and concluded that not only is horsemanship an art, but a rather unique one, in the sense that it combines the pictorial element of sculpture (modelling of the living animal) with the musical elements of dancing which is rhythm and beat. Sculpture and music conform to the same aesthetics, namely proportion, rhythm, harmony and beauty. Horsemanship can only be an art if it conforms to these criteria (Brger, 1986: 19). In this context he was supported by de Kunffy (1992: 4) who regarded riding as sculpting while progressing through space.

32 Steinbrecht (1884/1995: 70) posited that the fine arts produce true beauty only if they stay within the confines of nature, and any digression beyond these boundaries produce distortions and caricatures. Although these distortions and caricatures may be seen by fashion as beauty, they have nothing in common with true art.

Nuno Oliveira (1988: 18), one of the great contemporary masters of riding, considered equestrian art to be the establishment of a conversation on a higher level with the horsea dialogue of courtesy and finesse. Once this is achieved the rider will be touched by the grace and the form, and captivated as if he were hearing the most grandiose music.

This approach has parallels in the East, which is that of non-action as an artistic ideal. The Zen concept of non-action or its Taoist equivalent of wu-wei does not denote doing nothing, but rather action in harmony with the ongoing cosmic process. To the extent that art imitates life, the aesthetics of non-action thus incorporates a notion of "economy" (in riding "stillness"), a notion which implies that human life must be in tune with cosmic process, that a true economy lies in maintaining an organic harmony with nature (Koizumi, 1986: 67). In this regard Brger (1986: 20), considered total concentration of the mind on the senses, a teaching of Zen-Buddhism, to be more essential to riding than any other art.

Herbermann (2001: 152-154) differentiated between functional and aesthetic art, the former being more of a technical nature such as, for example, utensils, furniture, bridges and buildings. The latter, however, according to Herbermann (2001: 152) drifts into the metaphysical realm of life where one finds sculpture, painting, music, poetry and the performing arts such as ballet, acting and classical riding. Herbermann (2001: 152-154) queried what might further distinguish aesthetic art from its sibling, functional art, and came to the conclusion that aesthetic art is a work of beauty through which the artist

33 expresses his joy and admiration for the object of his love. He went on and asked (Herbermann, 2001: 152-154):

Is it not an affirmation of life: an ultimate statement of 'humanness' generated through the disciplined energy of the whole person - body, mind and spirit? Is this ethereal quality not precisely that which separates ordinary handicraft from a masterpiece: that it transcends the confines of three-dimensional time and space, and finds its reflections deep within archetypal cosmic essences of our being? Are these not the attributes that have conferred art its timeless quality, where it has leaped beyond ideologies, fashions, boundaries and cultures over the ages making it truly the common idiom of all mankind?

In order to be an aesthetic artist the rider needs some special talent (Herbermann, 2001: 154), which might be measured by the degree of an individual's perceptive sensitivity for, and ability to harmonise with, the physical and spiritual workings of nature.

When those qualities central to aesthetic art and classical riding are considered none stands out more prominently than beauty, and that a work which lacks this essential element cannot attain the domain of aesthetic art (Herbermann, 2001: 155).

According to the German philosopher, Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), aspects such as beauty do not fall within the ambit of science, but rather under philosophy (Prigogine & Stengers, 1986: 88). Beauty and its adjunct, harmony, are central themes in Greek philosophy, however (Hamilton, 1930/1957: 31, 243, 248; Plato, 1993a: 29, 33-34; Plotinus1, 250/1952: 21; Tarnas, 2000: 41). Plato (1993a: 29), for instance, considered the beautiful to be in harmony with the divine. Small wonder then, that beauty features so strongly in classical riding. However, beauty is not readily defined. Herbermann (1989; 152), for example, saw beauty not as something being entirely subjective, but if one

34 seeks a guiding authority beyond him, one will discover upon closer scrutiny that it is possible to establish an objective evaluation of this elusive concept.

Yet the question remains: What is beauty? Herberman (2001: 155-156) regarded this question from a holistic viewpoint. By doing so another important Greek conceptthat of harmony (see Burkert, 1972: 466; Hamilton, 1930/1957: 248; Plato. 1993a: 13; Sheldrake, 1989a: 19-20, section 3.2.3.2) came to the fore:

Beauty is an attribute that cannot be abstracted from the object which possesses it, but rather, must be wholly intrinsic within it. If something is to be beautiful it must be true to its own nature. That is, it should have a deep-rooted harmony with natural law; be in accord with its environment, and radiate a purity and authenticity to the innermost core of its being. One can say that beauty is synonymous with quintessential harmony and truth. It manifests itself as practical or functional beauty a well-made utensil or tool; physical beauty a lovely face of beautiful form, or in graceful, elegant, fluid motion; and last, spiritual beauty outstanding virtues in personality or character (Herberman, 2001: 155-156).

Herbermann (2001: 156) then suggested that the core of our ability to detect beauty lies in inborn sense for recognising harmony in nature.

3.1.3 Summary and concluding remarks

The art of riding is not only about the act of riding itself, but is closely associated with the rider (or trainer's) philosophy of life, and therefore is an expression of the stance that the horseman takes towards life (Barbier, 1990: xi; de Kunffy, 1994: 3). People therefore ride the way they are, mentally, emotionally and spiritually (Barbier, 1990: xi), the essence of this being the love for the horse. The depth of art in classical riding can only be judged by its appearance, where

35 beauty through harmonious partnership in motion, appeals to the senses as well to the emotions (de Kunffy, 1992: 4) The opposite of this ideal would be horses showing exemplary submission, somewhat constrained and dull, and a strict precision that is more mechanical than animated, the extreme of this would horses from which are demanded not just submission, but their unconditional surrender (Decarpentry, 1987: 6). The latter issue will be specifically addressed in section 5.1.5.5.

Classical riding falls in the domain of art, an unique art in the sense that it combines the pictorial element of sculpture with the musical elements of dancing which is rhythm and beat (Brger, 1986: 19). To be an art, riding must establish a conversation on a higher level with the horse; a dialogue of courtesy and finesse (Oliveira, 1988: 18), and the act of riding should be in tune with cosmic processes (see Koizumi, 1986: 67). Art can be differentiated into what is functional and what is aesthetic. In order to attain the latter there should be an ability to harmonise with the spiritual and physical workings of nature (Herbermann, 2001: 154). As far as the qualities central to aesthetic art and classical riding is concerned, the most prominent is beauty (Herbermann, 2001: 155).

Principles of equestrian art may serve as guidelines for human behaviour. Through the centuries this knowledge has been applied as a valuable means of education and recently the correction of human behavioural problems (Kohanov, 2001, 2003; McCormick, & McCormick, 1997; Podhajsky, 1967: 16). It is therefore appropriate to investigate the philosophical principles in which the art of classical riding originatedthe period of the Attic enlightenmenta period which roughly took place in the 5th century B.C.E. It was during this period that Hellenic culture attained a delicate and fertile balance between the ancient mythological tradition and the modern secular rationalism (Tarnas, 2000: 25).

36 In the discussion to follow it will be attempted to point out some of the parallels between equestrian art and the acquisition of wisdom.

3.2

THE ANCIENT GREEK MIND

3.2.1 Introduction

When Western science and philosophy began, the ancient world was already very old. In particular, the Aegean Sea had been the seat of high civilizations from the Neolithic age onwards. These civilizations were as old as those of Egypt and Babylon, and superior to both in most things that matter (Burnet, 1930/1963: 2). Both these civilisations, however, influenced those in the Aegean (Burnet, 1930/1963: 3), the Egyptians being a source of mathematical science and the Babylonians of astronomy. While primitive religion regarded heavenly bodies and the heavens themselves as divine, and therefore wholly different from anything on earth, the Greeks, however, were against any such distinction (Burnet, 1930/1963: 18). They were also curious about the world, and in addition they were also good observers. Their curiosity about the world was therefore satisfied by the use of their powers of observation and experimentation (Burnet, 1930/1963: 26-27).

In the late sixth century BC the miracle of Ionia and Greece occurred with philosophy, science, art and poetry all reaching a point that was not reached again for 2000 years (Clark, 1974: 33). The world in which this miracle came to life was one in which the reason played the smallest role; a world in which all that was important belonged to the realm of the unseen, known only to spirit, and secondly with a despot usually enthroned, whose whims and passions were the determining factor in the state with the populace subjected, and thirdly with a great priestly organisation to which was handed the domain of the intellect (Hamilton, 1930/1957: 9-12). In such conditions men, seeing little hope for

37 happiness in the world would instinctively turn toward another, which was the world of the dead (Hamilton, 1930/1957: 13), since it was only here that man could find peace, pleasure and security. Yet, while the East and older civilisations often were extremely efficient in practical matters and, sometimes in their art not inferior to the Greeks, they were, however, according to Kitto (1970: 8) intellectually barren. The new power of mind that marked Greece thus arose in a world facing toward the way of the spirit (Hamilton, 1930/1957: 12). For a brief period in Greece East and West met; the bias toward the rational that was to distinguish the West and the deep spiritual inheritance of the East were united (Hamilton, 1930/1957: 12).

Ancient Greece is generally regarded as being the cradle of philosophy and Western civilization (Matson, 1987: 3; Popper, 1980: 171), the philosopher literally being a "lover of wisdom" as well as being a person who approaches his task as a romantic quest of universal significance (Tarnas, 2000: 41). While down to the time of Heraclitus (c. 540-c. 480 BC) philosophy, or physics was considered to be the investigation of "nature" (Popper, 1980: 11), Plato (1972: 103, 110) was of the opinion that those who apply their philosophy in the proper way are doing no more nor less than preparing themselves for the death and the state of death.

Although the Greeks were probably not better riders than their predecessors, it was in Greece, largely through the efforts of one general, Xenophon (c. 430-c. 356 BC), an ardent admirer of Socrates (Tarnas, 1991: 31; Thorne & Collocott, 1988: 1445; West, 1979: 223-224; Xenophon, 1950: 1-151), that horsemanship achieved the status of an art form (Edwards, 1987: 78), and because of this Xenophon is acknowledged as the founder of hippologythe science of horses and riding (Handler, 1972: 52).

The art of classical riding therefore, emerged from the period of Greek Enlightenment. In order to understand this milieu, the way of life and thinking

38 particular to ancient Greece during the period of Enlightenment will be discussed in the sections to follow, and these will then be related to the art of riding in section 3.3.

3.2.2 An overview of Greek thought

When the ancient Greek way of life is considered in general, their religious practice and the introduction of Reason and Number to their Pagan gnostic (mainly Orphic) thought, is conspicuous. The Greek mind will, therefore, be introduced by a consideration of Greek religious thought in section 3.2.3, simply because firstly in ancient times there was no segregation between religious and secular life (see Allegro, 1979: 33-34; Lewis-Williams, 1972; Murray, 1946: 1-2, for example), and secondly, due to its importance to the great Greek philosophers such as Pythagoras (c. 582-c. 507 BC), Plato (c. 427-347 BC), Aristotle (384-322 BC), and the new-Platonists (Davidson, 1995: 176-177; Sheldrake, 1989a: 20; Tarnas, 2001: 43).

Lewis-Williams (1972) argued that the only possibility of clarifying the themes which most deeply moved the mind of prehistoric Bushmen (here trying to explain the mysteries of rock art) lay in mythology. This is what is being attempted to accomplish in the section to follow, since classical riding, being an art, must have had specific mental roots, roots which lay at the bottom of peoples way of thinking and reasoning.

3.2.3 Greek religion

What the Greeks did for religion is generally not highly esteemed, simply because Greek religion became entwined with Greek mythology. In actual fact Greek religion showed one of the greatest elevations to a higher level in the history of the human spirit (Hamilton, 30/1957: 207; Murray, 1946: 1). Greek religion is also important since great philosophers such as Pythagoras,

39 Socrates, Plato and Aristotle and some of their followers were all intimately involved in the so-called Greek mystery religions (Davidson, 1995: 176-177; Lee, 1986a: 17; Sheldrake, 1989a: 20; Tarnas, 2001: 43), and also since to the Greeks religion and patriotism were the same thing (Guthrie, 1962: 82). What set Greek religion apart from other religions in the ancient world, however, was the fact that it had no authoritative sacred book, no creeds and no dogmas, and even no word for church at all (Guthrie, 1962: 82; Hamilton, 30/1957: 208), nor a priestly class (Burnet, 1930/1963: 4; Feibleman, 1971: 38).

In ancient Greek religion there was a dominating ideal which everyone would want to pursue, if caught sight of. The nearest modern equivalent of this would be the idea of "excellence", but in actual fact this ideal went further than thatit denoted the utmost perfection possible, the very best and highest a man could attain to, which when perceived always has compelling authority, something a man had to attain (Hamilton, 1930/1957: 209-210; Murray, 1946: 89). The ultimate aim of the different Greek Mystery Religions (such as the Orphic and Dionysian) was a quest for perfection which followed the path of "the way of return" to what man originally had (Freke & Gandy, 2002: 206; Plato, 1993b: 16), a path eventually ending in the attainment of true consciousness, the spirit, and the knowing oneself, the latter being equivalent to a knowledge of God (Freke and Gandy, 2002: 94; Pagels, 1989: xx, 37, 2005: 54-55; Plotinus 250/1952: 65-67). In this regard Socrates, surmised that in the end questions such as what ought to be done, what kind of life is best, are capable to be answered by the intellect: Virtue is knowledge. Therefore to care for the soul or to examine life is to reason about the good and one's relation to it. The intellectual seeking of philosophy was in contrast to the spiritual seekinga "received" discovery, mediated through a tradition of revealed gnosis (Martin, 1987: 141). Seeking led to Gnothi seauton (know thyself) (Matson, 1970: 76), and also to the centre of man's identity which is the pneuma or nous (consciousness) (Freke & Gandy, 2002: 89; Tarnas, 2000: 140). The relevance of this philosophy to classical riding will be later pointed out in section 6.6.1.

40 One might speculate, however, that the attainment of self-knowledge by means of introspection, could be a core issue in the attainment of excellence in something physical, such as excellence in movement and riding.

3.2.3.1

Know thyself

Plato gave us to understand that the supreme form of the soul within man is man's own mind, and that man should not look to any external source for guidance, but rather to himself, which is the most divine part of man's nature (cf. Bloom, 1995: 13). He also posited that this part of man dwells in the summit of the body and it is that which raises man to the skies (that this raising of man has connotations to riding is seen in the very common admonishment to riders that one should lengthen the spine or "ride tall", or to "be a puppet on a string", or to "stretch from heel to head", (cf. Harris, 1985: 35; Herberman, 2001: 13, 25; Loch, 2000; 17; Sivewright, 1984: 135-137; Swift, 1985: 42; 2002: 40), something which Plato poetically assigned as being the cause why man alone of all animals walks upright (Plato, 1888: 337).

In an organism knowing itself, unity will find utterance. According to Plotinus (250/1952: 215) a being that

has no parts or phases may have this consciousness; in fact there would be no real self-knowing in an entity presented as knowing itself in virtue of being a compoundsome single element perceiving other elementsas we may know our own form and entire body organism by sense perception: such knowing does not cover the whole field; the knowing element has not had the required cognisance at once of its associates and of itself; this is not the self-knower asked for; it is merely something that knows something else.

In the quote above, great importance is attached to wholeness. Following on this Plotinus (250/1952: 215) continued with the notion that the individual should

41 exhibit self-knowledge of an uncompounded being, as well as being able to reach such a state, in order to attain self-cognition. As will be pointed out later on, the concept of unity (wholeness, being connected) may also apply to the physical, and more specifically to movement and its control (section 6.4.6.2). So, for example, if people are not conscious of the way in which they use their bodies, they distort the form, and unknowingly impair the working of their whole body (Alexander, 1910/1996: 12; Barlow, 1978: 16). Lowen and Lowen (1977: 10) observed that it is possible to attain a great deal of self-possession and grace if the motility of the body is increased and if it is fused with greater selfawareness (section 6.7). The issue of wholeness will be further discussed in this chapter (section 3.2.4) and in more detail in terms of perfection of movement in section 6.2 and how this pertains to classical riding.

In practice the quest towards this complete union or gnosis, or "knowing oneself" for many signified leaving behind the idea of merely being a body, and discovering the soulthe body being gross and corruptible (Matson, 1987: 79; Plato, 1993b: 10-11), while the soul was considered to be subtle and immortal (Freke & Gandy, 2002: 20; Hackforth, 1952: 63-68; Plato, 1993b: 17). According to Plato (1979: 44; Matson, 1987: 75), Socrates was of the opinion that the "unexamined life is not worth living for a human being". For Socrates, examining life meant getting clear about what is worthwhile and why. The unexamined life pursued by most people consists in doing what is expected, out of fear or habit, and taking for granted the validity of the current attitude of the society (Matson, 1979: 76). Socrates believed that it was only through self-knowledge, and through an understanding of one's own psyche and its proper condition that one could find true happiness, the latter only attainable by living a life that is good for the soul (Tarnas, 1991: 33). It will be shown in chapters 6-8, however, that knowing oneself involves the physical as well. For the purposes of the present study self-knowledge can thus be translated into the ability of the individual to become aware not only of himself, but of the environment as well.

42 Perhaps one of Socrates' greatest contributions was his insistence that if one wants to live a genuinely good life, one should know what the essence and the nature of good are. Those who do not find this knowledge will be acting blindly, on the basis of mere convention or expediency, calling something good or virtuous whenever it conforms to popular opinion or serves the pleasure of the moment (Tarnas, 1991: 33-34; Williams, 1980: 9; Gordon, 1893, cited by van Schaik, 1986: 106). In a similar vein, it could be argued that, if one understands and knows what the true essence of parameters such as good movement (see section 6.4) and classical riding, one would be able to better appreciate what the art of classical riding entails. This knowledge should also be an essential prerequisite in the teaching of riders and the training of horses in this art form, knowledge which could also be of immense value to the judge in dressage in order to recognise the most important elements of a performance which contains all the ideals of the Greek classical period. Thus, central to Greek philosophy was the pursuit for the ultimate, which was knowing oneself and to become part of God. This central aim probably lay at the root of the Greek pursuit of excellence (arete, see section 3.2.4 for a discussion of this term) in all aspects of life, something that contributed to their art of riding.

Diametrically opposed to the knowledge of oneself, is what the Gnostics referred to as ignorance. According to Elaine Pagels, a Professor of Religion at Princeton University, the gnostic movement shared certain affinities with contemporary methods of exploring the self by means of psychotherapeutic techniques (Pagels, 1989: 124-126). Both psychotherapy and Gnosticism value above all self knowledge (insight).

Whoever remains ignorant cannot experience fulfilment. The Gnostics considered such a person to "dwell in deficiency" (Pagels, 1989; 125), a problem very common amongst riders. Riders, not only those of the present stud, but others in the world of riding, were found to be remarkably devoid of any knowledge of riding and its theoretical underpinnings by the author of the

43 present study. Once a person attains knowledge of the self, ignorance will vanish. In this the Gnostics share with psychotherapy a second major premise, namely that the psyche bears within itself the potential for enlightenment (Pagels, 1989: 126), insight that will gradually come through effort. This effort can be fruitful as the following examples attest to. As far as the attainment of poise is concerned, Dart (1947), pointed out that its attainment is only possible by means of restful study and observation. Alexander (1932/1985) is an example of this modus operandi. He required about 10 years of careful study of himself and others, to attain in himself what he referred to as a good "manner of use" (section 6.4.2). Even though being an accomplished rider, it took Belasik (1990: 9-35) about 13 years of intense self-study to serve as "an apprentice in the art of dressage". The author of the present study required about 15 years of intense self-study to come to an understanding of poise and its corollary "good manner of use" and its relation to the art of riding. 3.2.3.2 Spiritual development and the unity of things

Suffering and the abnegation of the intellect in other cultures led to the supremacy of the spirit and world renouncing (Allegro, 1979: 224; Hamilton, 1930/1957: 30). Love of reason and of life, however, delight in the use of the mind and body, distinguished the Greek way. The Greeks, however, knew the way of the spirit (Hamilton, 1930/1957: 30). What distinguished the Greeks from Egypt and India, however, was not an inferior degree of spirituality, but a superior degree of mentality, where great mind and great spirit combined (Hamilton, 1930/1957: 30). To the Greeks the spiritual world was not another world from the natural world. It was the same world as that known to the mind. Beauty and rationality were both manifested in it (Hamilton, 1930/1957: 31). In order to come to an understanding of the world of classical riding one should reorientate oneself to the concept that man is embedded in nature as part of it, and that the Greeks held that the whole of nature was actively related to the gods (Feibleman, 1971: 35).

44

For Plato, the ultimate reality was not only ethical and rational in nature, but also aesthetic where the Good, the True, and the Beautiful were effectively united in the supreme creative principle (Tarnas, 2000: 41). As the most accessible of the Forms, visible in part even to the naked eye, Beauty opens up the human awareness to the existence of other Forms, and by doing so draws the eye of the observer to the beatific vision and knowledge of the True and the Good (Tarnas, 2000: 41). Hence Plato did not consider nous or spirit to be mere intellect divorced from passion and desire , but to be reason or thought moved by desire, by the desire of the soul for that which is akin to it, the desire to know and enjoy its object in that complete union which the great mystics have sought to describe, something which Plato often described in terms of sexual imagery in his works in which the mystical aspect of his philosophy is prominent, such as his Symposium and Republic (Hackforth, 1952: 10; Tarnas 2000: 41). Plato described the knowledge of the divine as being implicit in every soul, and the philosopher must permit himself to be grasped by a passion to restore the former unity, and to overcome the separation from the divine and become one with it (Plato, 1993a: 1-43; Tarnas, 2000: 41, 42, 43). This desire for the ultimate can be linked to the Greek endeavour towards arete. It will later be pointed out that modern natural science does not allow for a concept of a soul in its framework, everything being relegated to the material (section 4.4.1), this then doing away for a necessity to pursue perfection for its own sake (section 5.1.5).

It has been proposed that the dualism between mind and spirit prevalent in modern thought originated in the time of the Greeks (Heisenberg, 1962/2000: 39-40). In this respect Plato's Phaedo almost became a charter document for a certain world view, which could be dubbed "dualistic", since in this dialogue a whole range of dualities received their classic formulation: Soul and body, mind and matter, intellect and sense, reason and emotion, reality and appearance, unity and plurality, perfection and imperfection, immortal and mortal,

45 permanence and change, eternal and temporal, divine and human (Gallop,1993: ix). From Plato's standpoint, body and soul stand somewhat as opposites to each other in terms of their different attributes in man (cf. Plato, 1972: 131, 133). The ideal of those philosophically inclined is that one should aim to divorce the soul from its association with the body, since in order to get any revelation of

Reality and truth should rather be perceived through mental processes and not the physical. That is why the philosopher should, according to Plato (1972: 104112) completely despise the body.

The one of the two aspects of any duality, however, could be the precondition for the other, such as firstly found in the yin and yang theory, which holds that every object or phenomenon in the universe consists of two opposite aspects. Eastern philosophy always stressed the fact that all things are generated by the interplay of positive and negative forces (Beijing College of Traditional Chinese Medicine et al., 1980: 11; Horwitz & Kimmelman, 1987: 27). The opposite nature of a thing (yin-yang) only exists by comparison, also, a thing can be divided infinitely, its opposite nature by no means absolute, but relative (Beijing College of Traditional Chinese Medicine et al., 1980: 12). Secondly, in ancient Greece the law of the universal Logos conveyed that everything is defined by, tends toward, and is ultimately balanced by its opposite, so that all opposites ultimately constitute a unity. The finest harmony is composed by elements that are in tension with each other (Tarnas, 2000: 46). Taking into consideration the Greek emphasis on the unity of things this is probably the way that one should consider that the so-called dualism in Plato is actually looking at the world of opposites. If this is accepted, then one can understand why riding could be made up of such interacting opposites that are in tension with each other, such as softness (e.g. that in the rider's hands and certain muscles in the horse's neck) and its opposing hardness (e.g. that in the leg muscles of both rider and horse), active and inactive muscles, yielding and unyielding body parts. That which leads to the basis of classical ridingharmonyis the understanding of

46 the law of the universal Logos, without which riding will be in a state of constant disharmony (Tarnas, 2000: 46).

3.2.4 Wholeness and unity of things

Greek thought was aimed at widening perceptions and understanding the cosmos and to see things as an organic whole. This sense of wholeness of things is perhaps the most typical feature of the Greek mind (Kitto, 1970: 169), since they always regarded things as being parts of a whole, a way of thinking which was stamped on everything they did (Hamilton, 1930/1957: 221). This way of thinking is understandable if one considers the fact that the Greeks believed in the unity of creation and that everything had its origin from a single sourcethe One (Plotinus, 250/1952: 214).

While the modern mind divides, specialises, thinks in categories and divides concepts into different, though perhaps parallel categories, the moral, the intellectual the aesthetic and the practical, the ancient Greeks did not, even their philosophers were reluctant to do it (Kitto, 1970: 170). The Greek "wholeness" can span across these categories as illustrated by their language. For example, the word "Sophrosyn" literally means "whole-mindedness" or "unimpairedmindedness", but according to the context of its usage it may imply "wisdom", "prudence", "temperateness", "chastity", "sobriety", "modesty" or "self-control", that is something entirely intellectual, something entirely moral, or something intermediate (Kitto, 1970: 171). The Greek word "arete ", to use another example, is usually translated as "virtue", making it an entirely moral word, yet it actually implies the specific excellence (section 3.2.3.1), performance excellence, or effectiveness of a thing, irrespective of the sphere in which it is exercised. It can be used indifferently into all the categories (Gademer, 1998: 91; Guthrie, 1962: 8; Kitto, 1970: 171). According to Gademer (1998: 92) what constitutes an individual's "arete" is his or her due to as a citizen of the polis. The meaning of the word may be limited by its context. Thus "arete" of the race

47 horse would be speed, and that of the cart-horse strength. In man it may connote any way in which man can be excellentmorally, intellectually, physically or practically for example (Guthrie, 1962: 8; Kitto, 1970: 172-173; Lee, 1986b: 95; West, 1979: 51). The Greeks made their Games part of their religion, and used the contest as a means of stimulating and displaying human "arete". It was therefore "arete" that the Games were designed to testthe "arete" of the whole man and not that of a specialised skill (Kitto, 1970: 173).

Plotinus (250/1952: 21) pointed out that unity is not only restricted to creation, but can also be used to define everyday concepts such as beauty. Universally, he noted that a beautiful thing is essentially symmetrical, patterned, and that beauty is only to be found in wholeness.

Almost everyone declares that symmetry of parts towards each other and towards a whole, with besides, a certain charm of colour, constitutes the beauty recognized by the eye, that in visible things, as indeed in all else, universally, the beautiful thing is essentially symmetrical, patterned. But think what this means.

Only a compound can be beautiful, never anything devoid of parts; and only a whole; the several parts will have beauty, not in themselves, but only as working together to give a comely total. Yet beauty in an aggregate demands beauty in details; it cannot be constructed out of ugliness; its law must run throughout. All the loveliness of colour and even the light of the sun, being devoid of parts and so not beautiful by symmetry, must be ruled out of the realm of beauty.

As far as the concept of the wholeness of mind is concerned, the Greeks differed sharply from modern thought, in that the sharp contrast drawn between the body and the soul, the physical and spiritual were foreign to the Greek. To the Greek there was simply the whole man (Kitto, 1970: 173)2. The fact that the

48 physical body (physis) was considered to be part of the whole, and the Greek custom that it is the whole man that should be trained, it was usual in ancient Greece to make physical training an important part of education (Plato, 1986: 166-176).

To summarise, the Greek mind was one which was given to arguing from analogy, to leaping across chasms, the real reason for this being the assumption that the whole Universe, or Nature, is a unitythe physical, the moral and the religious universe together (Heisenberg, 1962/2000: 39; Hamilton, 1930/1957: 221; Kitto, 1970: 192). There was an essential sanity in Greek life, which was probably due to their instinct to see things as a wholethe excesses found, for example, in modern day religion and commercialism found no place in the life of ancient Greece (Kitto, 1970: 176).

In conclusion what can be stated about Greek religious belief in general is that: ! ! It exercised its effects through attraction and not through compulsion.

It inspired proportion and correction, a feeling for the fitness of things, rather than love or fear, and an awareness of the natural order (Feibleman, 1971: 42).

3.2.5 Virtue

The issue of arete (virtue) was briefly discussed in the previous section and in section 3.2.3.1. Since this concept strongly impacted upon Greek world view, and possibly also upon the art of classical riding, it is discussed in more detail here.

Socrates held that virtue is knowledge, though not any knowledge, but knowledge of what today is known as "moral value", thus bringing into the ambit

49 of reason the concept that if man knows what is truly good (excellent) then he will naturally and inevitably act in a good manner (Tarnas, 1991: 33-34; Taylor, 1951: 152, 153). He maintained that one has to take apart, analyse, test the worth of every statement about the nature of virtue in order to find its true character (Tarnas, 1991: 34), and in this process Socrates probably set in motion the seeds of modern analytical thought.

To Socrates it was not enough to cite an example of a virtuous act, and then say that this is virtue itself, since such an answer does not reveal the single essential quality within each example that makes it a genuine instance of virtue. So it is with goodness, justice, piety, courage, beauty, for example (Tarnas, 1991: 34). Classical riding can be considered from the same perspective; its essence needs to be probed, analysed, its true nature thus discovered (an attempt at this will be made in Chapters 6-8). "Moral value" implies knowing what is my good. This argument leads to the difficulty of how such knowledge is to be come by. Thus if virtue is knowledge, it has to be obtained by one of two ways, firstly by detecting it from the environment, or secondly by having it taught to one by someone virtuous. Therefore Socrates urged against the Sophists, who could only teach at best a professional speciality of some kind. Virtue or goodness, however, is no speciality with its restricted domain; its sphere is the whole domain of human conduct (Taylor, 1951: 154-155). The art of classical riding could thus be considered to fall under the ambit of arete, virtue or goodness (see Xenophon, 1962: 49, 50, 58; Pluvinel, 1626/1989: 16, 25, 26, for example). It therefore cannot be taught in the form of a speciality of some kind, it has to be considered as being part of total human and equine conduct and interaction. For the rider the best way to accomplish this ideal is probably to realise the significance of the inscription of "Know Thyself" at the temple of Apollo at Delphi (Matson, 1970: 76), and its implementation to become aware of the essence and function of one's own body and its relation to the environment (modern equivalents

50 somewhat applicable to of riding is firstly Belasik's, 1990 protracted quest for excellence in riding, and secondly Dart's (1947) recommendation of the use of restful study and observation in order to obtain poise]. The importance of this kind of approach to riding, and its neurophysiological background will be further discussed in section 3.2.6, and in Chapters 6-8.

3.2.6 Reason

Another feature of the Greek mind was its firm belief in Reason, a belief that in the ancient world can be tied to the Greeks only. The Greeks insisted upon the supremacy of the mind in the affairs of man, and by virtue of this they can be considered as the first intellectuals of the world (Hamilton, 1930/1957: 10-11). Thus with the Greeks the rule of reason began, and the fundamental fact of being Greek was that he had to use his mind (Hamilton, 1930/1957: 23). The Greeks assumed that the universe obeyed Law, which therefore made it capable of explanation. This is even found in Greek Tragedy, which was built upon the premise that in human affairs it is Law that reigns, and not chance (Kitto, 1970: 176). This led to Whitehead (cited by Kitto, 1970: 177) calling the Greek tragic poets, rather than the early Greek philosophers, the true founders of scientific thinking.

A permanent feature of Greek thought was that the universe, both the physical and the moral universe, were not only rational, and therefore knowable and simple; the apparent multiplicity of physical things were only superficial (Kitto, 1970: 179). Greek philosophers tended to disregard what was on the surfacefor example the transitory appearances of things, their multiplicity and varietythey rather tried to reach the inner, and simplifying quality. An example of this is Greek sculpture, which did not make the slightest attempt to portray the individual, but always strove to perfect its representation of The Athlete or The God (Kitto, 1970: 182).

51

If one considers Greek architecture and Greek drama one finds a connection between many of the qualities of the Greek thought such as their confidence in reason, their strong sense of form, their love of symmetry, their creative, constructive bent and tendency to rely on a priori reasoning (Kitto, 1970: 184). Wherever one looks, the feeling for pattern and balance is to be found (Kitto: 1970: 186). One may use Greek architecture and Greek prose, the latter with its passion for balance and antithesis. Some of the aforementioned qualities such as their strong sense of form, symmetry and their passion for balance are essential attributes of classical riding.

This section can be concluded with the sentiment of Plato which stated that understanding of the ends of life and the power to see life as a whole, and its meaning, is not contrary to reason, but rather that it demands its highest exercise (Lindsay, 1910/1950: xxi). 3.2.7 Numbers

Through the use of geometry, wisdom was preserved in ancient practice, and it should therefore be realised that the Greek concept of numbers, and what is at present known as mathematical science, is not equivalent, but that numbers go back to prehistoric times, and that mathematical science, probably did not emerge earlier than 6th and 5th century Greece; and that it was in the prescientific era that the "number mysticism" arose (Burkert, 1972: 466).

Perhaps above all other philosophical schools, it was the Pythagoreans who stressed the world's intelligibility, and especially taught the spiritual value of scientifically penetrating its mysteries to achieve the ecstatic union between the human soul and the divine cosmos (Tarnas, 2000: 46). For the Pythagoreans and later for Platonists, the mathematical patterns to be discovered in the natural world revealed a deeper meaning that led the philosopher beyond the

52 material level of reality. To uncover the regulative mathematical forms in nature was to reveal the divine intelligence itself, governing its creation with transcendent perfection and order (Tarnas, 200: 46).

Early Greek philosophers, therefore, such as Pythagoras, looked beyond the changing world of experience for the divine, which they thought of as that which was without beginning and end (Freke & Gandy, 2002: 88-89; Sheldrake, 1989a: 19). This principle they found in number or pattern, something they distinguished from substance or matter and viewing it as something which limited matter and gave it its shape (Burkert, 1972: 466; Capra, 1997: 18), a point of view which dominated Pythagorean thought. The discovery that the harmonics of music were mathematical in that the harmonious tones produced by strings whose measurements were determined by simple numerical ratios was a religious revelation. In the relations among numbers they found the essence of musical harmony, and they knew or discovered a number of propositions that are mathematically significant (Burkert, 1972: 466). For Pythagoras the soul was seen to be the ratio of numbers (Popper, 1977: 165), while reason was considered to be the ability to experience proportions and ratios, with the consequence that reason was not considered to be in conflict with mystical experience, but rather in harmony with it, for reason itself was considered above all the ability to experience proportions and ratios, an insight which helped to shape the Greek understanding of the rationalthat which is concerned with ratio (Sheldrake, 1989a: 19-20).

The mathematical laws of numbers and figures are recognised in the external world only after they have been established by human intelligence. By this means the soul discovers its own essence and intelligence to be the same as that hidden within nature, and only then does the meaning of the cosmos dawn within the soul (Tarnas 2000: 46). The word kosmos, signified a peculiarly Greek combination of order, structural perfection and beauty. According to Plato, to discover kosmos in the world was to reveal kosmos in one's own soul,

53 where in the thought life of man, the world spirit revealed itself. Thence the Socratic dictum of "know thyself" was not seen as the creed of an introspective subjectivist, but a directive to universal understanding (Tarnas, 2000: 46-47).

The implications of this philosophical reasoning for riding are not immediately apparent. When classical riding is seen as something cosmic in which one finds a combination of order, structural perfection and beauty, Podhajsky's (1967: 20) argument that equestrian art, perhaps more than any other, is closely related to the wisdom of life, makes sense. When it comes to the issue of numerical ratios in classical riding, however, rider and horse could be considered to be analogous to a musical instrument where both rider and horse could be seen to be part of a single string, in which the ratio of lengths in this human-equine string could produce different harmonic proportions depending on the ratio of lengths in the string. In modern competitive dressage, however, what is seen is the production of a single tone, for what is lacking here, is a universal understanding (section 5.1.5).

It is possible that this ability to recognise and experience ratios and proportions, and their harmony with natural laws, eventually contributed to the Greek emphasis on beauty, grace and harmony, and consideration for the horse found in the Greek approach to horsemanship (see section 5.1.2).

3.2.8 Joy of life and play

About 500 BC life in Greece began to change (Hamilton, 1930/1957: 21). It was in Greece of that time that joy of life found expression (Hamilton, 1930/1957: 18). Thucydides (c. 460-c. 400 BC) (cited by Matson, 1987: 66), for example, referred to the fact that plenty of means for the mind to refresh itself from business was provided for, and that games and sacrifices was celebrated all year round. In this respect Hamilton (1930/1957: 19-20) also pointed out that

54 to rejoice in life, to find the world beautiful and delightful to live in, was a mark of the Greek spirit, which distinguished it from all that had gone before.

The joy of life in the Greeks was manifested in that they were the first people to play, and they were people who played on a great scale (Hamilton, 1930/1957: 18, 21).

3.2.9 Research

There is no common agreement to whom should be given the honour of initiating research and science as we know it today. As mentioned before Kitto (1970: 177) assigned this to the Greek tragic poets while Thomson (1966: 19) thought Aristotle to be the first true founder of the natural and physical sciences, and also that he was the father of "research". The latter opinion is mainly due the fact that Aristotle continually insisted testing every hypothesis by all evidence at his disposal, something which is the chief characteristic of the modern scientist.

Greek scientific thinking in their century or two remade the universe. They leaped to the truth by an intuition, and saw the whole made up of related parts, and instead of relying on procedures such as magic a world of order was installed (Hamilton, 30/1957: 246). Recently a paradigm shift in physics in the first three decades of the previous century confirmed their intuition of the whole and the interrelatedness of parts (Bertalanffy, 1955; Capra, 1997: 5-13).

Never before or since the time when Athens was at its highest point was there a period of such concentrated production of works of the highest quality in fields such as architecture, sculpture and drama (Matson, 1987: 65).

55 3.2.10 Happiness and the desire for pleasure

Aristotle (384-322BC) (1966: 297) deemed life to be a form of activity, and when someone partakes in activity it is always in connection with those objects and faculties best liked. The pleasure that follows upon these activities perfects them and thus perfects life. Aristotle (1966: 297) also was of the opinion that life and pleasure are bound together too intimately to be separated, since there is no pleasure without some activity, and every activity is crowned with pleasure.

Happiness is the end to be sought in life (Aristotle, 1966: 300). Unlike in modern thought, Aristotle saw happiness not as a conditionnot a state of mind or disposition of character, but rather insisted that happiness is some form of activity. The latter would be true if AAAactivities may be classified into those which are necessary to some end desirable for the sake of something beyond themselves, and those that are desirable in and for themselves, clearly happiness must be classed among activities desirable in themselves, and not among those desirable as a means to something else3. For happiness is not in need of anythingit is self-sufficient. As for activities, they are desirable in themselves when all that is asked them is their own exercise. Actions which are in conformity with goodness evidently have this character, for the performance of morally good and beautiful actions is desirable on its own account (Aristotle, 1966: 301).

There is a spiritual dimension to happiness and could be defined as being the activity of the soul in conformity with perfect goodness (Aristotle, 1966: 51). He described a happy man as being (p. 48) AAA'one who realises in action a goodness that is complete and that is adequately furnished with external goods, and that not for some limited period but throughout a full rounded life spent that way'

56

3.2.11

The Greek minda summary

Tailor-made for the purposes of this section are Hamiltons (1930/1957: 243, 248) comments on Greek thought:

Of them all, the Greek was the most complete. The Greeks did not abstract away the outside world to prefer the claims of the world within; neither did they deny the spirit in favor of its incarnation. To them the frame and the picture fitted; the things that are seen and the things that are not seen harmonized. For a hundred years Athens was a city where the great spiritual forces that war in men's minds flowed along together in peace; law and freedom, truth and religion, beauty and goodness, the objective and subjectivethere was a truce to their eternal warfare, and the result was the balance and clarity, the harmony and completeness, the word Greek has come to stand for. They saw both sides of the paradox of truth, giving predominance to neither, and in all Greek art there is an absence of struggle, a reconciling power, something of calm and serenity, the world has yet to see again.

In its ultimate analysis the balance between the particular and the general is that between the spirit and the mind. All that the Greeks achieved was stamped by that balance. In a sense it was the cause of all they did. The flowering of genius in Greece was due to the immense impetus given when clarity and power of thought were added to great spiritual force. That union made the Greek temples, statues, writings, all the plain expression of the significant; the temple in its simplicity; the statue in its combination of reality and ideality; the poetry in its dependence upon ideas; the tragedy in its union of the spirit of inquiry with the spirit of poetry. It made Athenians lovers of fact and of beauty; it enabled them to hold fast both to the things that are seen and to the things that are not seen, in all they have left behind for us, science, philosophy, religion, art.

57

In the period of Attic enlightenment Greek scientists reconstructed man's concept of the universe. They leaped to the truth by intuition, they saw a whole made up of unrelated parts, and with the sweep of their vision a world of order emerged (Hamilton, 1930/1957: 246). It is only recently that science has been able to confirm the ancient Greeks' intuition about the wholeness of things (see section 4.3).

Greek artists were also aware of the unity of things. When they found a disorganised world of human beings, a complex mass made up of units and disordered, they too had an intuition of the fact that parts all belong as a whole (Hamilton, 1930/1937: 246). In Western society today the human mass is made up of disconnected units, a condition very prevalent and readily observable. This issue will be discussed in section 6.4.8. In the history of mankind some of the bitterest wars have been waged in order to promote one side of the truth to the suppression of the other side (Davidson, 1995: 158-161; Freke & Gandy: 1999: 299-300, 2002: 62-68). Since ancient Greece, the way of the west was to set mind against spirit, never to grasp the two-fold aspect of humankind, but neither could we give ourselves wholly up to one and remove the other from our consciousness, according to Hamilton (1930/1957: 247). Since the time of the Greeks this balanced view was to become one of the rarest of achievements (Hamilton, 1930/1957: 243, 244), and it is from this world view that the art of classical riding had its origins. In order to be considered a classical rider in Greek tradition, the individual should, apart from physical attributes, attain sophia (wisdom, or knowing him- or herself), and practise wisdom and virtue in general (see Plato, 1993a: 11). Only once this becomes a reality, can rider and horse individually be considered to be parts of a whole, and that harmony which flows from this union between rider and horse flows from love (Plato, 1993c: 13). In practical terms this means that classical horsemen should above all, be philosophers seeking for wisdom. By doing so

58 they may become familiar with the essence and the nature of good, and because of this come to the understanding that the art of classical riding is not only about the technical aspects of riding, but that in fact riding should become a spiritual journey. This will then firstly allow them to become, as Pluvinel, (1626/1989: 16, 21) expressed it, judicious horsemen, and secondly to be able to be, at least at physical level, familiar with qualities in both rider and horse, such as symmetry, grace, beauty and harmony (see Pluvinel, 1626/1989: 16, 21) within each of these two organisms, and equally important, of that between the two organisms (the issue of good movement will be discussed in section 6.4.2). This then would be in agreement with the idea of Socrates (Plato, 1993a: 13) which contended that harmony is a symphony, and that symphony is an agreement, and also that there is no harmony of discord and disagreement.

In classical riding this argument of Socrates is of paramount importance, since discord and disagreement in different structures, i.e. within an individual or between rider and horse always ends up in discord. This argument will also be taken up again in the discussion of modern dressage (section 5.1.5) and good movement (section 6.4.2).

Thirdly the wise horseman is able to distinguish whether the performance of horse and rider is spontaneous and unconstrained or not. The latter ability will distinguish the classical horseman from those purely technically orientated, individuals who rely on analysis of detail and function of parts.

Lastly, the wise rider and trainer will understand the true essence of beauty. Herbermann (2001: 155) had specific views on this issue (the second paragraph of his discussion is cited in section 3.1.2):

Beauty finds its origins in the core of the Creator Spirit of the universe: the furnace of nature's mighty laws and forces to which all existence hums in perfect

59 obedience. Its natural precepts and elements have been set down at the birth of time, and exist with or without our recognition or approval. Its constraints are always there, waiting for us to discover and understand them.

3.3

GREEK PHILOSOPHY AND ISSUES TO BE CONSIDERED BY EQUESTRIANS

The art of classical riding found its origins in ancient Greek philosophy. This does not imply that Xenophon and others, involved in training and riding of horses, were philosophers in the same mould than Socrates and Plato. Yet individuals like Xenophon lived out a culture which exemplified Greek ideals (Tarnas, 1991: 31; Thorne & Collocott, 1988: 1445; West, 1979: 223). Some of these ideals are discussed in terms of equestrian art: !

Unity and wholeness:

Since the sense of unity and wholeness of things is perhaps the most typical feature of the Greek mind (Kitto, 1970: 169), and a way of thinking stamped on everything they did (Hamilton, 1930/1957: 221), it also found expression in equestrian art. It was expressed in numerous ways in the treatise on the art of horsemanship by Xenophon (1962: 56) (section 5.1.2). Examples of this are: Avoidance of fretting the horse into ugly and ungraceful action, allowing the horse to do what he delights in and to assume all natural graces and airs, and the horse to present a magnificent sight, and that of one that likes to be ridden. !

Beauty and rationality:

The apex of perfection in equestrian art is not an exhibition of a great deal of different airs and movements by the same horse, but rather the

60 conservation of the horse's enjoyment, suppleness and finesse during the performance, which calls for comparison with the finest ballet, or performance by an orchestra, or seeing a play by Racine, so moving is the sight of perfectly unisioned movements (Oliveira, 1988: 21)

Xenophon (1962: 42, 55, 56) argued that the horse under the rider must appear graceful, must present a magnificent sight, and therefore its action should be magnificent and striking. In order to achieve this the horse must be allowed all its natural airs and graces. !

Harmony and opposites:

Strange as it may seem, opposites form the basis of unity and harmony. Previously it has been pointed out (section 3.2.3.2) that classical riding is made up of interacting opposites that are in tension with each other, tension which leads to unity and harmony in both horse and rider. What leads to what can be considered to constitute the basis of classical ridingharmonyis the understanding the law of the universal Logos, without which riding will be in a state of constant disharmony (cf. Tarnas, 2000: 46). !

Lightness:

This was not an issue directly addressed by Xenophon.

He did,

however, advocate lightness of the rider's hand and gentle use of the bit (Xenophon, 1962: 52,53,55). Lightness can only be attained by a perfectly balanced horsean ideal which can only be attained if the following two conditions are met:

In the horse the activity of the hind legs, suppleness of the back, the attainment of ramener (where the neck is correctly carried

61 from the base upwards, with a near vertical position of the head assumed through the flexion of the first two cervical vertebrae, (cf. Decarpentry, 1987: 77; Froissard, 1988: 24), without direct intervention of the rider's hand (Oliveira, 1988: 56). Effective coordination between all the muscles in the horse is also required.

In the rider the seat must be correct, his legs gently stretched down, arms falling naturally, and his back completely free from any contraction (Oliveira, 1988: 56)

Continuous striving for perfection (arete):

For the rider the best way to accomplish this ideal is probably to take the first steps on the route to self knowledge by becoming aware of the essence and function of one's own body and its relation to the environment, starting with Dart's (1947) method of restful study and observation of oneself in order to attain poise (cf. Belasik's, 1990 quest for riding excellence by taking a route of introspection and self study). !

The essence and nature of good:

In riding this is a very often-neglected concept. Riders and trainers are not trained in the essence and mechanics of good movement nor of the philosophical background to classical riding. The issue of good movement will be addressed in Chapter 6 !

Avoid acting blindly:

Socrates believed that examining life meant becoming clear about what is worthwhile and why (Plato, 1979: 44), which requires an understanding of what the true essence and nature of good is. Without this knowledge

62 there is a tendency to act blindly on the basis of mere convention or expediency (Tarnas, 1991: 33-34; also see Williams, 1980: 9; Gordon, 1893, cited by van Schaik, 1986: 106). According to the experience of the present author this is a major obstacle in the art of riding. Since there is little understanding in riders of the essence and nature of good, and a concomitant low level of physical awareness. Riders do not understand the psyche and nature of the horse (cf. Jackson, 1992; Mairinger, 1983), and therefore expect them to react the way humans do, to any given situation. Reactions of riders to any situation follow the dictates of their human framework. One of the present author's biggest problems with riders is getting across the dangers of blindly reacting to whatever the horse does or to what happens in the environment.

According to Brger (1986: 22-23) horsemanship can only attain the status of art if certain laws are met. For the purpose of the present study the first three are important. They are: ! ! !

That natural movement must never be distorted.

The beat (rhythm) should always be distinct and regular.

Proper balance must be established and continuously perfected.

Changes in man's world view following the period of Greek enlightenment affected man's approach to the art of riding. Not only did these changes in world view affect riding and training of horses per se, but also affected what later became to be considered as the art of riding. This is especially true in the current epoch, aspects which will be discussed in the following two chapters.

CHAPTER 4

THE EMERGENCE OF MODERN PHILOSOPHICAL THOUGHT AND ITS CONSEQUENCES FOR THE EQUINE AND EQUESTRIAN ART

In its analytic pursuit of the parts, science has missed the whole, and thus tended to reduce the world to dead aggregations rather than to the real living wholes which make up nature. This is a fundamental mistake, and must in the end lead to a falsification of our whole world-view (Sm uts, 1951: 162).

Science is tentative knowledge (Sir Peter Nurse, 2002).

The body is not a structure; it is a process masquerading as a structure (McCluggage, 1983: 196).

If we moderns have come to lose a sense of unity with nature, it is partly because we have relied too much on science as an aid to knowledge which treats nature as an object of rational inquiry separate from ourselves. By separating nature from ourselves, we have lost the sense of belonging to nature, which comes from the realization that we, too, are the product of the cosmic process (Koizum i, 1986: 68).

In a d yn a m ic p ro ce ss change is the m o st p re se rv ative o f th e syste m . Rigidity d e stro ys. F ixity is d e a th (McCluggage, 1983: 197).

wholeness is what is real, and that fragmentation is the response of this whole to man's action, guided by illusory perception, which is shaped by fragmentary thought. In other words, it is just because reality is whole that man, with his fragmentary approach, will inevitably answered with a co rre sp o n d in g ly frag m e n ta ry re sp o n se (Bohm , 1980/2002: 8).

In fact, despite the efforts of many reformers, Descartes still rules. Mind and body are still held apart. Their division tends to produce a population of one-eyed specialists on both sides, specialists who are mystified by their respective opposite numbers and easily drift into futile warfare (Midgley, 2002: 22).

63

64 4.1 THE PERIOD FOLLOWING THE GREEK ENLIGHTENMENT UP TO THE RENAISSANCE

When the leadership passed from Greece to Rome, Greek science, thought, mathematics, philosophy, the eager investigation into the nature of the world and the ways of the world came to an end, and was replaced by emperors who thought themselves to be gods and brutalised their subjects (Hamilton, 1930/1957: 10). The world entered the dark middle ages.

This period of darkness was to be followed by the Renaissance which saw the rebirth of Western man (Tarnas, 2000: 225). The Reformation, which occurred at the end of the Renaissance led to a state of acute metaphysical turmoil in Europe, and it is amidst this turmoil that the Scientific and the concomitant Philosophical Revolutions began (Tarnas, 2000: 242). The Scientific Revolution was introduced by Copernicus, and was basically completed with Newton's discovery of gravity and how this affected the movement of the planets (Tarnas, 2000: 248-271). After Newton, science emerged as the authoritative definer of the universe, and philosophy defined itself in relation to science (Tarnas, 2000: 280).

By the end of the Renaissance there was a great revival of Pythagorean and Platonic traditions, and the rejection of those of Aristotle, paving the way for a philosophy that dominated scientific thought up to the present day (Heisenberg, 1962/2000: 41; Sheldrake, 1989a: 22; Tarnas, 2000: 248-271), a philosophy which, inter alia, eventually was to have devastating effects on the welfare of animals (Kiley-Worthington, 1997; 11-13; Skipper, 1999: 48-52), and the way in which horses were trained and riders were taught.

65 4.2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE QUANTITATIVE APPROACH IN WESTERN THOUGHT

The notions that knowledge is always measurement, and that the whole universe is made of numbers and that God created the world in accordance to the principle of perfect numbers, had their origins from the fifteenth century mathematician, Nicolaus of Cusa (1400-1464), as well as with the astronomers, Nicolas Copernicus (1473-1543) and Johan Kepler (1571-1630). In this period, concepts such as: What is mathematically true is also really or astronomically true, and also that knowledge obtained through the senses is obscure, confused and untrustworthy, and that the only features in the world that can give certainty in knowledge are its quantitative characteristics, arose (Sheldrake, 1989a: 22-23). Kepler, for example, believed that God created the world in accordance with numerical harmonies, which is why the human mind was made in such a way that it could truly know only by means of quantity (Sheldrake, 1989a: 23). The great astronomer, Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), rejected the prevailing geocentric Aristotelean philosophy on the movement of the planets (Tarnas, 2000: 259, 261; Thorne & Collocott, 1988: 532). Galileo was of the opinion that philosophy can only be understood if the language and symbols in which it was written, are comprehended, and since the language is mathematics, its symbols are circles, rectangles, triangles and other geometrical figures. He also made a clear distinction between that which is absolute, objective, immutable and mathematical and that which is relative, subjective and fluctuating. The former is to be found in the realm of the divine, knowledge and human. The realm of opinion or illusion, on the other hand, encompassed the latter (Sheldrake, 1989a: 24-25).

This distinction was of great importance in the subsequent development of scientific thought and was a major step in the banishing of direct human experience from the realm of nature. The ancient Greek concept of humanity and nature being part of a larger whole, was now replaced by the idea that all

66 aspects of experience, which could not be reduced to mathematical principles were excluded from the objective external world (Sheldrake, 1989a: 25).

4.2.1 Ren Descartes, the mechanistic philosophy and the mind-body split

The French philosopher, Ren Descartes (1596-1650) made a formal distinction between mind and matternamely that matter may ultimately be described in quantifiable terms (Harman, 1986: 3). With Descartes the division between mind and matter, or between soul and body thus became complete (Heisenberg, 1962/2000: 41).

Descartes was a brilliant mathematical physicist (Sherrington, 1946: 83) and is generally regarded as the founder of modern philosophy (Capra, 1985: 41). He believed that knowledge was restricted to what was certain and indubitable (Ross, 1986: 17). In this respect Descartes (1637/1969a: 27) commented on what he considered to be essential to the truth and certainty of a proposition:

@@ for since I discovered one which I knew to be true, I thought that I must likewise be able to discover the ground of this certitude. And as I observed in the words I think, hence I am, there is nothing at all which gives me assurance of their truth beyond this, that I see very clearly that in order to think it is it is necessary to exist, I concluded that I might take, as a general rule, the principle, that all the things which we clearly and distinctly conceive are true, only observing, however, that there is some difficulty in rightly determining the objects which we distinctly conceive.

In his inaugural lecture, given at the University of Cape Town, Versfeld (1972: 13) remarked that faith is almost the opposite of belief. According to him faith gives man the power to walk in obscurity, whereas Cartesian science rebelled against obscurity, and therefore sought to make science the means of walking

67 in security. Versfeld (1972: 13) also observed that Cartesian science is a dominative science, and that Descartes believed that science would make man the masters and possessors of nature (cf. Midgley, 1992: 75-83), with the consequence that some men would become the possessors of others (these "others" obviously could also include horses). Although science initiated a successful dialogue with nature, the sad truth is that science debased everything it touched (Prigogine & Stengers, 1984: 6). Prigogine and Stengers (1984: 91) also postulated that science was the outcome of man's vital need to exploit the world, while its concepts are determined by the necessity of manipulating objects, making predictions and achieving reproducible actions.

As far as the classical concept of riding is concerned, what has emerged with the dominance of nature was the loss of a critical prerequisite of classical riding, which is harmony between man and the creatures of the earth. Descartes took the mathematical approach to reality to its ultimate, as well as the division between the physical and the nonphysicalan approach which has dominated Western science, medicine, psychology and economy ever since (Capra, 1985: 118-247; Dubos, 1970: 84; Descartes 1637/1969a: 27; Ross, 1986: 17; Sheldrake, 1989a: 25; Tarnas, 2000: 280-281). Descartes and his followers introduced the most far-reaching scientific simplification of, for example, the study of man in health and disease, according to the microbiologist, ecologist and philosopher, Ren Dubos (1970: 84). On the one hand was the material universe, governed entirely by mathematical laws. On the other hand were human minds (or rational souls, see Descartes, 1648/1985a: 294), which, like the mind of God, were non-material in nature (Descartes, 1637/1969a: 46; Descartes, 1648/1985a: 301; Popper, 1977: 177). His concept of being was restricted to the mind (Skipper, 1999: 48). By doing so, he placed everything of value, that which was spiritual, in the mind. Souls of animals were not of the same nature as that of man (Descartes, 1637/1969a: 46). All plants, animals and the physical human bodies became inanimate

68 machines (Heisenberg, 1962/2000: 42; Sheldrake, 1989a: 25). The body, according to Descartes is machinery, which does what it does, not by virtue of a spirit-soul in it, but because the outside world releases triggers in the woundup machinery. Therefore mans acts can be seen as mechanical reactions, which are started by jostling against the material world around (Sherrington, 1946: 83). Descartes made it quite clear that the necessity for nonmaterial elements in the universe was very small. He only needed God for designing the laws of nature, and for providing the universe with some movementall the rest Descartes has shown to be possible for man to figure out himself (Dubos, 1970: 84; Griffor, 1989: 300). Descartes thus separated God from the I and the world, and by doing so raised God so high above the world and men, that He finally appeared in Descartes' philosophy only as a common point of reference establishing the relation between the I and the world (Heisenberg, 1962/2000: 41). God was there also to implant man with clear and distinct ideas (Griffor, 1989: 300; Heisenberg, 1962/2000: 41). Consequently our knowledge of the universe was regarded as ultimately secured by God who provided cogito1 with clear and distinct, and therefore true, ideas concerning the world (Griffor, 1989: 300). Descartes' philosophy unfortunately led scientists to neglect questions pertaining to the nature of mind and the soul, and encouraged them to rather focus their attention on the much simpler, but more concrete problems of body structure and function (Dubos, 1970: 86).

Animals, in the view of Descartes, had no intelligence, no thoughts, no reason, no ideas; they were trigger-puppets in the circumambient universe touched-off into doing what they do (Descartes, 1637/1969a: 45-46; Sherrington, 1952: xiv).

In essence, what the mechanical philosophy did, was to put the purpose, the meaning and the form of the universe, outside the universe itself. This was because the universe was conceived to be a giant machine. Although machines have purposes and forms, these are all external to the machine (Sheldrake, 1989b: 90). Since animals (such as horses, for example) were now considered

69 to be without reason and soulless (Descartes, 1637/1969a: 44-47), and therefore nothing but machines, whose behaviour was completely determined by natural causes (Heisenberg, 1962/2000: 42), they became objects that had no real purpose and goal in life. Descartes' (1637/1969a: 48) philosophy also opened his mind to the possibility of gaining knowledge which would make man lords and possessors of nature (see Versfeld, 1972: 13). As a result of these two viewpoints, horses became victims of the all-pervading idea that they were objects that had to be subjected to the rider's or trainer's will (for a discussion on this topic see Skipper, 1999: 126-146). This belief in subjecting the horse to the riders will is still commonly found in literature on equitation (McBane, 1994: 92; Seunig, 1974: 134; Rees, 1995: 58-59; Tellington-Jones, 1995: 20).

The introduction of the mechanical philosophy of nature by Descartes, together with Newton's discovery of the so-called grand design of the universe, resulted in a conscious rejection of the scholastic orthodoxy that was taught at universities up to the 17th century (Sheldrake, 1989a: 26; Tarnas, 2000: 270). By the beginning of the 18th century the educated person in the West knew that God had created the universe as a mechanical system, composed by material particles moving in an infinite neutral space according to a few basic principles, such as inertia and gravity, which could be analysed mathematically (Tarnas, 2000: 270-271). This new paradigm, supported and enlarged by means of the experimental methods of science, proved to be successful (Sheldrake, 1989a: 29), since it enabled many physical phenomena to be understood in terms of mathematical models, and predictions to be made (Sheldrake, 1989a: 26; Tarnas, 2000: 248-271).

In essence, prior to and after Descartes, the basis of values that guided individual lives and social institutions was shifting away from a traditional religious base towards a more pragmatic, utilitarian base. By the 19th century these tendencies became so strong that a reductionistic 2 paradigm and positivistic3 philosophy permeated science (Harman, 1986: 4; Koizumi, 1986:

70 68). The latter philosophy declared that only what could be physically measured could be studied by science, and only what was studied by science was real (Harman, 1986: 4). In the first half of the 20th century the great debunking of religion by science came about with the claim that everything that could be understood about the mind would be learned by studying the human brain and behaviour, and what was of value in religious understanding would be reexplained by the methods and findings of science (Harman, 1986: 4; Tarnas, 2000: 280-281).

Thus, while ancient Greek philosophy tried to find order in the infinite variety of things and events by looking for some fundamental unifying principle, Descartes did the opposite, in that he tried to find order through some fundamental division (Heisenberg, 1962/2000: 41). Since the advent of mechanistic philosophy the progress of thought has been largely one sided, with emphasis on reason and intellect. In recent times this led to enormous advances in disciplines such as philosophy, technology and medicine (Capra, 1985: 26; Tarnas: 2000: 281); advances which were likewise one sided, and due to modern mans tendency to fragment things, led to a fragmentation of health, science, economics (Bohm & Peat, 1987: 15; Capra, 1985: 118-281) and even riding (Loriston-Clarke, 1987; The German National Equestrian Federation, 1985; Winnett, 1993)). Bohm and Peat (1987: 15), however, cautioned against the misunderstanding of the term fragmentation, since it must not be confused with the act of division of an area of knowledge into particular fields of specialisation or the abstraction of specific problems for study. These divisions are, according to Bohm and Peat (1987: 15), perfectly legitimate, since they are essential features of science. Since to fragment means to break up or to smash, fragmentation arises when an attempt is made to impose divisions in an arbitrary fashion, without any regard for a wider context, even to the point of ignoring essential connections to the rest of the

71 world. In Chapters 5-8 the folly of this approach will be pointed out. In riding to much reliance is put upon a fragmental approach to instruction and training, often with disastrous results (see section 5.1.5).

At the end of his monumental work, The Passion of the Western Mind, Tarnas came to the conclusion that it is immediately obvious that from start to finish the history of the Western mind was an overwhelmingly masculine phenomenon (Tarnas, 2000: 441-442). Not only has the Western intellectual tradition been produced and canonised by men (Midgley, 1992: 90-91; Tarnas, 441-442), but it was also based mainly upon male perspectives. The consequence of this approach was the:

enlightenment's exalting of the coolly self-aware rational ego radically separate from a disenchanted nature, the evolution of the Western mind has been founded on the repression of the feminineon the repression of undifferentiated unitary consciousness, of the participation mystique with nature: a progressive denial of the anima mundi, of the soul of the world, of the community of being, of the all-pervading, of mystery and ambiguity, of imagination, emotion, instinct, body, nature, womanof all that which the masculine has projectively identified as "other" (Tarnas, 2000: 441-442).

Capra (1983: 339-340) concurred with this when he pointed out that at present the Western attitude is too rational, male and aggressive. He found scientists to be typical examples of this kind of attitude, many of whom still propagated a mechanistic, fragmented world view, without seeing that science already points toward a oneness of the universe which included not only the natural environment but also man's fellow beings. Hamilton (1930/1957: 245) was of the opinion that in the period from the Greek enlightenment to the present there was an increasing tendency towards individualism, a tendency which led to the emphasis on the good of the individual in contrast to the Greek approach, which considered the good of the community as a whole. Midgley (1992: 117-118),

72 pointed out that this tendency towards individualism were associated with virtues fit for solitaries such as autonomy, independence and moral courage.

The more masculine approach and the tendency towards individuality are to a large extent left brain oriented, with the emphasis on reasoning in a more fragmented and more analytical manner (Hannaford, 1995: 78-79; Eccles, 1977: 351-352). Recently, attempts towards a more integrated approach to riding led to an encouragement to make use the capabilities of the right brain hemisphere to a greater extent, as well as to integrate left and right brain function (see Swift, 1985, 2002; Wanless, 1987, for example).

The male oriented approach to life had its ramifications, not only on life in general, but also on equine well-being. These issues will be discussed in the following two sections. 4.2.2 Consequences of the mind-body split and the mechanistic philosophy

4.2.2.1

Consequences for life in general

With the introduction and great scale acceptance of the Newtonian-Cartesian world view, mechanisation of science and society took place, to such an extent that everything from science, medicine, psychology, education and economics were viewed from this perspective (Capra, 1985: 37-62; Lawson, 1990). The way in which clinical science is presently conducted is an excellent example of the way in which this philosophy pervades modern thought and actions compared to the way in which Greek philosophy affected their way of life. The current acting out of a series of philosophical assumptions is something that largely prevents man from questioning those very assumptions (Kriel, 1989). The mechanistic philosophy is so pervasive in present thought that its influence on current methods of training and riding goes by unnoticed.

73

The advance of the field of physical science after Descartes and Newton made matter seem intelligible on its own (Midgley, 2005: 89). People then started arguing that perception and action were physical processes, processes which did not require a driving- or guiding force such as a soul. These were the thoughts that led, for example, behaviourists early in the previous century to leave the soul and subjective experience by the wayside, resulting in a strictly material world of man and animal becoming nothing else but self-directing ships (Midgley, 2005: 89). In the field of neuroscience this reliance on the mechanistic point of view resulted in for the reflex theory being used as a model to explain behaviour (Easton, 1972; Popper, 1977: 135; Sherrington, 1906), and behaviourism (Watson, 1913). The school of behaviourism put into the place of the concept of mind the conditioned-reflex chain in order to explain motor control (Koestler, 1989: 4-18; Schmidt, 1975, 1982, 1987, 1991; Watson, 1913, 1931). This was the consequence of the fact that in behaviourism the issue of the body-mind dichotomy was resolved simply by removing mind and consciousness from scientific thinking (Watson, 1913). Watson (1913) even went so far as to state that psychology could be defined in terms of stimulus and response, in terms of habit formation, habit integrations and the like.

On the strength of the behaviouristic doctrine, the behaviourists proceeded to purge psychology of all subjective terms such as sensation, perception, image, desire, purpose and even thinking and emotion, as they were subjectively defined (Watson, 1931: 5-6). The outcome of this was that terms such as "consciousness", "mind" and "purpose" were declared to be unscientific (Watson, 1931: 2, 4, 5-6). This theory tried to explain human and animal behaviour on the basis of the existence of a myriad of reflex circuits, the activity of which is released by an ensemble of physical and chemical stimuli. If behaviour seems intentional, it is because it is regulated by pre-established neural pathways in such a way that the organism's needs are satisfied (MerleauPonty, 1943/1965: 9). Central to the doctrine of behaviourism, therefore, is the

74 stimulus-response (S-R) theory, a theory which could explain behaviour in living organisms (Watson, 1931: 6):

The rule or measuring rod, which the Behaviourist puts in front of him is: Can I describe this bit of behavior I see in terms of "stimulus and response"?

Once the organism is trained, the behaviourist would be able to predict, given the stimulus, what reaction will take place, or given the reaction, tell which stimulus gave rise to it (Watson, 1931: 11). The S-R approach, however, is still accepted as being one of the central tenets of the science of perceptual motor learning by many (Magill, 1993: 195-`96; Schmidt, 1982, 1987, 1991; Schmidt & Lee, 2000). Where he initially posited that horses have feelings, desires and emotions, and are able to communicate mentally, Blake (1976: 83-122, 1977: 8, 199) based some of his later theories on how horses learn by turning towards the behaviouristic model (Blake, 1979: 33-53, 66-70), contradicting what he had put forth in his earlier works. A behaviouristic approach to training of the horse is still found in the recent, quite popular, method of "clicker training" (Kurland, 2001).

In medical sciences the physician will be prone to be a Cartesian, since he does not study the whole man, but either the body or the mind, and limits himself to even narrower aspects of man's total nature (Dubos, 1970: 86; Kennedy, 1983: 27). Watson (1931: 11) went even further than this when he stated that it is the business of behaviouristic psychology to be able to predict and control human activity. Despite all this confidence in the behaviouristic model this model worked badly and it had to eventually be abandoned (Midgley, 2002: 2). Yet, in many respects modern dressage and many aspects of the training and riding of the horse this model is still adhered to, in which the main purpose is to control the reactions of the horse in the same way than physical scientists attempt to control and manipulate other natural phenomena (see Watson, 1931: 11). In the field of sport and exercise the same trend in reasoning is found, resulting in

75 intensive research in specific aspects in fields such as bioenergetics, biomechanics, muscle structure and function, and the improvement of physical performance by means of task and function specific exercises and training programmes, and also in the discussion of specific issues by the Medical Commission of the International Olympic Committee (see Allerheiligen,1994: 314-344; Baechle, Earle & Allerheiligen, 1994: 345-400; Brooks & Fahey, 1984: 17-219; Clayton, 1991: 3-74; Clayton & Schamhardt; 2001; Gerard & Hodgson, 2001; Komi, 1992; Martin & Coe, 1990: 1-57; Pilliner & Davies, 2000: 199-254; Shephard & strand, 1992; Wathen, 1994: 416-423, for example).

In his discussion of the issue of reality, the Dutch philosopher Prof C.A. van Peursen (1967: 10) pointed out that man in his culture and history is characterised by the distance he has inserted between himself and his environment. The renowned physicist and theorist Professor David Bohm (1980/2002: 3) reiterated this sentiment. He also referred to what was probably in man's history a "golden age" in which man was one with nature and there had been wholeness, mental, physical social and individual. Bohm (1980/2002: 133) was particularly perturbed about fragmentation of thought which is widespread not only through society, but also in each individual. This phenomenon leads to general confusion of the mind, which then creates an endless series of problems, problems which interfere with man's clarity of perception, thus preventing man from solving most of them.

4.2.2.2

Consequences for riding

The use of mechanistic philosophy in modern riding is, for example, apparent in the ubiquitous use of specific corrections (e.g. the ideal body position and use of its parts like the lowering of the rider's heels, the constant correction of the seat, forcing the head/neck of the horse in a specific/desired position) the use of artificial training aids, the various rider's aids and the assumption that specific approaches can be applied to teach riders and horses, or to correct horse and

76 rider problems4 (Froissard, 1978: 16-25; The German National Equestrian Federation 1985: 58-78; Herbermann, 2001: 14-25; Loch, 1988: 30-40; O'Connor, 1990: 21; Podhajsky, 1967: 229).

Mechanistic training assumes that riders will, on the basis of whatever information is provided, be able to understand what a good seat and the application of aids are all about. In riding literature individual functions such as a good seat, the position of the rider's heels, the positions of the head and neck of the horse are frequently considered. Yet, nowhere do we find it pointed out that each of these actions forms part of larger integrated processes. Riders are also taught that they should ride their horses forward with their seats and driving legs into their hands (The German National Equestrian Federation, 1985: 58-59; Wtjen, 1979: 8-10), the assumption for the general acceptance of this doctrine being that, the rider would have the correct use which will enable him to ride with good use (see sections 6.4.1 and 6.4.6 for an analysis of the terms "use" and poise in terms of human and equine functioning). It is also assumed that the rider not only understands what is meant by all of these directives, but would also be able to apply them correctly. In subsequent chapters (6-8) of the present study it will be demonstrated that all these assumptions are in fact erroneous, and that some of these may underlie many rider/equine problems.

Technological advances have not given modern man the ability to manage situations requiring an all-encompassing approach such as the management of cities, the health of populations (Capra, 1985: 26, 136) or even to manage the dynamic interaction between physical or biological parts (Bertalanffy, 1955), and in riding, for example, the ability to ride in an integrated (poised) way (see section 6.4.6). Clinically the tendency still is to consider an injured limb or joint only (see Bromiley, 1987: 30-129), and not to view the problem in its totality. Back pain, both in man and horse, for example, is largely treated, according to what is diagnosed to be the site and origin of injury or problem, and then the treatment is then focussed on the alleviation of commonly encountered muscle

77 weakness by the strengthening of weakened muscle groups (Bromiley, 1987: 53-103; Bullock-Saxton, Janda & Bullock, 1993; Mayer et al., 1985; McGill, 2002: Chapters 13 & 14; Plowman, 1992; Rainville et al., 1997; Schrecker, 1971). This is probably the consequence of the alienation and bastardisation of human sensibilities in order to control him, to the point where man is now required to relearn everything (Barbier, 1990: xi)for example, how to properly integrate his body (Alexander, 1932/1985: 21-48; Feldenkrais, 1984: 57-171; Hanna, 1988: 101-153; Rolf, 1977), how to follow a balanced diet (Heller et al., 1999; Serfontein, 1998; Serfontein, 2001;Vanderhaeghe and Bouic, 1999), or how to breathe properly (Acharya, 1978: 129-189; Barlow, 1990: 112-113, 213216; Lowen & Lowen, 1977: 23-31; Zi, 1986: 27-156). All of this can also be applied to the horse. The numerous texts available on the reeducation and retraining of horses, attests to this (Blake, 1975, 1977; Baucher, 1843/1992: 99155; Brger, 1986; Denoix & Pailloux, 1996: 99-187; Ridgway & Harman, 1999; Jackson, 1992: 141-153; Jousseaume, 1978: 140-149; Kurland, 2001; McBane, 1994; Schramm, 1988; Rooney, 1977, 1992; Rose, 1983; 89-94; TellingtonJones, 1999; Tellington-Jones & Bruns, 1988).

For centuries the human intellect was held in the highest esteem, while everything relating to the body was put at the bottom of the ladder. Responsible for this fragmented philosophy to life (Capra, 1985: 93-281), himself, and the training and riding of the horse, is man. The alienation between body and mind has resulted in man losing realistic contact with his own nature (Barbier, 1990: xi; Reich, 1951/1973b: 294). This segmental approach of man is also reflected by a decrease in the integration of mans neuromuscular-skeletal function. Studies on posture, for example, have shown a lack of efficient integrative biomechanical and neuromuscular-skeletal function in modern man (Dart, 1946,1947, 1950; Janda & Schmidt, 1980; Hanna, 1988: 1-92; Loots, 1999: 272309; Loots, Loots, Loots & Steyn, 2001; Loots, Loots & Steyn, 2002), which may present itself as muscle imbalance and its consequent malposture, and

78 improper motor patterning (Janda & Schmidt, 1980; Loots, Loots & Steyn, 2002, section 6.4.8).

Fragmented philosophy, using neurophysiological theories based upon models such as servocontrol theory, was used as a basis to construct anthropomorphic robots, an approach which did not meet expectations, because locomotion in these robots were plagued with problems of instability. These problems led engineers to seek for new control theories. The magnitude of the problem caused some researchers to turn to the study of biological systems in order to show that dexterity and agility can be achieved by real time controllers (Loeb, 1987). The same problems are encountered in the attempt to come to a clearer understanding of the neurobiology of equine locomotion, by depending solely on servocontrol paradigms in the CNS (such as elucidating spinal cord circuitry and the properties of these, the way in which the cerebellum processes afferent input, and the nature of its efferent influence upon limb movements and posture) (Gramsbergen, 2001: 50). In order to solve this dilemma Gramsberger (2001: 50) came to the suggestion that what is required in this field, is not only a sound descripti on of the kinematic aspects of equine l ocomoti on, but al so kinesiological research as given by the dynamic systems approach (chapter 8).

4.2.2.3

Consequences for animal welfare in general and equitation in particular

During the time of Descartes, and for a long time afterwards, the belief that animals had no souls, and therefore no feelings, contributed to the unfortunate situation that virtually anything done to animals was legitimised, often unfortunately in the name of science. Since animals could not feel there was no moral obligation not to cause pain or suffering (Kiley-Worthington, 1997: 11-12). The adoption of this philosophy helped to make the distinction between animals and humans even greater. Due to science being interpreted in a Cartesian way and scientists being educated in that way of thinking, intensive animal

79 husbandry developed, which took off as a profitable and modern and progressive way of keeping animals and making agriculture a lucrative venture (Kiley-Worthington, 1997: 12).

Cartesian mentality, led to the common practice of keeping horses restrained (e.g. stabled for long periods of time), and not to allow them freedom of movement or to socialise, and to force them to be obedient to the human, probably led to the emergence of the very common problem horse. Numerous books on this subject have been the result, with some authors looking at the problem mainly from a mechanistic standpoint (cause/effect relationship, see Rose, 1983: 89-94; Schramm, 1988; Summerhays, 1947: 58-62, for example). More recently, however, others started contemplating the problem of equine welfare from a more holistic and humane point of view (Blake, 1975, 1977; Belasik, 1990; Hempfling, 2001; McBane, 1994; Rees, 1984: 155-200; Skipper, 1999; Swift, 1985; Swift, 2002; Tellington-Jones, 1999). In equitation the mechanistic philosophy gave rise to methods and rationales that have little to do with real life and real horses (Barbier, 1990: xi, also cf. Jackson, 1992, Mairinger, 1983), leading to a preoccupation with diagnosis and the writing of prescriptions (Barbier, 1990: xi), and a trend towards the more practical and the more expedient (Loch, 1986: 97-107; Nelson, 1992: 3-19). As a consequence, few classical schools of riding exist at present (Loch, 1990: 164-185). In the show arena virtually everything is quantified as much as possible, with a tendency to ignore the aesthetic (cf. Bateson, 1980: 231). Scrutiny of the rules and regulations of equestrian bodies indicate that these abound with ways and means to quantify/measure performance in terms of numbers (ffrench Blake 1980: 45; Jackson, 1981: 171-177; Podhajsky, 1983: 60, 98-105).

80 4.3 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY CHANGE IN WORLD VIEW

4.3.1 From reductionism to systems philosophy

The world revealed by modern science has been a world being devoid of spiritual purpose, opaque, ruled by chance and necessity, without intrinsic meaning (Tarnas, 2000: 418).

we are trying to apply the concepts of an outdated world viewthe mechanistic worldview of Cartesian Newtonian scienceto a reality that can be no longer understood in terms of these concepts. We live today in a globally interconnected world, in which the biological, psychological, social and environmental phenomena are all interdependent (Capra, 1985: xviii).

I believe that the world view implied by modern physics is inconsistent with our present society, which does not reflect the harmonious interrelatedness we observe in nature (Capra, 1983: 340).

A human being is part of a, called by us 'Universe', a part limited in time and space. He experiences his thoughts and feelings as something separate from the resta kind of optical delusion of his consciousness. This delusion is a kind of prison for us, restricting us to our own personal desires and to affection for a few persons nearest to us. Our task must be to free ourselves from this prison by widening our circle of compassion to embrace all living creatures and the whole nature in its beauty (Albert Einstein, cited by Singh, 1998: 3-4).

As an introduction to the discussion to follow it should be pointed out that in the seventeenth century modern physics gained huge status simply because

it was invented before the other sciences. Unfortunately this gave the Newtonian vision of the physical world an absolute standing as the final

81 representation of reality, which is why that vision is still the background of much thinking today (Midgley, 2005: 98).

Yet, it was in the in the field of physics that a dramatic change occurred in the first three decades of the 20th century, which brought a profound change in man's world view: From the mechanistic conception of Descartes and Newton to a more holistic and ecological view, a view which, according to Capra (1985: xvii) is similar to those of the mystics of all ages and traditions. This change in thinking was most noticeable in the field of physics (see Capra, 1983, 1985, 1989, 1997; Heisenberg, 1962/2000; Laszlo, 1972).

At the beginning of modern physics stand the intellectual feats of Albert Einstein, who with his two publications in 1905 initiated 2 revolutionary trends in scientific thought (Capra, 1985: 63). The first was the theory of relativity, in which Einstein revolutionised the Newtonian world view by abandoning the idea that mass, time and space are absolute quantities, and also unified the two separate conceptions of mass and energy by showing that both are aspects of the same reality (Sheldrake, 1989a: 30). For the purpose of the present study, Einstein's second paper probably was the more important, a paper in which he initiated a new way of looking at electromagnetic radiation, which later was to become characteristic of quantum theory (Capra, 1985: 63). Quantum physics eventually represented a far more radical break with Newtonian physics than the theory of relativity (see Heisenberg, 1962/2000: 53-66). One of the most important consequences of quantum theory was the break with strict determinism, whose equations only predicted in terms of probabilities. In quantum theory, individual events do not always have a well-defined cause (Sheldrake, 1989a: 31; Wolf, 1987: xxi). What also came to the fore was that physicists started to abandon the notion of solid particles, and because of this the word materialism lost its literal meaning. In addition, those who considered matter as being lifeless were proven to be hopelessly mistaken (Midgley, 2005: 99).

82

While in classical mechanics the properties and behaviour of parts determine those of the wholes, the situation is reversed in quantum mechanicsit is the whole that determines the behaviour of the parts (Capra, 1985: 76; Perls, Hefferline & Goodman, 1980: 29-34, 280; Rose, 1997: 169), and also that the whole is more than the sum of its parts (Smuts, 1951: 161). In the middle of the previous century the French philosopher, Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1942/1965: 50) already pointed out the fallacy of trying to the generate the whole by the composition of its parts, while Coghill (1929: 109) indicated that man is more than the sum of his reflexes, instincts and immediate reactions of all sorts.

In 1926, the then Prime Minister of South Africa, General JC Smuts' (1926/1987: 99) philosophical point of view anteceded some of what is taken up in the general systems theory, by arguing that wholes of various grades are the real units of nature, and wholeness is the most characteristic expression of the nature of the universe in its forward movement in time. The fundamental factor operative towards the making or creation of wholes in the universe he called holism (=whole) (Smuts, 1926/1987: 98). Holism thus, is the formation and functioning of wholes (Savage, 1994). According to the systems approach (Laszlo, 1972: 36), the concept of wholeness defines the character of the system as such, in contrast to the character of the parts in isolation. Smuts (1926/1987: 101-102) saw parts as being wholes within wholesa system in which a larger whole determines the function and behaviour of smaller ones, a point which is in agreement with that of quantum mechanics (see Capra, 1985: 76). In biology, firstly, Coghill (1929: 88), working on salamander (axolotl) embryos, observed an example of this, in that during the development of behaviour one finds the expansion of the total pattern as a perfectly integrated unit; followed by the individuation of partial systems which eventually acquire more or less discreteness. Secondly, again in biology, Bateson (1980: 103) based the whole of his book Mind and Nature upon the premise that mental function is immanent in the interaction of differentiated "parts", from which

83 "wholes" are constituted by such combined interaction. Seeing the world as an integrated whole rather than a dissociated collection of parts may also be called an ecological view, where ecological is used in a much broader and deeper sense than usual. Deep ecological awareness recognises the fundamental interdependence of all phenomena and the fact that, as individuals and societies we are all embedded (and ultimately dependent on) the cyclical processes of nature (Capra, 1997: 6).

With this Sheldrake (1985: 12) concurred in his description of the holistic or organismic philosophy, a

philosophy which denies that everything can be explained from the bottom up, as it were, in terms of the properties of atoms, or indeed from any hypothetical ultimate particle of matter. Rather, it recognizes the existence of hierarchically organized systems which, at each level of complexity, possess properties which cannot be fully understood in terms of the properties exhibited by these parts in isolation from each other; at each level the whole is more than the sum of its parts.

The process of riding could likewise be considered as being a larger whole, with smaller wholes made up by the rider and horse, and in turn their smaller various functional systems, where each of the larger parts is more than the smaller below it. For riding the implications of the former statement are clear. The trainer of the horse and rider should always consider these apparent separate two entities as a single whole in the processes of riding and training. Perusal, of present day equine literature on training of horses and riders, opinions of riders expressed to the author of the present study, however, have indicated that this is a phenomenon rarely considered by riders and trainers alike. In South Africa a very common complaint from riders, is that during riding instruction, horses are mainly attended to by trainers and instructors, with little or no effort to teach riders about issues such as the art of riding, and the way

84 in which riders should go about learning how to ride properly. With this Arthur Kottas-Heldenberg, the Oberbereiter of the Spanish Riding School, who in a series of talks to Sylvia Loch (1989), concurred, when he lamented on problems riders encounter with their seats and further added that:

it is not the rider`s fault, but often the trainers who have neglected this fundamental point. Here at Vienna, we spend months, years perfecting the rider`s seat; yet outside, all the emphasis nowadays in riding lessons is on the horse. This is the wrong way roundpeople must be taught to establish a good seat and then the horse will become right. Even at Olympic level you see you see riders with poor seats. Everything moves, legs, hands, body- those horses would be so much happier and achieve more brilliance if the rider`s seat was secure and still.

Except for attempts by a few individuals such as Belasik (2002), Bentley (1999), Jackson (1992), Moffett (2001), Roberts (1996), Swift (1985, 2002), Tottle (1998) and Wanless (1987, 2002), for example, this aspect of riding is given scant or no attention.

Quantum physics has also brought to the fore the fact that at subatomic level, it is not only necessary to observe the properties of the atomic phenomenon, but one's conscious decision on how the particle will be observed will to some extent determine the properties of the observed particle. Thus the sharp Cartesian division between mind and matter (Descartes 1641/1969b: 76, 127143), between the observer and the observed, can no longer be maintained (Capra, 1985: 77). In transcending the Cartesian division, modern physics has not only invalidated the classic ideal of an objective nature, but has also challenged the myth of a value-free science. The patterns observed in nature are intimately connected with the minds, the concepts, thoughts and values of the observers. Thus the scientific results obtained and the technological applications investigated will be conditioned by the frame of mind of the

85 investigator (Capra, 1985: 77). Likewise, will the results obtained by the rider or trainer be conditioned by their frame of mind (see section 3.1.1). According to Wolf (1988: xxv), by doing so, events which have tendencies to exist become actual events. This concept forms the basis of what is presently known as the observer effect (Wolf, 1987: xxiv).

Even matter is not visualised by modern physics as being passive and inert, but rather as being in continuous dancing and vibrating motion and whose rhythmic patterns are determined by the molecular, atomic and subatomic configurations (Capra, 1985: 79). In echoing the continuous dancing and vibratory motion and rhythmic patterns classical riding becomes part of the cosmic whole, and because of it the spectator will, in the words of Oliveira (1988: 18), be captivated by its grace and form.

4.3.2 The general systems theory The most consistent as well as most general paradigm available to the inquiring, ordering mind is the systems paradigm. Explicated as a general theory of systems, both "physical" and "mental," and applied to the analysis of human experience and its problems, it constitutes systems philosophy (Laszlo, 1972: 298) (Laszlos emphasis).

'Break the pattern which connects the items of learning and you necessary destroy all quality' (Bateson, 1985: 16).

The pattern which connects. Why do schools teach almost nothing of the pattern which connects? Is it that teachers know that they carry the kiss of death which will turn to tastelessness whatever they touch and therefore they are wisely unwilling to touch or teach anything of real-life importance? (Bateson, 1985: 16). (Batesons emphasis).

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4.3.2.1

The ancient view of the world

In ancient Greece up to the time of Heraclitus (c. 540-c. 480 BC) Greek philosophers viewed the world as a huge edifice of which the material things were the building blocks. Their investigation of "nature" was simply to look at the original material out of which this edifice was built. As far as any processes were concerned, they were thought to be going on within the edifice, or else as constructing or maintaining it, disturbing and restoring the stability or balance of a structure that was considered to be fundamentally static. This very natural approach, even natural to many of us today, was superseded by Heraclitus, who introduced the view that the world was not an edifice, there was also no stable structure and no cosmos, and replaced this with the view that the world is a colossal process which should not be considered as the sum-total of all things, but rather as the totality of all events, or changes or facts (Popper, 1980: 11-12). Heraclitus, therefore, discovered the idea of change. Plato (especially later in his life) proved to be against human initiative, individualism, equalitarianism, faith in reason and change. All this he wished to arrest and change into a love for justice and temperance, into a heavenly state in which everybody was satisfied and happy. Thus Plato, according to Popper (1980: 199), was responsible for the return to the older concept of things being under the control of specific laws, which he considered to be essential in the management of society (see Plato, 1975: 45-530; Saunders, 1975: 17 for a description of laws in a society that is at once excellent and unchanging). In Hereclitian philosophy there was an overemphasis on change, combined with a complementary belief in an inexorable and immutable law of destiny. In the latter it was accepted that whatever change occurred was ruled by an unchanging law. Even in Parmenides (born c. 539) and in Plato we find the theory that the changing world we live in is an illusion and that there exists a more real world which does not change (Popper, 1980: 11, 13-14). The Greeks probably took the first steps from tribalism to humanism. With Socrates the closed society and its creed that

87 the tribe is everything and the individual nothing, had broken down. Individual initiative and self-assertion had become a fact (cf. Popper, 1980: 190; Hamilton, 1930/1957: 245; Tarnas, 2000: 441-442).

4.3.2.2

The background to the general systems theory

In the middle of the previous century it became apparent that modern science was falling prey to ever-increasing specialisation. In the 1950s Ludwig von Bertalanffy surveyed modern science and found that problems of organisation, of wholeness, of dynamic interaction, became urgent in modern physics, modern chemistry, physical chemistry, and technology (Bertalanffy, 1955). More recently Pretorius (1990) came to the same conclusion about the discipline of physiology, when he expressed the opinion that firstly the subject has become mathematised at an increasing rate, and secondly that it has not undergone a revolution like physics. The latter implied that a Newtonian mechanistic viewpoint still applies, and that transcendence away from a materialistic framework of thought has not really occurred. In physiology and other biological systems, problems of an organismic nature are encountered everywhere, necessitating the study not of only isolated parts and progresses, but essential problems such as the organising relations that result from dynamic interaction and which make the parts different when studied in isolation or within the whole (Bertalanffy, 1955). In this Bertalanffy (1955) echoed the sentiments of Smuts (1926/1987: 19) and Merleau-Ponty (1942/1965: 50), when he argued that when the isolated factors of a complex situation have been studied separately and recombined to reconstitute the original situation, the reconstruction may no longer have all the original elements present, but something less.

Thus it seemed legitimate to ask for a theory of universal principles, which will apply to systems in general, which caused Bertalanffy (1955) to formulate a discipline which he called the General Systems Theory. This was a theory

88 which applied universal principles to generalised systems or their subclasses, irrespective of the particular kind of the system, the nature of the component elements or the relation of force between the elements (Bertalanffy, 1955). The general systems theory did not remain in the theoretical sphere, but soon became central in certain fields of applied science (Bertalanffy, 1968: 11).

General systems theory looks at the world in terms of the interrelatedness and interdependence of all phenomena, and within this framework defines a system as a set of objects together with the relationships between the objects and between their attributes (Capra, 1985: 26; Hall & Fagen, 1968: 81-82; Hazzard, 1971). In this context living organisms, societies, and ecosystems are all systems (Capra, 1985: 26). The fact that in such systems the whole is more than the sum of the parts is, according to Smuts (1951: 161), a most important aspect of reality. This should not, according to Simon (1962), be seen as such in the ultimate metaphysical sense, but in the important pragmatic sense that, given the properties of the parts and the laws of their interaction, it is not a trivial matter to infer the properties of the whole. Systems philosophy does not invalidate any scientific or philosophical question by branding it meaningless; it seeks to solve, not dissolve, problems (Laszlo, 1972: 298). In addition Dubos (1970: 87) saw the use of the systems approach as one of the methods that natural sciences can apply to solve the problems of the mind.

The methodology applied to the general systems theory differs from that used in conventional mathematics. While the former deals with quality and pattern, the latter deals with quantities and formulas, (Capra, 1997: 134), which probably links it with the Greek ideal of unity.

Relationships tie the elements (smaller wholes or objects) of a system together into a meaningful whole (larger whole) (Hazzard, 1971; Smuts, 1926/1987: 101). The identification of the relationships that are meaningful at a particular time is a matter to be determined by the investigator in view of the problems studied

89 (Hazzard, 1971). For both classical riding and modern dressage this way of looking at things may present specific problems, since attributes such as unity, harmony, grace, beauty of the action performed, and submission of the horse can be interpreted by different observers in different ways, or the interpretation of these attributes may vary from one context to the other. Those brought up in the school of mechanistic thought will more likely go for the specific (such as giving marks for dressage movements, and breaking dressage training down to various levels, cf. Belasik, 2002: 2-3), which in terms of the general systems theory, have no meaning, while those schooled in holistic thought may opt for generality (such as the Greek ideals of harmony, grace and beauty), which may end up with little or no content. Somewhere, however, between the specific that has no meaning, and the general, that has no content, there must be, for each purpose, and at each level of abstraction, an optimum level of generality (see Boulding, 1968: 3). It will probably take special trainers, riders or dressage judges to come to the correct level of generality in what they are occupied with at a given moment. Since all instruction was drawn from the same source, this should be possible in theory, according to Podhajsky (1983: 19). It would therefore be presumptuous to replace the teachings of a Gurinire or one of the old masters by new, so-called "modern" training methods, since:

At the very best the result would be, as unfortunately seen so often, that the rider may make work easier for himself. However, he loses in double and treble measure what according to Xenophon and Gurinire he should strive for, namely, the horse that develops to his full beauty, that submits to man willingly and with joy, and that by his suppleness and proficiency makes riding a sheer pleasure (Podhajsky, 1983: 19).

To man, brought up in a world of mechanistic thought, the ability to select the correct amount of generality, which is required in riding, does not come readily. It is the author of the present study's belief that this ideal can only be attained by a rider, for example, if he liberates himself from ingrained ineffective patterns

90 of posture, behaviour and thought (von Dietze, 1999: 13; Kohanov, 1999: 210) and replaces it with good "manner of use"5 (refer to section 6.4.2). Only when this ideal is achieved will the rider be able to ride with the elegance so well described by Cavendish (1743/2000: 133).

Any system functions in a given environmenta concept which is defined by Hall and Fagen (1968: 83) as the set of objects in which a change in their attributes will affect the system, and equally those objects whose attribute are changed by the behaviour of the system (for the practical applications of this, refer to the concept of affordances, section 7.1.2.1). Differentiation between system and environment is a complex problem (Hazzard, 1971), a situation particularly found in riding where one subsystem (horse) may be the environment for the other (rider), and vice versa. To compound matters further both systems have to function in a third environment, for example the mange. Matters, on the other hand, are made more simple by the fact that in living organisms nature seems to employ the same strategy at all levels (Kelso, 1995: 18)thus, what applies to the rider will likewise apply to the horse.

The overriding question here is; is it at all possible to contemplate a physical art such as riding in terms of the general systems theory point of view? This will be addressed in greater detail in Chapters 6-8, but at this point it will suffice to reiterate that the rider and horse may be conceived to be composed of two individual parts or two smaller wholes, each of which in turn is made up of a myriad of different smaller systems. One may even, for that matter, consider horse, rider and environment as a single system. This would be the ideal situation in riding where rider and horse function in harmony (Albrecht, 1993: 7; Handler, 1972: 51-52; Oliveira, 1988: 17-18, Wtjen, 1958: 4). For this to happen, other parameters such as the quality, efficiency of functioning of the smaller and larger systems (wholes) could be considered, since these will affect not only the quality of their interaction, but also the degree of harmony between the smaller and larger systems within the rider or horse themselves, or those

91 between horse and rider and lastly between rider-horse combination and their environment. This would explain, inter alia why the "manner of use" (section 6.4.2) in rider and horse is so important. In riding the issue of arete is important, since it is this that will lead to a performance with harmony, beauty and grace.

4.3.3 Theory of natural systems

Living systems are arranged in such a way that they form multi-levelled structures, each level consisting of subsystems which are wholes with regard to their parts in the sense of being integrated structures, and parts in respect to the larger wholes at higher levels of complexity, tying the elements of the system to a meaningful whole (Capra, 1985: 27; Hazzard,1971; Smuts, 1926/1987: 101-102). Living systems are capable of taking in matter, energy and information from the environment (input). In return, living systems are able to release matter, energy and information to the environment (output). As a consequence of this exchange, living systems can be considered to be open systems, which are capable of maintaining pattern and organisation amidst constant change by means of a dynamic, rhythmic interaction among the elements of the systems (self-organisation) (Hazzard, 1971). Living systems, unlike closed systems, do not tend toward a state of entropy, but rather toward a steady state somewhat displaced from the equilibriumthe equilibrium state, attractor or attractor state (Latash, 1993: 179; Magill, 2001: 54)which means that natural systems will always have potential energy. The steady or attractor state is maintained by a continual flow of free energy and matter into and out of the operational component of the system (Kugler et al., 1980: 12). In terms of human behaviour attractors characterise preferred behavioural states, such as the in-phase and out-of phase states for bimanual finger movement described by Kelso (1984), and by Kelso and Schner (1988), and in the free moving horse the selection of a preferred optimum speed at each pace (Hoyt & Taylor, 1981), and at a given velocity, the self-selection of a specific pace, such as the attraction to a coordination relationship that produces a walking pace (Magill,

92

2001: 54) at slow speed. Other possible attractor states in both rider and horse could be the local, segmental and general reactions of the spinal cord and the brain stem (positive supporting reaction, the "Schunkel reflex", the tonic neck and vestibular reactions described by Magnus, 1926ab and in section 8.4).

Since both rider and horse would prefer to function as near as possible to their own ideal equilibrium state, harmony between these organisms can probably only be achieved once and when the individual equilibrium states of the two organisms are in harmony with each other. It should be pointed out, that what is considered to be near equilibrium states in the novice horse will differ from that in the horse trained to the level of haute ecole.

Disturbance of the self-organising processes concerned with the maintenance of near equilibrium states as, for example, the use of too tight reins by the rider, will make it impossible for the horse to attain its near equilibrium state at any given pace. Whether harmony between horse and rider is reached or not, or how far any rider and horse, function away from their states of equilibrium, will depend on the actual state of equilibrium reached by each of the two individual organisms at any given moment, or in a given lapse of time. In the sitting trot the bouncing of the over tense and stiff rider, will on average, not only act in the rider as a state far removed from entropy, nor will such a rider will be able to reach a steady, or even a momentary state of equilibrium, but show large variations around the ideal, thus making it impossible to reach a state of harmony between the two organisms. The poised rider and the horse, on the other hand, will tend to function towards a state of thermodynamic equilibrium, despite the fact that movement in different body parts and different bodies occur. In both rider and horse this is possible if both function, for example, within well specified and maintained equilibrium-points (Latash, 1993: 7, 26-37; Latash, 1998a: 86). This ideal is attainable if rider and horse are able to attend to, firstly correct "use" of the body (consciously or unconsciously), and secondly,

93 to the forming of bows, which Brger (1986: 3 rd Figure following p. 208) described as being the forming of a bow before the hand and a bow behind the hand and their maintenance, and that the horse be allowed to work within the confines of the ring of muscles (Jeffcott, 1979).

4.3.3.1

Joint function in natural systems

A natural system, according to Laszlo (1972: 35), is made up of a series of independent variables having a joint function (R). This joint function Laszlo (1972: 35) formulated in the following equation:

R = f(,,,)

where ,,, are independent variables having a joint function R (natural system). 4.3.3.1.1 ! The independent variables

R = f() represents the coactive relation of parts resulting in ordered wholeness in the state of the system (systemic state property) as seen in harmonious interaction within body parts of the rider and the horse and between rider and horse. Natural systems are concerned with wholeness and order, where an ordered whole is a non-summative system in which a number of constant constraints are imposed by fixed forces, yielding a structure with mathematically calculable parameters (Laszlo, 1972: 36). Wholeness defines the character of the system in total, in contrast to its individual parts, since a whole possesses characteristics that are not possessed by the individual parts. Following ancient Greek tradition, Laszlo (1972: 36-37) argued that this could be demonstrated mathematically. While this may probably be true in the field of motor control and biomechanics, for example, where this kind of

94 approach can be applied in the synthesis of a system responsible for motor control and body alignment in both horse and rider, it is, however, not always possible to do so in all aspects of riding. Facets such as grace, beauty and harmony are not readily expressed in mathematical terms, even though attempts in this direction have been made in dressage, for example, in which each of a series of movements in a dressage test is allocated a marka mark which is indicative of the quality of the performance (Podhajsky, 1983: 55-69).

Koestler (1989: 47-48) commented on the relativity, even ambiguity, of the terms "part or whole" when applied to any of the subsystems, and stressed the fact that wholes and parts in their literal interpretation do not exist anywhere. Found, however, are intermediary structures on a series of levels in an ascending order of complexity: Sub-wholes which display, depending on the way one looks at it, some of the characteristics, which a r e c ommo n l y at t r i b u t e d to whol e s, a s we l l a s s ome o f t h e characteristics, which are commonly attributed to parts. Like the head of the Roman god Janus the members of a hierarchy all have two faces looking in opposite directions; the face turning towards the subordinate levels is that of a self-contained whole; the face turned upward towards the apex, that of dependent part (Koestler, 1989: 48). To aptly describe the nodes on a hierarchical tree, which behave partly as wholes or wholly as parts, according to the way one looks at them Koestler (1989:48) coined the term "holon" (holos = whole, on suggesting a particle or part).

Matter and energy are integral parts of both the system and its environment. In an open system free transfer of both matter and energy within the system and the system and its environment (Kugler et al., 1980: 12; Hazzard, 1971), occurs. Information can be considered as energy and also as the degree of freedom that exists in a given situation to choose among symbols, messages or patterns that have been

95 transmitted. Meaning is the significance of the information to the system or of the system processing it. Equally important is the channel of information transfer as well as the quality of the transfer (Hazzard, 1971). The content and/or the quality of messages within a system may be altered by "noise" or interference (Hazzard, 1971) (in rider and horse it could be muscle-imbalance), eventually affecting what is being processed in the system receiving the distorted information. In some cases the transfer of information is poor or unreliable. The latter phenomenon is common in modern man, who probably has to contend with a defective kinaesthetic system and a defective registration of sensations (Alexander, 1910/1996: 14-15; Plato, 1993b: 10). In riders this will be shown to be a very common problem (section 6.4.8.2). !

R = f() is a function of adaptation to environmental disturbances resulting in the re-establishment of a previous steady state in the system (system-cybernetics I). The term "cybernetics" was coined by Wiener to denote "steermanship" or the science of control (Laszlo, 1972: 38). In order to take it out of the Cartesian mould, and in order to indicate a wider application of the term cybernetics than that used in the study of flows found in closed systems Laszlo (1972: 38) introduced the term system-cybernetics. In this context system-cybernetics is the study of processes interrelating systems with inputs and outputs, and their structural-dynamic structure (Laszlo, 1972: 38). Being an ordered whole, the system is self-stabilising in, or around, steady states. The capacity of self-regulation by compensating for changing conditions in the environment through coordinate changes in the system's internal variables, is a form of adaptation by concrete systems which are ordered wholes (Laszlo, 1972: 40). In the present study this aspect will be viewed from this perspective in Chapters 6-8.

96 ! R = f() represents Adaptive Self-Organisation (system-cybernetics II), which is the function of adaptation to environmental disturbances of a system resulting in the causal interaction of its components, in order to reorganise the state of the system, and thus leading to the autonomous emergence and maintenance of structured global order. Selforganisation involves a high degree of probability and results an overall gain in the system's negentropy and information content (Beloussov, 1989: 121; Laszlo, 1972: 36). Here the external forces has to be included as parts of the whole system (Haken, 1983: 194). The emergence of the consequent new structure follows a set pattern (Kugler et al., 1980: 12). An adaptively reorganised system is not necessarily a more stable system, since adaptation is not synonymous with structural stability. An adapted system, however, is optimally resistant to the kind of forcings which originally elicited the process of self organisation. Such a system is not more resistant to all factors in the general environment, in fact, normally the opposite is the case; to the extent that adaptive selforganisation occurs by means of the increase in complexity of the structure, becoming thermodynamically more "improbable" and therefore more unstable and prone to physical disorganisation (Laszlo, 1972: 4344). This is probably the case because self-organisation may radically modify the existing structure of a system and puts into question its continuing self-identity (Laszlo, 1972: 47). This is the possible state in which many novice and even riders at higher levels often find themselves. These riders continuously have to battle to maintain their own balances, and by doing so, continuously upset the balance of their partner, the horse. In many cases the question could be posed whether these riders and horses ever manage any level of self-organisation, since the perturbations experienced by both partners tend to be irregular in rhythm, with large variations in amplitude and direction of the

97 perturbations. This situation makes it impossible for any system to come to grips with what should be self-regulated.

Systems develop towards increasingly adapted, yet progressively unstable states, by balancing their intrinsically unstable complex structures by a wider range of self-stabilisatory functions, and by structurally becoming more organised (Laszlo, 1972: 44) (refer, for example, to the way in which the body learns to deal with the problem of degrees of freedom in section 8.3.1). This process is associated with higher states of information or negative negentropy within the system. For the purposes of the present study it is important to note that in an environment where constant forces are operative, and the perturbations they occasion are within the range of correction by self-stabilisation, systems not only survive, but also evolve (Laszlo, 1972: 47). This of course is true if the adaptation in the system is appropriate to the demands placed upon it, and also whether it had sufficient opportunity and time to make the necessary adaptations. As will be discussed later (see Chapters 6-8), one of the systems with excellent adaptive capacities is the neuromuscular-skeletal system, whose capacities are expressed by the phenomenon of learning, a phenomenon, which is very much dependent on the quality of the perception of input into the system.

In classically trained riders and horses (Podhajsky, 1967: 73-162) one can expect the stability of the novice rider and horse to be governed by so-called higher-order systems (Kugler et al., 1980: 12). A system like this will require a minimal input of energy to maintain itself (here this minimal amount of energy does not necessarily imply small amounts of energy, but minimal in terms of the effort exerted by either horse or rider). With further and correct training their balance will cross a certain scale value, which in turn may give way to a further, different stability at higher scale values (Kugler et al., 1980: 13). One might conjecture as

98 Kugler et al. (1980: 13) did, that the origin of constraintsbeginning as it must with low selectivity and imprecise function, to a gradual sharpening up to high specificity and narrow precise function. These changes will, for example, be noticeable in a decrease in the novice horse's broad based gait and the trained horse moving straighter (Brger, 1986: 76-79), while the rider will eventually find himself in the role of a central axis from which all movements proceed and towards which they constantly return (Brger, 1986: 81).

In Chapters 6-8 the issue of whether in classical riding, the two organisms involved in this pursuit have sufficient and appropriate adaptive strategies to deal with what is required in its execution will be discussed. In an attempt to adapt to being ridden by an unstable and physically disorganised rider the horse's adaptive abilities may be overstretched, and the horse will, like the rider, become increasingly unstable and disorganised. Attempts to acquire new stability in this case, will not lead to further refinement. Over forceful and harsh riding may compound the problem (Figure 4.1).

Opposite outcomes are, however, also possible since prolonged exposure to the integrative properties of classical riding and training may change the use of individuals for the better. What impressed Pevsner (1980: 1), in this regard, about the riders of the Spanish Riding School, was their postures and the superbly and balanced way in which they used their bodies. Examples of good riding are shown in Figures 7.1, 8.12 and 8.13.

Perusal of literature on the Spanish Riding School (Handler, 1972: 55, 226; Podhajsky, 1985: 111, 115, 125, 211), bear out Pevsner's (1980: 1) observation (Figure 4.2).

99

a. Rider totally unbalanced and hangin g on to the reins. H orse re s i s t in g rid er b y hollowing the neck and lifting the head

b.

R id er unbalanced and

hanging onto the reins. The h o r s e e x h ib it s a t y p ic a lly broken neck (blue arrow). Engagement of hindquarters is poor.

c.

Horse on forehand and

h a n g in g on th e b it. T h e g e n e r a l d e m e a n o u r of t h e h orse in d ica tes g en e r a l stiffness.

Figure 4.1:

Examples of over forceful and harsh riding. The figure in a was adapted from from M cTaggart (1935: Plate III), b, & c from Loch (1988: 29, 35). Note that in all of the exam ples the horses exhibit poor body mechanics, of which som e are pointed out next to each illustration.

100

d. Horse overbent, the back is h ollow with in su ffic ien t engagement of hind quarters

e . Horse on forehand, above the bit and the neck hollowed.

Figure 4.1 (continued)

The figure in d is from Loch (1997: 41) and e from Loch, (1988: 39). Note the effect of the riders actions on the m ovem ent of their horses, and also the way in which the riders seats disallow the horses own natural carriage (Loch 1997: 41). N ote that in all of the examples the horses exhibit poor body mechanics, of which som e are pointed out next to each illustration.

101

Figure 4.2

Examples of some of the good postures and balanced ways in which riders of the Sp a n ish R id in g S ch ool u se th eir b od ies d u rin g m ov em en t oth er than riding (Handler, 1972: 55, 226; Podhajsky, 1985: 111, 115, 125, 211). Note the vertical and upright alignment of all individuals. The gravity lines (in red) in all cases run through or slightly behind the centre of gravity of the subjects.

102 ! R = f() represents intra- and inter-systemic hierarchies which is dual functional-structural adaptation: with respect to subsystems (adaptation as a systemic whole) and suprasystems (adaptation as coacting part). In systems which constitute ordered wholes, and which are adaptively stabilising themselves in their environment around existing steady states, as well as evolving themselves to become more adapted, and normally more negentropic (or informed) states, development will be in the direction of more hierarchical structuration (Laszlo, 1972: 47-48). In riding this aspect of adaptation is of particular significance, since, according to Simon's (1962) hypothesis, complex systems evolve from simple systems much more rapidly if there are stable intermediate forms, than when there are not. In this respect Thelen (1989: 263), and Thelen et al. (1987) have been instrumental in emphasising the importance and cooperative action of all "maturing" subsystems with no hierarchical priority of the central nervous system (CNS). Thelen (1989: 263), for example, pointed out that there is no formula, timetable, schema, or clock in the genes or the CNS that prescribes the accretion of new and more complex motor forms. To this list one could also add the prescriptive input from trainers and riders. Rather, one has the situation that these new and complex forms emerge from the non-linearity of complex systems as phase shifts and bifurcations that are the natural consequence of change within the organism and between the organism and the task. One can expect that learning a new and complex task such as riding, or, from a horse's point of view, that is, being ridden, will follow the same path. The important point that rider and trainer should take into consideration here is that all participants in the learning process should be allowed to accrete their own more and more complex forms at their own tempo with minimal interference from the rider and/or trainer. What emerges from the process of learning is highly task and context dependent according to Thelen (1989: 263). Context in the training of the rider and horse is to a large extent under the control of the rider or trainer,

103 which means that the outcome of what is learned will be dependent on the way in which the context of the learning environment is manipulated by the rider or trainer. The rider and horse learning under restrictive conditions, however, will find it difficult, if at all, to reach their equilibrium states (see Figure 4.1). The horse and rider, however, who learn under conditions in which self-organising, and no outside interference is allowed, with time locate their individual ideal equilibrium states (attractor states), similar to what one sees in a growing child (see following paragraph). This ideal equilibrium state will be physically expressed as poisean attribute outlined in section 6.4.6.

Researchers in motor development began to use the measurement techniques of biomechanics and to recognise and consider multiple selforganising subsystems of the body (Whittall, 1995: 247). In both man and horse self-organising subsystems like these already exist, and these might be viewed in the same way as those found in the growing child and adolescent, and thus used as a basis on which more complex systems may be constructed. The resulting complex systems, will be, according to Simon (1962), hierarchic. In the rider, stable intermediate forms can be created, for example, by the gradual development of a secure and independent seat during lunging lessons. To what extent modern man in his attempts to acquire a stable and secure seat, will have stable intermediate forms, on which the quality of the seat can further be built, however, is uncertain, given the pandemic lack of poise, a lack which is inevitably reflected in poor "use" of the body (Dart, 1947; Sherrington, 1946: 89; section 6.4.8).

Attainment of a good seat, however, will be a protracted and tedious process if the rider has to rely on random acquisition of the skill only, thus necessitating the employment of other and more effective ways. According to Simon (1962) a solution to this problem may be selectivity.

104 In terms of systems theory, selectivity can always be equated with some feedback of information from the environment (Simon, 1962), which makes it imperative that the rider's interpretative system should be able to interpret sensory feedback correctly (von Dietze, 1999: 16), a facility not readily available to modern man or rider (Alexander, 1910/1996: 1415; Wanless, 1987: 21). The complex systems that arise from correct interpretation of environmental stimuli are hierarchic, and they evolve with time (Simon, 1962). In the nervous system some hierarchies probably already exist (Latash, 1993: 80-87, 172-178; Magnus, 1926ab). Stable intermediate forms in this instance could be formed during the process of learning and the formation of new neuronal connections and the establishment of new integrative systems within the nervous system. In both rider and horse, however, the quality and appropriateness of the functional new hierarchy are not guaranteed, since this depends inter alia, upon extraneous factors such as previous experience of rider and horse and the knowledge of the trainer.

Given the self-organising adaptive properties of natural systems, their mutual adaptions are more likely to result, within any given time-span, in a multi-level hierarchy rather than in a non-hierarchical structure. Seen from a different perspective, it implies that it is "simpler" for systems to cooperatively constitute higher systems than to do the job of complexification alone (Laszlo, 1972: 48), namely, creating greater wholes from smaller wholes (Smuts, 1926/1985: 101-102). Harmony, as an element of classical riding, could be an extreme example of this concept, in which two individual biological systems cooperatively constitute a performance of great beauty and grace. Harmony between the various hierarchies in man and horse, as well as between the two interacting organisms, however, can only occur if self organisation could be allowed to occur naturally (Gallwey, 1982: 13-17), which in turn depends, inter alia, on the way in which homeostasis in the subsystems

105 and higher systems in both rider and horse is acquired. This will, in turn, depend on the way in which the body chooses to react: To pacify or to fight/flee when their bodies are exposed to the stress of riding or being ridden. Selye (1977: 30-39) named these two responses to stress syntonic and catatonic. In the first, which is probably the ideal for rider and horse, the organism reaches homeostasis by means of a state of passive tolerance, which creates a state of symbiosis, or peaceful coexistence with the stressors. The catatonic mechanism, on the other hand, tries to resolve the problem by "attacking" the stressor, in order to achieve homeostasis. This is seen, for example, in the common stiffening of both rider (von Dietze, 1999: 13) and horse (Figure 4.1) against what they perceive to be unpleasant stimuli. What then occurs is that rider and horse are adaptively stabilising themselves in their environment around improper steady states. The concept of a hierarchy composed of systems defined by invariant general properties, does not, however, connote reductionism. It is, however, well capable to account for the manifest diversity of functions and properties in nature. The higher one goes up in the hierarchy, the more diversity of functions, which is manifested in a smaller number of actualised systems (Laszlo, 1972: 49). This kind of arrangement is exemplified by the nervous system, where motor control, for instance, is divided into local, segmental and general systems (see Magnus, 1926ab; Latash, 1993: 163-178), each level dealing with a greater diversity of functions and encompassing the control of larger and larger areas of the body, and requiring greater and greater amounts of integration of neuromuscular-skeletal control as well. The disintegration of the latter is readily seen in the brain injured as well as in riders and horses newly exposed to stressful or unfamiliar situations of riding and being ridden. Alexander (1910/1996: 154) observed that:

106 The average person exhibits complete nerve control and balance during accustomed experiences and accomplishment of the different mental and physical demands made during the ordinary round of life, but when suddenly confronted with the unexpected unknown he betrays undue apprehension and loss of control, even when the new experience may not hold terrors for him. The fact is, he becomes panic-stricken by the effects of the new experience. He is mentally incapable of considering the "facts of the case", for his reasoning power is thrown completely out of use by the unusual, and he is reduced to the level of the terrified animal or savage.

Of this loss of nerve control riding is a perfect example. Too many riders and horses have not yet passed one or more of the following stages: Apprehension, fear, anxiety, a dysfunctional neuromuscular- and biomechanical control mechanism. If the novice rider, for example, starts off his riding with loss of controlboth in himself and the horseas basis, one cannot expect someone reduced to the level of continuously functioning within the withdrawal- (Hanna, 1988: 49-50), defensive(Knopfhart, 1990: 5) or startle response6 (Bentley, 1999: 36; Jones et al., 1964; von Dietze, 1999: 13) (Alexander's terrified animal or savage), to be able to construct a sound multi-hierarchical system. The emphasis of the Spanish Riding School, to train their student-riders for three years on the lunge in order to teach the correct seat (Handler, 1972: 188-191; Harris, 1992: xi; Podhajsky, 1967: 210-211), and that of the old masters, who put their students on completely trained dressage horses without stirrups and reins (Steinbrecht, 1884/1995: 3) therefore makes good sense, since this creates a good foundation on which a sound hierarchical system may be constructed.

The concept of hierarchy in the domain of systems theory needs special consideration, since it has been found to be inapplicable to phenomena for which it is most used. Its rigorous definition implies a governing-

107 governed relation between levels. The most fruitful application of hierarchies is in nature, however, where rigorously unidirectional action hardly occurs. Therefore the use of the term "hierarchy" in the context of systems theory will denote "a level structure" or a "set of superimposed modules", constituted so that the component modules of one level are modules belonging to some lower level. If the term "module" is substituted by "system" a hierarchy can be seen as a "multi-holon" type structure in which the wholes at one level function as parts on higher levels (suprasystem), and where the parts of a system on any level are themselves wholes on lower levels (subsystem) (Laszlo, 1972: 51; Smuts, 1926/1987: 101-102).

The distinction between supra- and subsystems is relative since in a given system a may be a subsystem in relation to b but, a suprasystem in relation to c. A given system a will have component subsystems c1 , c2, c3AAAcn in determinate association, the sum of which may be expressed as R. When its components are likewise systems, system a is a part of a hierarchy, and also when it is in itself a component in a more encompassing system: [a = (c1, c2, c3,AAAcn)R] d b where a is a subsystem (component) of b, and all c's are comparable systems in relation to which a is a suprasystem (Laszlo, 1972: 51). The way in which biological function occurs within general systems theory will be discussed in the following section and Chapters 6-8.

108 4.3.4 Principles of dynamic pattern formation in natural systems

4.3.4.1

The forming of patterns in natural systems

Kelso (1995: 1-2) considered self-organisation to lie behind all pattern or structure formation. Kelso (1995: 3) defined patterns to be the relations among things, and in this, his main concern was the behavioural patterns or modes of organised behaviour produced by living things on different levels of description. He also pointed out that patterns, like movement, can emerge without any programmer at all (Kelso, 1995: 4). The way in which patterns7 are formed in complex systems lies at the heart of the way in which in man and in the equine movement is created in a system. Patterns develop in systems which tend to function away from thermodynamic equilibrium. These patterns generally emerge in a self-organised fashion, without any agent-like entity ordering the elements, telling them where and when to go. According to Kelso (1995: 1, 4) in nature's pattern-forming systems, contents are not contained anywhere, but are revealed only by the dynamics.

Any principle of pattern formation has to deal with two problems, the first being the problem of complexity of substance and the second with the problem of pattern complexity (Kelso, 1995: 5). In man and the horse the former includes the neuromuscular-skeletal system which made up of the nervous system with all its nerve cells (1010 in man), their connections (104 per neuron) (Kelso, 1995: 5), the different skeletal motor units (muscle cells), their metabolic pathways (Brooks & Fahey, 1984: 67-159), the connective tissue elements with their specific physical properties (Alter, 1996: Chapters 3 & 4).

The second problem, which is the pattern of complexity implies that biological structures can be multifunctional, since the organism may use the same set of anatomical components for different behavioural functions (for example eating

109 and vocalising). One also has to account for the way in which a pattern persists under various environmental conditions (its stability), and for the way in which it adjusts to changing external or internal conditions (its adaptability) (Kelso, 1995: 7, 18).

4.3.4.2

Dynamic instabilities in open (living) systems

In their own right rider and horse can both be viewed as open systems tending towards instability. During riding this tendency towards instability will increase manifold, firstly due to the movement of the horse, and secondly due to the movement of the rider in his effort to maintain balance and to control the horse. The magnitude of this instability will largely determine the subsequent pattern formation and the harmony between the two organisms, or the lack of it.

At this point it is important to consider the appropriateness of the selected physical action into which rider and horse organise themselves in response to changes in their equilibrium. The selected movement pattern(s) may range from being totally inappropriate to the most appropriate for any given situation. A very important observation in the present study is the ubiquitousness of inappropriate pattern selection in riders, and the way in which this led to the same phenomenon in the horse (cf. Belasik, 1999: 42-43). Attempts will be made in sections and 6.4.8. and 6.4.9 to account for this problem. At this point it may suffice to state that the root of the problem lies principally in the poor "manner of use" of the rider. Alexander (1941: 8;) explained the effects of "manner of use" (section 6.4.6) in this regard:

A good manner of use exerts an influence for good upon general functioning which is not only continuous, but also grows stronger as time goes on, becoming, that is, a constant influence tending always to raise the standard of functioning and improve the manner of reaction. A bad manner of use, on the other hand, continuously exerts an influence for ill, tending to lower the standard of general

110 functioning, thus becoming a constant influence tending always to interfere with every functional activity arising from our response to stimuli from within and without the self, and harmfully affecting the manner of every reaction.

An additional source of inappropriate pattern selection occurs in the horse. as a result of poor training techniques mainly due to the use of artificial aids without sufficient knowledge of how these may affect motor control in the horse, and little or no understanding about the essentials and control of good movement by the trainer or rider (see Chapters 6 & 8).

When a liquid is heated, the applied heat and temperature gradient (the control parameter8 ), in the liquid will drive the motion in the system. In this case the movement of the liquid occurs as a coordinated whole in an orderly, rolling motion. It is noteworthy that the control parameter does not prescribe or contain the code for the emerging pattern, a pattern which thus arises without any external instructions or specifications (Kelso, 1995, 7). During the process of riding, the process of riding or specific actions of rider and horse required during riding, may serve as control parameters, each parameter requiring a specific movement pattern in its partner. What is not prescribed, is how the actions are to be carried out. When both rider and horse function in perfect harmony, however, pattern formation should originate from the unity between the two organisms, a pattern which spontaneously arises without any instruction from either horse or rider. The latter is described in the following section.

4.3.4.3

Self-organisation in biological systems

spontaneous pattern formation is exactly what we mean by self-organisation: the system organises itself, but there is no "self", no agent inside the system doing the organising (Kelso, 1995: 8).

111 In this regard Gallwey's "inner game" (Gallwey, 1976: 9, 10) and the Taoist wuwei ("non-action) (Huang, 1997: 27; Koizumi, 1986: 67). procedures make sense, where movement without the interference of the conscious mind is advocated (see section 6.4.5).

In the generation of dynamic patterns the collective variable or the order parameter 9 (in endnote 8 the disconnected rider is analysed according to systems theory principles, also see section 8.1.1.1) determines order and coordination in the behaviour of the system. From random initial conditions in an unstable system a specific form of motion will be favoured, and it is this coherent pattern that is described by the order parameter, and it is the order parameter dynamics that characterises how patterns form and evolve with time (Kelso, 1995: 8, 16). The questions coming to mind as far as the present study is concerned are: ! What are the collective variables and the collective variable dynamics for complex systems such as the neuromusculo-skeletal systems of the rider and horse during riding? !

What determines the selection of specific forms of motion from random initial conditions when a specific action is started?

Why are the forms of motion usually selected by the rider and horse those found to be inappropriate for the task in hand? What determines the selection process of the patterns selected? In the latter case, muscle balance in both rider and horse may be one of the contributing factors. Other factors such as fitness parameters in rider and horse and their psychology may also play a role.

What determines harmony or a lack of it between body parts of organisms and that between two interacting organisms?

112

How is self-organisation in the horse influenced by interference such as excessive use of the rider's hands, or conversely the self-organisation in the rider by a horse with stiff and stilted movement?

4.3.4.4

Collective variables and circular causality

In synergetics the order parameter is created by the cooperation of the individual parts of the systemhere the rider and the horse. Conversely the order parameter may also govern or constrain the behaviour of the individual parts. Depending on how this is approached, rider and horse may be broken down, according to mechanistic dictates, into individual functional body parts, where rider and horse is regarded as being two individuals involved in the act of riding. According to classical riding point of view, however, rider and horse may be seen as functioning in a single unified system. As Kelso (1995: 9) saw it, we are dealing here with a kind of circular causality, which is typical of all self-organising systems. According to Kelso (1995: 9) what one sees here is one of the main conceptual differences between the circularly causal foundations of pattern formation in non-equilibrium systems, and the linear causality which still underlies most of modern physiology and psychology, with its inputs and outputs, stimuli and responses.

In simple circuits (e.g. thermostatic control of room temperature) feedback works well, but the more complex the system, the more difficult it becomes to treat the system by means of feedback circuits. Richly interconnected biological systems may exhibit both simple and complex behavioural patterns. Reference states, with which feedback can be compared to are absent, and there are no places where such comparative operations are performed (Kelso, 1995: 9). This assumption is in stark contrast to the model of feedback circuits in motor control systems, proposed, for example, by Schmidt (1975, 1977, 1982: 186-204). In a system like that proposed by Schmidt (1975) one finds circuits which make use

113 of reference mechanisms for comparative purposes something which does not occur in systems:

Indeed, non-equilibrium steady states emerge from nonlinear interactions among the system's components, but there are no feedback-regulated set points or reference values as in a thermostat. Hence in the present case the questions of who sets the reference value, who programs the programmer, and so on do not even arise (Kelso, 1995: 9).

4.3.4.5

Origins of instabilities in a system during riding

Systems may become unstable in a number of ways; of which the creation or the presence of competing forces are examples. In riding competing forces may lead to rich and even irregular dynamic behaviour (cf. Kelso, 1995: 12), behaviour that is exemplified by the often seen rider instability during canter and sitting trot.

4.4

GREEK PHILOSOPHY AND THE PHILOSOPHY OF SYSTEMS

4.4.1 The soul, mind and matter

A life towards self-knowledge requires spiritual development, which implies development of mainly the soul. The soul, being separate from the physical body is an immortal entity that eventually leaves the physical body after death. These are beliefs found in ancient religious thought, which are not entertained in the modern systems theory, but we rather have the point of view that mind or cognition, is a continual bringing forth of a world through the process of living (Capra, 1997: 257-288, 2003: 32; Kelso, 1995: 287-289).

114 The routes that led to the development of the ancient and the modern scientific belief systems differ. In ancient Greek philosophical thought and religion formed the basis of things by which things like mind, the soul and reasoning were explained. Part of their religious thought was the endeavour to attain selfknowledge (cf. Pagels, 1989: 124-127). The ancient Greeks presented the soul as an absolute, a whole, indivisible and ultimate (Plato, 1972: 133-135, 1993c: 62). Such an approach, according to Smuts (1926/1987: 102), leaves no room for change, movement or development as a whole. According to Meijer (2001: 10-11) Plato presented the soul to be that which is in control, and it is the soul that moves (cf. Plato, 1993c: 61-62). This concept was quintessential in Western philosophy of motor control and coordination, until the advent of the scientific revolution (Meijer, 2001: 10). Since then most scientists started to adhere to mechanism, and because of this it was the soul that suffered, first going passive in the 18th century and finally disappearing altogether in the 19th (Meijer, 2001: 38; Pinker, 2002: 224; Wilber, 1999: 9-10). The control of movement of man now shifted away from the soul and was replaced with something material such as the idea of a central motor programme (see section 7.2). Some theories on motor control are still based upon models which imply control from a central source (Schmidt, 1975, 1976). Some of these will be reviewed in Chapter 7.

Modern science's approach to these issues arose from Cartesian mechanistic thought. To those who became involved in the systems philosophy, mind is not regarded as being a thing, but rather as being a process (Capra, 1997: 107, 2003: 32-33; Kelso, 1995: 287-289). Smuts (1926/1987: 103) and Wilber (1999: 9-13) cautioned against the common practice of viewing wholes as mere mechanical systems, in which mechanical theory assumes only external action between bodies as alone capable of mathematical treatment, and banishes all inner action, relation or function. There is also an interior element or action of bodies that are wholes, and this element or action is of a specific ascertainable

115 character, which transforms a mere mechanical addition or sum into wholes which are dynamic, organic, evolutionary and creative.

Will the belief or non-belief in a Socratic immortal soul, or modern system theory of mind or the soul impact on the way in which unity of things are seen? The Nobel prize laureate R.W. Sperry (1969) stated that the way in which man approaches this problem could have profound and far reaching ideological implications. What seems not to be realised sufficiently enough in current thought, however, is that in modern scientific theories the soul is gradually disappearing from the scene (Wilber, 1999: 9-10), and that the body in some ways can even do away with a brain (see experiments of Albrecht van Haller (1708-1777) and Eduard Friedrich Wilhelm Pflger (1829-1920), cited by Meijer, 2001:38-43)10. In systems theory the soul as a separate entity does not seem have a place at all (Bateson, 1985: 227; Capra, 2003: 32; Kelso, 1995: 1, 289; Laszlo, 1972: 151; Pinker, 2002: 224). Laszlo (1972: 298), for example, considered the systems paradigm to be the most consistent and most general paradigm available currently to the inquiring and ordering mind.

Explicated as a general theory of systems, both "physical" and "mental," and applied to the analysis of human experience and its problems, it constitutes systems philosophy (Laszlo, 1972: 298) (Laszlos emphasis).

In this respect Laszlo (1972: 143) distinguished between physical (energyprocessing) and mental (information-processing) systems, which led him to consider the issue of the relation of mind to matter, or the psychic to the physical. A fundamental concept in his reasoning is the existence of a naturalcognitive (i.e. psychophysical) system. Such systems are not "dual" but "biperspectival" (internally or externally viewable), which are single, selfconsistent systems of events, observable from two points of view. When lived such a system is a system of mind events, i.e. a cognitive system. When viewed from any other viewpoint, the system is a system of physical-events,

116 namely, a "natural system" (Laszlo, 1972: 154). The physical and mental sets of events in the systems are correlates; the systems in which they are found, or which they constitute are identical (Laszlo, 1972: 154). Mind-events, therefore, disclose themselves as the correlates of some species of physical-events in the organism (Capra, 2003: 32-33; Kelso, 1995: 289; Laszlo, 1972: 154, 163).

Meijer (2001: 2) was of the opinion that it is irrelevant how scientists think about the soul; what really is of importance is the understanding of the world. This being the case, one may then continue on the basis, that as far as riding is concerned, that the two philosophies can to a certain extent be equated to each other, except possibly for the fact that in terms of systems philosophy there would be no need to attain a spiritual ultimate, and its physical corollary, arete. Interestingly though, systems philosophy contains a crucial element of what was initiated in the ancient world: To penetrate the mysteries of life. This endeavour seems in terms of the mechanical approach to life to be geared towards the unravelling of the physical details of life (Meijer, 2001: 2). With this in mind one could ask the question whether there is any point in the quest for arete, except for the purpose of competing?

4.4.2 Unity of things

Common to both philosophical approaches, is the concept of unity (wholeness, being connected): A point of view applicable to the physical, living and social systems (see Capra, 1997: 27). The creation of wholes, and ever more highly organised wholes, is an inherent character of existence (Smuts, 1926/1987: 99).

One of the key issues around which classical riding revolves is unity, which requires harmony within horse and rider individually, and between them, and treating the horse humanely (Xenophon, 1962: 49, 52, 53, 55, 56), or to view it from a modern perspective, the unconditional surrender to the nature of the

117 horse (Herbermann, 2001: 161-162; Jackson, 1992: 141-146; Mairinger, 1983: 21-25; Rashid, 2000: 13-40; Xenophon, 1962: 49, 52, 53, 55, 56).

Although at first glance Greek and modern systems philosophy seem to be identical to each other. In some respects, however, their approaches to life differ vastly. Central to Greek philosophy was the pursuit for the ultimate, which was to know oneself and to become part of God. This central aim probably lay at the root of the Greek search for excellence or arete (section 3.2.4). The Greeks also did not distinguish between the spiritual world and the natural world. To them the spiritual was the same world as that known to the mind. Beauty and rationality were both manifested in it (Hamilton, 1930/1957: 31). In order to come to an understanding of the world of classical riding, one should orientate oneself to the idea that man is embedded in nature as part of it, and that the Greeks held the view that the whole of nature was actively related to the gods (Feibleman, 1971: 35). The Greeks saw everything in relation to other things, and because of this they saw things simplified and in relation what surrounded it. The consequence of this was that the Greeks always considered the qualities one individual shared with mankind (Hamilton, 1930: 220-221). This signified that in their association with horses this sharing of qualities was important, which could explain why Xenophon (1962: 42, 55, 56) emphasised the ideal of making the horse appear graceful, make its action more magnificent and striking, making the horse to present a magnificent sight, and to assume all its natural airs and graces under the rider.

Classical science (Cartesian-Newtonian mechanism) isolated man from nature, instead of bringing him closer to it (Bohm, 1980/2002: 3). The basic conviction, which stemmed from this point of view was that at some level the world is simple, and is governed by time-reversible fundamental laws. The mechanistic view of nature considered the basic processes in nature to be deterministic and reversible, where the world appeared as a vast automaton. Today this appears to be a gross oversimplification. This mechanistic point of view gave way to a

118 different approach to life, one that is still mechanistic, however, but which is systems orientated, in that nature is regarded as being multiple, temporal and complex. The common perception of classical science that only deterministic equations to describe nature is required, had to give way to the realisation that some processes involve probabilistic processes (Prigogine & Stengers, 1984: xxvii, 7-9). Thus, when the artificial contains the deterministic and reversible the natural contains essential elements of randomness and irreversibility. This led to a new view of matter, in which it is no more the passive substance described by mechanistic world view, but is associated with spontaneous activity (Prigogine & Stengers, 1984: 9).

Modern systems theory approaches living organisms from the point of view that everything to be found in a biological structure is immanent in certain sorts of organisation of parts (Bateson, 1985: 101-103, 227; Laszlo, 1972: 165). So, for example, was it suggested that mental things, symbols and the like, do not sit outside the brain as programmable entities, but that these are created by the never ceasing dynamical activity of the brain (Kelso, 1995: 1). To put all this in a nutshell, unlike the ancient Greeks (Plato, 1993b: 17; Taylor, 1951: 139-140) modern dynamic systems philosophy does not accept the separate existence of a soul or anything of a vitalistic nature, but all that which constitutes man and his mind are to be found within the confines of the complexity of his structures, especially those in his brain (Bateson, 1985: 227; Capra, 1997: 167; Kelso, 1995: 1, 285; Laszlo, 1972: 196). This idea followed from the concept that life requires three closely intertwined criteria: Pattern, structure and process (Capra, 1997: 167). Life is, therefore, considered to be a process, a process which is identified with cognition, the process of knowing (Capra, 1997: 168). This approach implies a radically new conception of mind, a concept which firstly, promises to do away with the Cartesian division between mind and matter, and secondly to place mind firmly in the realm of the physical (Capra, 1997: 168). In systems theory of living systems, the process of life is identified with cognition, the process of knowing (Capra, 1997: 168).

119 The decisive advance of the systems view of life is that mind is not a separate entity, such as a soul or spirit, as the ancients believed (Capra, 1997: 257), but rather a process, a process that may be found not only in the brain, but in the total organism. Such an approach is to be found, for example, in the Santiago Theory of Cognition, a theory which was formulated in the 1970s by the Chilean, Huberto Maturana, which firstly did away with the Cartesian division between mind and matter, and secondly with the Cartesian characterisation of mind as the thinking thing (Capra, 1997: 95-96, 2003: 32-33). The identification of mind or cognition with the process of life is, according to Capra (1997: 257, 2003: 32), a novel idea in science. The central insight of the Santiago theory is similar to that of Bateson (1985: 101-143), which stated that the identification of cognition, the process of knowing, is with the process of life. It also allows for the fact that perception, and more generally cognition, do not represent an external reality, but rather specify one through the nervous system's process of circular organisation (Maturana, 1970, cited by Capra, 1997: 96). Kelso (1995: 285), who acted independently from the directives of the Santiago Theory, concluded his book on Dynamic Patterns with a similar statement:

The brain is a self-organized, pattern-forming, dynamical system. And its coherent, but unpredictable spatiotemporal trajectoriesbrain behavioris the mind.

Systems theory thus does not see man not as a dualistic entity (Descartes, 1637/1969a: 27, 1649/1985c: 327), but unified , and to be of this world (Bateson, 1985; Heidegger, 1927/1986: 215-240; Laszlo, 1972: 144-152, 181; Warnock, 1988). The world is considered to be the environment of man, the latter who then is treated as a unique object of attention (Warnock, 1988: 1). MerleauPonty (1945/2002: 171) pointed out this position that man occupied in space:

120 Experience discloses beneath objective space, in which the body eventually finds its place, a primitive spatiality of which experience is merely the outer covering and which merges with the body's very being. To be a body, is to be tied to a certain world, as we have seen; our body is primarily in space: it is of it.

In terms of classical riding the concept of unity where everything is ascribed to the soul or the spiritual, while in modern systems perspective, is purely physical in nature, is now ascribed to the complexity of the organisation of life. Some systems theorists feel at home with the idea that cognition could be referred to as the "breath" of life (soul, spirit, psyche, anima, all of which means breath) (Capra, 1997: 257). Since the systems theory seems to embrace what is put forth in this crucial element in classical riding, it is therefore possible to look at crucial Greek concepts from the modern physical systems theory perspective. This will be attempted in the following sections. 4.4.3 Know thyself

Heidegger (1927/1986: 218) used the term "transparency" (Durcsichtigkeit) to designate knowledge of the Self, denoting that we are concerned here with a full and sophisticated knowledge of the Self in all its implications (MuellerVollmer, 1986: 221). In terms of general systems theory it is difficult to explain the nature, and more important still, the necessity for such an action.

Throughout human history the disciplined examination of experience has been used widely in differing philosophic and religious traditions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism, Sufism and Christianity (Shear & Jevning, 1999). Those involved in so-called bodywork, have also emphasised the importance of selfawareness, and more specifically, for the purpose of the present study, with selfawareness of the body (Alexander, 1910/1996: 12; Barlow, 1978: 16; Feldenkrais, 1984: 21-22; Lowen & Lowen, 1977: 10). Alexander (1910/1996: 12), for example, stressed the fact that people live in nearly complete ignorance

121 of the way they use their bodies, and by doing so, distort the form, and impair the working of the whole organism.

4.4.4 Excellence

In systems philosophy excellence is not specifically addressed, but indirectly one can discern some reference to it. Bateson (1985: 16-20) pointed to the fact that it is patterns which connect (section 4.3.4). Patterns, such as those connecting man to the horse, for example, denotes an endeavour by two organisms to find relations between similar parts in the horse and man. The vast pattern which connects, Bateson (1985: 16) alluded to as a metapattern. Patterns therefore stretch across species, and amongst other things, determine common structures and generic functions. In both horse and man such generic functional patterns within individuals and between individuals may be distorted (posture of horse or rider). From this statement one may argue the fact that "excellence" is central to the dynamic systems theory, when one refers to the quality of patterns in biological systems. The pattern which connects may also be regarded from its reverse perspective, which says that connections give rise to links and therefore to patterns. The nature and quality of the pattern are then dependent upon the nature of the connections and the sites from which it originates. In man and horse, for example, this to a very large extent determines the quality (degree of excellence) of the pattern that eventually emergesa prime example of this would be the quality of the posture assumed by the organism before and during activity, and the resultant quality of the movement, an aspect to be highlighted in the Chapters 6-8.

4.4.5 Beauty

Bateson (1985: 27) lamented mankind's loss of the sense of unity of biosphere and humanity which would bind and

122 reassure us with an affirmation of beauty. Most of us today do not believe that whatever the ups and downs of detail within our limited experience, the larger whole is primarily beautiful. We have lost the core of Christianity. We have lost Shiva, the dancer of Hinduism whose dance at the trivial level is both creation and destruction but in whole is beauty. We have lost Abraxas, the terrible and beautiful god of both day and night in Gnosticism. We have lost totemism, the sense of parallelism between man's organization and that of animals and plants. We have lost even the Dying God.

According to Bateson (1985: 27-28) there are many different and contrasting epistemologies which have been alike in stressing an ultimate unity, with some stressing the notion that ultimate unity is aesthetic. He also held to the presupposition that man's loss of the sense of aesthetic unity was an epistemological mistake.

Bateson (1985: 27) echoes the sentiments of Plotinus (250/1952: 21) previously discussed in section 3.2.4, in which it was pointed out that something beautiful is essentially symmetrical, patterned, and that beauty is only to be found in wholeness. Bateson (1985: 17) introduced the term aesthetic in this regard, which to him suggested to be responsive to the pattern which connects. Of relevance here is his aesthetic question: How is one related to another creature (e.g. horse), and what pattern connects them?

4.4.5.1

Non-action

Instead of trying to make him respond to my cues, I let him try to figure out the right answer. More importantly, I was more willing to feel when he was offering to do the right thing. I would take what he could give and simply go from there (Rashid, 2000: 93).

123

In this regard Belasik (1990: 87) advice was to practice good technique, and not to look for solutions to problems, but rather to let answers find him.

The concept of non-action (wu-wei) was briefly discussed in section 4.3.4.3, and will be taken up again in section 6.4.5. Important here is the principle of nonaction as an artistic ideal, and that one should act in harmony with the ongoing cosmic process. Brger (1986: 20), in this regard, observed that total concentration of the mind on the senses, a teaching of Zen-Buddhism, is more essential to riding than any other art. Thus for the rider to become more aware of when the horse is offering the right thing and to allow the horse "to figure out the right answer" (Rashid, 2000: 93), is certainly, as Rashid (2000; 93) put it, "a different attitude". Also, allowing the horse to become part of the whole, is to increase its responsiveness, quietness and lightness (Rashid, 2000: 93-95). 4.4.6 Systems theory and classical riding

This section will briefly address an important issue pertaining to the ancient art of classical riding and the general systems theory, which is how well does the general systems theory meet with the ideals of classical riding? At first glace it is obvious that this approach may encompass a crucial element of ancient Greek philosophy, in that it realises that everything is interrelated. Within all systems, according to the definition of general systems theory, there is interaction between elements. The make-up of this interaction, however, is an important factor in the realisation of some of the ideals of classical riding such as beauty, grace and harmony. As will be pointed out in chapters to follow (6-9) classical ideals can only be attained if there is harmony within participating systems, which will allow unhindered exchange of energy and information between different parts of the organism, between organisms and between organisms and the environment. Restriction of this harmony and exchange in any way will result in a riding performance where only the basics of riding are exhibited.

124

The roads that led to the development of the ancient and the modern scientific belief systems differ. In ancient Greek philosophical thought and religion formed the basis by which things like mind, the soul and reasoning were explained. Modern science's approach to these issues, on the other hand arose from Cartesian mechanistic thought. To those involved in the systems approach, mind is not regarded as being a thing, but rather a process (Capra, 1997: 107, 2003: 32-33).

Will the belief or non-belief in a Socratic immortal soul, or modern system theory of mind or the soul, impact on the way in which unity of things are seen? Only time will tell. It is proposed here, however, that in terms of the practical aspects of riding the two philosophies can be equated to each other, except possibly for the fact that in terms of systems philosophy there would be no need to attain the spiritual ultimate. Systems philosophy is part of what was initiated in the ancient world, which is to penetrate the mysteries of life. For the purposes of classical riding today, however, endeavouring towards arete, beauty and grace still applies, despite the difference between philosophies of ancient Greece and modern systems theory. Subjective aspects of classical riding, however, are only found in the Greek way of comprehending things.

4.5

CONTROL OF MOVEMENT IN HIGHER ANIMALSPERSPECTIVE OF THE PRESENT STUDY

Bateson (1985: 231) had the following to say about the educational system at universities:

While much that universities teach today are new and up to date, the presupposition or premises of thought upon which all our teaching is based are ancient and, I assert, obsolete.

125

I refer to such notions as: a. The Cartesian dualism separating 'mind' and 'matter'

b.

The strange physicalism of the metaphors we use to describe and explain mental phenomena - 'power', 'tension', 'energy', 'social forces', etc.

c.

Our anti-aesthetic assumption, borrowed from the emphasis which Bacon, Locke and Newton long ago gave to the physical sciences, viz., that all phenomena (including the mental) can and shall be studied and evaluated in quantitative terms.

A time-honoured approach to the truism of the view that biological processes exhibit order and form, is that expressed by the likeness drawn by Descartes between the human body and mechanical gadgets, in which orderly events follow from the

mere arrangement of the machine's organs every bit as naturally as the movements of a clock or other automaton follow from the arrangement of its counter-weights and wheels (Descartes, 1664/1985d: 108).

On this machine analogy Descartes sought to derive the orderly activity of the nervous system from the anatomical arrangements of the body (Descartes, 1664/1985d: 99-108; Kugler et al., 1980: 5-6). Of the most critical problems to be faced by a system like this is how to make a number of clocks, as Charles V (1500-1558), tried to do, sound together (see Meijer, 2001: 5), and how in the motor apparatus of man and higher animals the enormous number of degrees of freedom, can be controlled effectively. As Bernstein (1967: 125), put it

126 both in respect to the kinematics of the multiple linkages of its freely jointed kinematic chains, and to the elasticity due to the resilience of their connections, the muscles.

Continuous with the machine conception of Descartes, several approaches have presented themselves in order to explain the mechanism of motor control in organisms, namely: The concatenation of stimulus-response connections, the existence of a central motor programme (Bernstein, 1967: 37; Lashley, 1917; Meijer, 2001: 34-35; Miller et al., 1960: 16-19; Schmidt, 1975, 1976; Schmidt et al., 1998: 331), and the feedback-error-correcting mechanism fundamental to cybernetics and its allied disciplines (where control is based upon preestablished arrangements among components) (Kugler et al., 1980: 3, 6), and connectionist theories (Schmidt & Fitzpatrick, 1996: 196-197).

At present it is still the machine conception that dominates the interpretation of biological and physiological processes. The preference shown to this conception is probably due to the fact that processes can readily be described in formal and quasi-formal languages, languages that are compatible to the machine conception (Kugler et al., 1980: 6). Viewed from a machine perspective, during the execution of a sitting trot, for example, both rider and horse continuously have to deal with changes in their momentary states (state transitions), in which both organisms, individually and jointly, at certain pivotal points have to follow a subroutine which will identify what to do if certain conditions are heldconditions which should, in well-trained riders and horses, be largely predictable in a trot, for example, that is maintained rhythmically and fluently. Common to machine thinking is the notion that motor-acts are controlled from a single information-processing source, the nervous system (see Brooks, 1979: 345; Keele, 1982: 161-186; Magill, 1993: 126-128; Schmidt, 1975, 1976; Schmidt & Lee, 2001: 136-157, for example), whose function can be compared to that of a computer which has stored components and subroutines which can be retrieved by a programme (Kelso, 1995: 1). According

127

to Kugler et al. (1980: 6) there are very good reasons that this way of thinking is often ill motivated and premature.

Opposing the concept of the body being a machine, is the understanding that what is primarily responsible for order in biological processes is the free interplay of forces and mutual influences among components toward equilibrium or steady stateswhich are dynamic tendencies (Kugler et al., 1980: 6). To paraphrase Kugler et al. (1980: 7) state transitions that occur (described in the previous paragraph), appear to arise from the mutual relations among the constituents that define the states of rider and horse. Goodwin (1970: 5) and Weiss (1963) posed the question of what controls or what coordinates any biological process. According to them this should be answered by "the whole" rather than a part. Essential to this thought is the consideration of the initial conditions the system finds itself in, since this will act on the state transitions allowed to the rider and horse (see Goodwin, 1970: 5). The issue of initial conditions will be discussed in sections 6.5.1and 8.1.

In this study the approach from the scientific viewpoint to motor control, will be a combination of that of Bernstein (1967) and the dynamic systems theory (Tuller, Turvey & Fitch, 1982; Kelso, 1998: 203-219). The purpose of this is to explain the integrated function of neuromuscular-skeletal control and its application to horsemanship, and also that the Bernsteinian tradition in movement sciences and the dynamic systems theory (Gurfinkel & Cordo, 1998: 1-19; Kugler et al., 1980, 1982; Magill, 1993: 93, 138; Turvey, Fitch & Tuller, 1982: 239-242) satisfy the requirements of the general systems theory and also that it functions on principles drawn from philosophy, biology, engineering science and in particular, from non-equilibrium thermodynamics and the ecological approach to perception and action (Kugler et al., 1982: 5).

128 In contrast to the mechanistic approach to research in movement control (Magill 1993: Chapter 3; Schmidt, 1991: Chapter 5), for example, Bernstein (1967: 114) examined movements in their natural settingsexperimental situations from which he could draw conclusions about movement control by the nervous system (Gurfinkel & Cordo, 1998: 3). While investigating human subjects, Bernstein (1967: 105, 125) became aware of the fact that during movement the human organism has to regulate a large number of degrees of freedom (see section 8.3.1) in the course of activity by a minimally intelligent executive intervening minimally (Kugler et al., 1980: 4). How the latter is achieved will be addressed by investigating the dynamic systems theory (section 8.1).

The practical use of systems philosophy in riding, training of horses and riders will be outlined in Chapters 6 and 8.

CHAPTER 5

CLASSICAL RIDING AND MODERN DRESSAGE

A man living is yielding and receptive, Dying, he is rigid and inflexible. All Things, the grass and trees; Living, they are yielding and fragile; Dying, they are dry and withered (Lao Tzu). (W ing, 1986: 177).

Lightness! Agility! Balance! Those essentials of the classically trained horse were as relevant two and a half thousand years ago as they are today (Loch, 1990: 26).

Action without reflection is but agitation (Froissard, 1988: xiv).

The past is the efficient cause of the future, and no new creation, nothing essentially new can arise in the future (Sm uts, 1926/1987: 88).

There is a nagging fact that in the training of some animals to do certain things brutality will work. Because so many people are riding, and a lot of them are riding in competitions under pressure, you see this kind of training more and more (Belasik, 1994: 106).

Too many people assume that they have the right to ride the horse without respect for some proper communication. They have the right to this authority without granting any authority to the horse; without any reverence to the process; without any willingness to be ordered or changed by the horse (Belasik, 1994: 108).

Critical faculties, left to themselves with nothing positive to criticize, cannot function at all. They have no standard to work by. They rapidly eat themselves away and disappear up their own orifices, as they always have in purely sceptical thought (Midgley, 1992: 125).

129

130 5.1 THE ORIGINS OF CLASSICAL RIDING

5.1.1 The first horsemen

The early domestication of the horse probably occurred in Eurasia among the steppe people five to six thousand years ago. This was towards the end of the Neolithic period (Edwards, 1987: 48). Where and when man started to ride horses is unknown. It is assumed that the first mounted horsemen emerged about 3500 years agomen who lived in the sweep of steppes that stretched from Hungary eastwards to Manchuria (Trippett et al., 1974: 9-10). Edwards (1987: 52) surmised that the steppe region, extending from the Great Wall in China to Outer Mongolia, was the cradle of the first horse cultures, from whence successive waves of horsemen poured out to conquer the earth. From the steppe region the domestic horse spread outward into central and western Europe, the Caucasus and onwards into Arabia and eastwards to China. The first of these nomads to attract the attention of historians were the Scythians (Trippett et al., 1974: 9). By the end of the sixth century BC their mastery of the horse made them rulers of an area what is now known as the Ukraine, and ultimately they also dominated the inhabitants of Greek trading colonies on the northern rim of the Black Sea. Subsequently other groups such as the Assyrians and the Persians became notable horsemen, and were because of this, able to expand their empires (Edwards, 1987: 59-75; Trippett et al., 1974: 51, 62).

5.1.2 The development of classical riding in ancient Greece

5.1.2.1

Preamble

Since the Renaissance the word classical has been equated with the cultural heritage of the Greeks and Romans. Classical qualities are, for example, beauty, harmony, the suppression of the particular in favour of the typical, the ideal balance between mind and body (Handler, 1972: 51).

131

As far as riding is concerned the Greeks followed on the Assyrians and Persians, and they probably obtained their horses from Scythian sources which they crossed with the Nisean horse they obtained from their Persian conquest (Edwards, 1987: 72). It has been stated before, that through the efforts of one general, Xenophon, that horsemanship achieved the status of an art form (Edwards, 1987: 78, section 3.1.2).

General Xenophon (c. 430-354 BC) was an Athenian knight, Greek historian, essayist, military commander and author of the oldest extant book on equitation (Loch, 1990: 26; Thorne & Collocott, 1988: 1445; Walpole, 1958, xi-xii).

5.1.2.2

Xenophon and riding as an art

Xenophon spent much of his youth either fighting in Persia, or with the Spartans against the anti Spartan league of Athens, Corinth and Thebes. For this reason he was greatly influenced by the horsemanship of a number of cultures (Loch, 1990: 26-29; Thorne & Collocott, 1988: 1445; Xenophon, 1934, 1958).

Xenophon (1962) was interested in the training of war-horses, but being an Athenian, beauty and perfection, even in the war-horse, was of paramount importance. Proper training would not only lead to a good war-horse but also to beauty and grace in the execution of all its actions. To obtain this end he had the following to say:

If you desire to handle a good war-horse so as to make his action the more magnificent and striking, you have to refrain from pulling at his mouth with the bit as well as from spurring and whipping him. Most people think that this is the way to make him look fine; but they only produce an effect exactly contrary to what they desirethey positively blind their horses by jerking the mouth up instead of letting them look forward, and by spurring and striking scare them into disorder

132 and danger. This is the way horses behave that are fretted by their riders into ugly and ungraceful action; but if you teach your horse to go with a light hand on the bit, and yet to hold his head well up to arch his neck, you will be making him just what the animal himself glories and delights in (Xenophon, 1962: 5556).

And:

So when he is induced by man to assume all the airs and graces which he puts on of himself when he is showing off voluntarily, the result is a horse that likes to be ridden, that presents a magnificent sight, that looks alert, that is the observed of all the observers (Xenophon, 1962: 56). For what the horse does under compulsion, as Simon1 also observes, is done without understanding; and there is no beauty in it either, any more if one should whip and spur a dancer. There would be a great deal more ungracefulness than beauty in either a horse or man that was so treated. No, he should show off all his finest and most brilliant performances willingly and at a mere sign (Xenophon, 1962: 62-63).

The above on the treatment of the horse probably stemmed from the essence of Athenian thought regarding the art of horsemanship, since it reflects a high regard for the horse and the Attic concept of being in harmony with the laws of nature.

In essence Hippike deals with the training of the horse. Breaking and backing did not concern the wealthy Athenian elite, from which the cavalry was drawn, and was carried out by grooms. Xenophon, therefore, did not concern himself with it in any detail, although he accentuated its correct execution. Thereafter his instructions were detailed. Xenophon was concerned with producing, serviceable campaign horses and parade horses on which great men could show

133 themselves glamorously and heroically (Edwards, 1987: 136). Horses were trained up to the levels one would expect from a present day High School horse. As far as the latter is concerned, Xenophon understood those movements nowadays termed advanced, movements that proved to be beyond the ability of more than 90 per cent of present day riders (Edwards, 1987: 84). Xenophons (1962: 13-68) treatise on horsemanship is short and to the point, and in essence deals with what is expected from a war-horse, and also what should be done in order to obtain the necessary ideals of classic horsemanship. Unlike modern approaches, however, Xenophon did not concern himself with details of aspects such as the bending of a horse in circles or corners, or issues such as the use and application of the riders aids.

The writings of Xenophon are not the only reference to the fact that High School movements were taught and practised in ancient Greece. Another piece of evidence is the frieze on the Parthenon on the acropolis in Athens, a masterpiece attributed to the school of Phideas. Here one finds elegant portrayals of High School movements such as the levade, the piaffe and the passage (Handler, 1972: 52; Podhajsky, 1985: 59).

Training as advocated by Xenophon resulted in very well trained horses, eminently suitable for the purposes of war of those times, all the more remarkable, since the Greeks had neither saddle nor stirrup (Edwards, 1987: 84; Seunig, 1974: 53). Emanating from his method of training it is possible to establish five basic principles for the training of the horse, principles, which still form the basis of classical riding and training (Loch, 1990: 30): !

Tact: Xenophon (1962: 30, 32, 33, 37, 42, 49, 52, 53) constantly practised this together with gentleness and kindness. Riders should also not fret their horses into ungraceful action (Xenophon, 1962: 56).

134 ! Self discipline: Xenophon (1962: 37) stressed that one should never deal with a horse in a fit of passion, since in anger the trainer commits actions that will later be regretted. !

Constant quests for beauty and perfection (Xenophon 1962: 56): Xenophon also abhorred the use of force, since it invariably led to ungracefulness. In this respect it is interesting to note Xenophon's (1962: 63-64) directive that it is not the task of the commander of regiment of cavalry to aspire to be the only brilliant figure, but rather to lead. The general effect must be such that not only the commander but the whole regiment is a sight worth seeing.

Freedom of the horse: Submission of the horse should be obtained voluntarily, otherwise the noble nature of the horse would be spoiled (Xenophon, 1962: 62-63). The term submission used here by Loch (1990: 30) is probably not correct according to Greek ideals. Seen from the standpoint that there is unity in things, a more appropriate designate here would perhaps be "harmony" or "fusion". The aim should be, according to Decarpentry (1987: 6), the seeking of the cooperation of the horse.

Lightness: Xenophon, in this regard, advocated the policy of making the horse do what he glories and delights in (Xenophon, 1962: 56), an approach later also underlined by Blake (1977: 78-79). Decarpentry (1987: 7), saw lightness as being the situation where there is perfect harmony in the play of forces, exactly adjusted to its object.

Some of the aspects discussed above; such as lightness and freedom of the horse may at times during training be divided into smaller wholes, such as the anatomical, biomechanical and physiological, an approach which sometimes may be useful in terms of training and riding, as well as for the rehabilitation of

135 the injured horse. This tendency to fragment, however, should never lose sight of the fact that in a system smaller wholes function within larger ones and that everything is interrelated, and that nature cannot be reduced to fundamental entities, but has to be understood entirely through self-consistency (Capra, 1985: 84, 285-332; Rooney, 1977: 114, 239; Smuts, 1926/1987: 101-102).

Three psychotherapists, Adele, Marlena and Thomas McCormick (McCormick, McCormick & McCormick, 2004: 23) described classical riding as being a natural method that advocates

gentleness and harmony between horse and rider in all endeavors. Horse and rider are encouraged to develop such refined and loving communication that they become one. When this classical method is followed, the communication often becomes telepathic. Rider and horse progressively learn to read each other by gaining intimacy and attunement. They appear to be connected by an invisible thread and are sensitive to each others subtle energy shifts.

The rider rides not only physically but also with his or her mind, spirit, and innermost soul. The horse is encouraged through systematic gymnastic exercises to remain joyful, generous, and happy. Hence, both horse and rider learn to give to each other willingly and lovingly.

5.1.2.3

The Greek horse

In ancient Greece, riding as a habit, came into practice later than driving. In the time of Homer the use of cavalry was unknown in battle. The heroes fought in chariots, the mass of the army on foot. Journeys were also made in chariots (Morgan, 1962a: 74). In the course of the centuries that followed there came about a changeits development unknown. Originally in the Olympic Games chariot races were the only equestrian contests, the first of these in the 25th Olympiad in 680 BC (Edwards, 1987: 80). In as early as the 33rd Olympiad (648

136 BC), a race for full-grown riding horses was instituted as part of the Games, indicating that at that time riding was a habit amongst the Greeks (Edwards, 1987: 80; Morgan, 1962a: 75).

Horses were owned by the wealthy and elite, since they were extremely expensive. They were, according to Morgan (1962a), smaller and not as tall as the horses of the late nineteenth century. Edwards (1987: 80) calculated their height at the withers to be not more than 14,2 hands. Through its Macedonian, Thessalonian, Persian, Spanish and Barb blood, the ideal Greek war-horse would not have been so very different from those of later classical masters in the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, according to Loch (1990: 29). Their resemblance to later classical horses is not only borne out by pictorial evidence (Loch, 1990: 29), but also by the following description of Xenophon (1962: 16) of the ideal war-horse: The broader the chest so much handsomer and stronger is it, and the more naturally adapted to carry the legs well apart and without interference. The neck should not be thrown out from the chest like a boars, but like a cocks, should rise straight up to the poll and slim at the bend, while the head, though bony, should have but a small jaw. The neck would then protect the rider, and the eye see what lies before the feet.

Conformation of the horse is one of the cornerstones of its functionality (Harris, 1993: 115-128). Experience in war showed the Greeks, and those that went before them, what to look for in the ideal war-horse (Xenophon, 1962: 14-19; Morgan, 1962a: 69-117).

5.1.2.4

The Greek rider

The Greek cavalry was under the especial oversight of the Senate. Entrance into it, was enforced upon those physically and pecuniarily able. Entrance,

137 however, still was governed by a strict examination, and the horseman was required to present himself before an examining committee, with his charger, and his equipments, all in a condition to conform to the law (Morgan, 1962a: 7576).

The sharp distinction drawn between the body and the soul, the physical and spiritual by some cultures was foreign to the Greeks, at least until the time of Socrates, Plato and Xenophon (section 3.2). To the Greek there was simply the whole man. The Greeks, therefore made physical training an important part of education, since it made sense to them to train the whole man (Kitto, 1970: 173). It was as natural for the polis (city-states) to have gymnasia as to have a theatre or warships, and these were constantly used by men of all ages, not only for the purpose of training their bodies, but for mental training as well (Kitto, 1970: 173). To the Greeks games were part of their religion (Kitto, 1970: 173). Ancient Greek culture also dictated the attributes of beauty, perfection of the rider, and followed the wholeness grace and concept required between horse and rider. Contrary to modern usage, the Greeks did not have the advantage of saddles and stirrups (Seunig, 1974: 53), which made their ability to achieve what is known today as a classical seat more remarkable.

One of the cornerstones of classical riding is a good seat (Loch, 1988: 10-13; Mairinger, 1983: 29; von Dietze, 1999: 16). For this Xenophon (1962: 40-41) had specific requirements, requirements which are still used as a cornerstone in riding today:

When the rider takes his seat, whether bareback or on cloth, I do not approve of a seat which is though the man were on a chair, but rather as though he were standing upright with his legs apart. Thus he would get a better grip with his thighs on the horse, and being upright, he could hurl his javelin more vigorously

138 and strike a better blow from horseback if need be (Xenophon, 1962: 4041).

The above passage may, according to Seunig (1974: 53), have been worded as to leave room for false interpretation, and therefore be responsible for the notion that riders of antiquity rode their horses in a straight crotch seat. Seunig (1974: 53) found this notion to be incorrect. Study of equestrian friezes, reliefs on tombs, Alexandrine coins and intaglios, pictures on vases and other works that have come from the period before and after Xenophon, indicated that Greek riders did not use a crotch seat. This would have produced too much fatigue if the rider had to stay on his horse for any length of time (Seunig, 1974: 53).

5.1.2.5

Summarythe classically trained horse of Greek antiquity

The ancient Greeks produced horses that fulfilled their ideals of cosmic unity, wholeness, beauty and perfection. Their horses were well trained, not only to do the task in hand, but without having their natural movement constrained. This allowed the Athenian horses to perform according to their natural and innate abilities. The consequence of classical training and riding was a well trained horse with beautiful action and natural movement.

Classical riding, then, is nothing else but riding that originated from the unitary approach of the Greek, in which riding is considered to be part and parcel of the cosmic whole. In its purest form, the art of classical riding calls for riders and trainers with an integrated view of not only themselves, but also of their immediate environment and the rest of the cosmos. This is only possible if one starts off with an individual which is fully integrated within himself (see Bentley, 1999: 14-77; Mairinger, 1983: 29-36; Massion, Alexandrov & Vernassa, 1998; Pevsner, 1980; von Dietze, 1999: 13-16; Wiesendanger, 1998: 121-122, for example), an ability which will free him to such an extent that he may come to a better understanding of the horse, its nature and its needs.

139

5.1.3 Classical riding following the Greek period

Although the art of classical riding did not survive Hellenic culture, command of horsemanship proved to be of great value to the Romans in their conquests (Loch, 1990: 32-35) and to the Mongolian tribes such as the Hsiung-nu, which later became the Huns under Attila (Blake, 1975: 27-29). As warriors the Huns inspired almost unparalleled fear throughout Europe. The Huns were mounted archers, and were able to shoot with great accuracy and speed (Thompson, 1964: 877).

Unfortunately the fine sensitivity in the treatment of horses, revealed in the writings of Xenophon did not survive the period of Hellenic culture (Seunig, 1974: 47). With the fall of the Greek empire, and later with the great migration, the cultural value of many arts was lost (Podhajsky, 1967: 17). The Romans had little genuine interest in the art of riding, and with the chaos of the subsequent period of migrations all memory of it was almost completely eradicated (Handler, 1974: 52).

5.1.4 Concepts of the classical art of riding following the Renaissance

To Xenophon and his writings, credit must be given for ensuring that classical horsemanship could later be resurrected (Loch, 1990: 30-31; Podhajsky, 1967: 16). Nearly a thousand years later, his writings served as an inspiration for the enquiring minds of the Renaissance. They were also at the base of what is now termed as classical riding (Edwards, 1987: 83).

It is in the context of Classical Humanism rather than the Humanism of the Renaissance that the true revival of classical horsemanship should be placed. Horsemanship as an art form was rediscovered in the 16th century in Italy with the establishment of the Neapolitan Riding School. It was 17th century France,

140 however, that gave the equestrian art its particular direction and imprint, something which parallelled the development and hegemony of French Classicism in other fields of endeavour (Nelson, 1989: VII).

Xenophons psychological element inspired equestrian scholars after the Renaissance, and proved to be the cornerstone of the philosophy of Italian equestrian masters such as Frederico Grisone, who founded the first modern riding academy in Italy in Naples in the year 1532 (Crossley, 1984: 13; Edwards, 1987: 138; Loch 1990: 42). His academy derived its teaching not only from Xenophon, but also from the existing Byzantine tradition. He insisted that the horse should have a light responsive mouth and sought a gentle good contact at the mouth which was the foundation of his entire doctrine (Edwards, 1987: 139). His methods, however, were apparently harsh and much criticised (Handler, 1972: 58; Loch, 1990: 42). His pupil, Giovanni Baptista Pignatelli, who apparently brought in more humane methods of training, was the medium through which enlightenment grew, since his pupils became outstanding riding masters and set up riding academies all over Europe (Crossley, 1984: 14; Loch, 1990: 45). Pignatelli was responsible for handing his most prominent pupils such as La Broue, de Pluvinel, Saint-Antoine (equerry to both James I and Charles I of England) and others a basic training formula for manege riding (Edwards, 1987: 144).

At the end of the sixteenth century the rigidity and austerity of the Renaissance period began to give way to the Baroque period and a gentler form of classicism. Under this influence equitation was to flower into the most resplendent period of its existence (Loch, 1990: 45). Though the word baroque had at various times meant bizarre, flamboyant, and elaborately ornamented, modern historians use it simply to indicate a particular style in the arts. An oversimplified, but appropriate characterisation of baroque style is that it fills spacecanvas, stone or soundwith action and movement. Artists and architects became interested in forming a total illusion, creating totally structured worlds (Kamien, 1992: 126),

141 This kind of style suited the aristocracy of that time, who thought in terms of completely integrated structures (Kamien, 1992: 126), a way of thinking which set the stage for the development of the gentle classical style in riding which had its source mainly in France of that period (Loch, 1990: 62). The Frenchman, Salomon de la Broue's (1530-1610), concern was to achieve an effortless, light quality in all school work with all his horses (Loch, 1990: 62). His contemporary, Antoine Pluvinel de la Baume (1555-1620), a pupil of Pignatelli (Pluvinel, 1626/1989: 40), is generally acknowledged as the father of French equitation, and the person who introduced the golden age of classical riding in France (Handler, 1972: 60; Loch, 1990: 63). Pluvinel (1626/1989: 93; cited by Nelson, 1989: XII; ) emphasised gentleness and the understanding of the horse's mind. Fifty years after de Pluvinel, the sole British master of equitation, William Cavendish, the Duke of Newcastle (Cavendish, 1743/2000), operated on much the same lines. He invented the shoulder in on the circle (Cavendish, 1743/2000: 35-38; Loch, 1990: 86). Standing head and shoulders above all the above Baroque masters, however, is Sieur Franios Robichon de la Gurinire (1688-1751) (Edwards, 1987: 144). He formulated, expanded and refined the principles of equitation as a rational science. His book Ecole de Cavalerie, (Gurinire, 1729/1994) became the authoritative bible of the dressage world (Loch, 1990: 66). It is largely on his account that the French influence became the decisive and lasting factor in world equitation (Edwards, 1987: 144). The classical tradition that stemmed from Gurinire has subsequently been maintained up to the present time by a large number of individuals and the Spanish Riding School (Loch, 1990: 48-50, 73-79).

Recently the equestrian idea of classical riding has become fashionable again, particularly in countries which not so long ago cared little for the aesthetic in relation to riding, and where the objective was to ride as hard and fast as possible. In small and isolated areas where the artistic concept of riding remained, little changed (Loch, 1990: 17). It is therefore to be expected that

142 concepts of the art of classical riding should emanate from these areas. Fortunately, the modern equestrian world has been left a legacy of writings of many of those who involved themselves in the classical art of riding. Their opinions of what constituted classical riding, agree to a remarkable extent. Although details about how certain movements in the horse should be attained differ, all the authors concur on the following axioms, axioms which will be shown later to be rooted in a number of bases, such as anatomical, biomechanical and physiological: !

Harmony between horse and rider (Albrecht, 1993: 7; Cavendish, 1743/2000: 133; Mseler, 1980: ix; Oliveira, 1988: 17-18, Pluvinel, 1626/1989: 24; Wtjen, 1958: 4). Handler (1972: 51-52) described this interrelationship as follows:

And yet: the dressage rider is an artist, and the horse is his medium. And together they produce a work of art that is all too transitory, as it can be perceived only in motion. A harmony in the movements of man and animal, a harmonious fusion between the twothis is the basic principle to be followed in every phase of the training. The goal is the High School; the horse must ultimately be able to perform the most difficult figures, based on his natural manner of moving, in perfect balance.

In this respect Albrecht (1993: 7) also pointed out that:

Ideally, a spectator should get the impression that the rider only has to think for the horse to execute the required movement as of its own volition.

This complete unity of minds and bodies of rider and horse was essential in mounted combat, and historical accounts of battles in which cavalry was engaged frequently mention that the issue of conflict was determined by the perfect oneness of horse and rider which was so vital for our ancestors.

143

To this Albrecht (1993: 8) linked artistic horsemanship, when he stated:

it is not sufficiently appreciated that artistic horsemanship is not the ability to make horses perform particularly difficult movements; it is purely the attainment of complete accord between rider and horse, and it is by the measure of this accord that every performance has to be judged. To put it differently, no matter the degree of difficulty of the movements that the horse is asked to execute, it is the gracefulness of a foal playing at pasture that must be sought (Albrechts emphasis).

With this ideal Wtjen (1958: 4), a former rider of the Spanish Riding School, concurred:

The ideal is to train the horse and so obtain harmony and perfection in all movements between rider and horse so that they appear as one. Horse and rider should master all movements without compulsion or force and be able to execute without effort the most difficult exercise of the classical Haute cole.

Horses, which are in harmony with their riders, respond to even the slightest of body movements in their riders. Claremon (1991: 20), for example, has suggested that the riders body should move in accord with the environment, but yet independent of it. The more the accord, the lighter the step is, the more independent, the better the breathing. It will later be pointed out that the breathing of the rider significantly affects the movement of the horse (section 6.6.1). !

The absence of force (Oliveira, 1988: 27-29, 33; Pluvinel, 1626/1989: 93). Pluvinel (1626/1989: 93) was of the opinion that the use of force should be avoided since he has never seen anything positive come out of a horse such treated. Nuno Oliveira has been described as one of the

144 greatest horsemen of the twentieth century (Loch, 1986: 175-176). He also echoed the importance of harmony between rider and horse outlined in the previous paragraphs. His was a pragmatic view, in that detailed requirements of the horses movement were not considered. In line with the classical approach he also considered the psychological, in that good movement can only stem from harmony, and not by the use of force:

Equestrian art is the perfect understanding between the rider and his horse. This harmony allows the horse to work without any contraction in his joints or his muscles, permitting him to carry out all movements with mental and physical enjoyment as well as with suppleness and rhythm. The horse is then a partner, rather than a slave who is enforced to obey a rigid master by constraint (Oliveira, 1988: 17-18). !

The absence of superfluous neuromuscular tension. This is essential for correct carriage and movement of the horse. While a tense horse always responds with some form of physical or mental resistance to every action or requirement of the rider, the correct execution of the movement is invariably impaired (Albrecht, 1988: 16).

Lightness characterises the condition of the perfectly schooled horse, and the soundness of the means employed to guide him (L'Hotte, 1906/1997: 159). This characteristic applies to the schooling of the horse as well as the talent of the rider. L'Hotte (1906/1997: 159) defined lightness as being the perfect obedience of the horse at the slightest use of the rider's aids. According to L'Hotte (1906/1997: 159), harmony between rider and will not be assured if the rider is not able to play with the horse's forces. When the rider is able to awaken and maintain this play of forces in keeping with the movement, lightness will emanate. From this L'Hotte (1906/1997: 159) concluded that perfect lightness finds its formula when the rider

145

puts into place those forces and how the horse makes use of those very forces useful to the movement envisaged. All other manifestations of strength will produce a resistance which, as a consequence, will alter lightness (L'Hottes emphasis). !

Riding should be considered to be an art. Mseler (1980: ix) stated that ri ding can only become an art if the rider meets some specifi c requirements, requirements emphasised centuries ago by Xenophon, aspects previously discussed in section 3.1.2. According to Mseler (1980: ix) individuals are entitled to be called artists if they try with their whole soul to understand the horses psychic disposition and endeavour to establish perfect harmony by the use of sensitive feel instead of crude force.

From a more practical point of view, Podhajsky (1983: 17) advocated that classical riding is nothing but the cultivation of the movements of the horse as shown when at liberty, as well as those which are developed when the horse is ridden, which is in accordance with the principles set out by Xenophon (1962). As a consequence the schooling of a horse according to the classical concept should be constructed in three phases as follows: !

Riding the horse in a natural position of head and neck in the ordinary paces (in the USA commonly called "gaits", see Podhajsky, 1967: 25, 30) and on straight lines. This kind of riding may be an end in itself (Podhajsky, 1983: 17). The chief goal of the first phase of training is to obtain suppleness (physical responsiveness) and readiness to cooperate (Handler, 1972: 145).

The second phase (Champaign School) can only commence when the first has been thoroughly practised, and consists of riding the collected

146 horse in all paces and turns in perfect balance (Podhajsky, 1983: 17). The chief goal of this phase is a horse that is on the aids and goes forward rhythmically and with impulsion in all figures, voltes 2 and transitions (Handler, 1972: 145). !

In the third phase the horse is ridden with greater collection, and with an increased position of the head and neck, lowering of the haunches and increased flexion of the three joints in the hind legs (Brger, 1986: 224; Handler, 1972: 145; Podhajsky, 1967: 71-208, 1983: 18). This phase is called the High School or Haute cole. Once this phase is reached, all three phases of training should be united; so much so that the correctly schooled horse may be taken into a cross-country course and over simple obstacles at any given moment (Podhajsky, 1983: 18). The chief goal is a horse absolutely supple in ordinary and unusual paces, performing all figures and voltes in perfect balance and with cadence3 (Handler, 1972: 145).

Mseler (1973: xix), however, added a new dimension to the modern approach o f cl a s si c a l r i d i n g , w h i c h i s t h a t o f f e e l , a n a s p e ct th a t ma k e s neurophysiological sense (see sections 6.7, 8.1.3 & 8.4.3).

Although dressage training of the horse has been mainly aimed at attaining greater efficiency of cavalry in war, the last half of the 20th century dressage training of horses took on a new dimension, when it became more firmly regarded and practised as a sport in its own right in the form of national and international competitions and at Olympic level (Crossley, 1984: 21-22). This disciplinecalled dressagepurports to follow the ideals of classical riding (Loriston-Clarke, 1987: 13-14; Winnett, 1993: xv-xvii). Whether this is indeed, the case will be examined in the next section.

147 5.1.5 Modern competition dressage and classical riding

5.1.5.1

Introduction

A dressage horse that moves fluently at all gaits can be forgiven the occasional insignificant bungling of a movement and should have a better chance of being placed close to the top than one who executes all the movements with accuracy but with a certain lack of grace. Unfortunately inaccuracy is much easier to note than impurity of movement and is usually noticed not only by the judges, but also by the spectators (Knopfhart, 1990: 7).

Haste is the enemy of any art. Michelangelo took his time with his art until the Pope who commissioned it died and left the bills to his successor. An artist can only be told what he must accomplish; he cannot be given a deadline by which he must accomplish it. The street artist who promises a portrait in five minutes reveals a great deal about himself. So does the rider who quickly makes a "thirdlevel" horse. Competition forces the meeting of deadlines and contesting involves the ego. Deadlines and ego involvement encourage haste, the enemy of quality. They also encourage forced rather than natural development. For centuries the multitudes found it important to travel long distances to marvel at Michelangelo's creations. They came away inspired. Today, we need equestrians to whom we might make pilgrimages in the hope of gaining inspiration (de Kunffy, 1994: 5).

Modern dressage stemmed from European cavalry traditions, which also provided the dogma for the present competitive dressage arena (KileyWorthington, 1997: 196). Dressage, performed in the competition arena, is assumed by most riders and trainers to be identical to classical riding (LoristonClarke, 1987: 13-14; Winnett, 1993: xv-xvii), and for this reason the designations dressage and classical riding are being used as synonyms (Loch, 1986: 236239). This confusion probably arose due to the lack of knowledge of the origin

148 of these two disciplines in many equestrian circles, or possibly an inability to understand the true meaning of classical concepts such as harmony, beauty, and magnificence.

The origin of classical riding has already been discussed (see section 5.1.2). A brief history of modern dressage and its origins will follow, the purpose of which is to indicate the origin of specific differences between the two approaches in riding.

5.1.5.2

Modern competition dressage

Dressage to the average modern rider is a competitive event (de Kunffy, 1994: 1-2; Froissard, 1978: 1), and it is in this context that the term dressage will be used in the present study. Dressage was originally given a sporting mould, and this probably removed it from the classical, and therefore from the sphere of the artistic. The question could be asked whether dressage ever recovered this from deficiency (Loch, 1990: 128).

5.1.5.3

The two equestrian disciplines compared

Some dressage competitors and authors (ffrench-Blake, 1980: 10; LoristonClarke, 1987: 13-14; Winnett, 1993: xv-xvii) did not distinguish between dressage and classical riding. Others, however, did. So, for example, was Loch (1986: 236) of the opinion that the specialised mange work of the horse bred for High School in classical riding, and the maximal amount of manoeuvrability required by the war-horse of old, contrast with what is required in modern dressage competition and the requirements of the modern cavalry horse. Therefore, High School and modern competition dressage have evolved to cater for two completely different concepts of achievement. At present horses bred and trained according to classical principles are not likely to excel in modern dressage competitions (Loch, 1986: 236).

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The specialised work required of the horse bred for High School and the versatile competition work required of contenders for the Grand Prix Dressage resulted in the evolvement into two distinct concepts of accomplishment in the training of horses according to Loch (1986: 236):

The first (High School) is designed to work within a confined area where the horse demonstrates his suitability for the physically gymnastic exercises required in the successful execution of the martial arts. Emphasis is placed largely on courage and agility which combine to produce a spectacle of great beauty and artistry. The second (dressage) is designed for work in a large area wherein the horse demonstrates his suitability for covering the ground in the most economic, balanced and rhythmical way possible at the same time carrying out a logically designed series of obedience tests which at its most advanced level combine certain, but by no means all, of the exercises of the first school. Emphasis is placed on fluency and forward-going power which merge to produce a spectacle of efficiency, practicality and harmony.

Charles de Kunffy (1994: 1-2) also noted distinct differences between the two disciplines, but he was far less complementary about modern dressage in his definitions of "classical equitation" and "dressage". He pointed out the conflict between dressage as an art, and dressage as a technique, the reason for this, inter alia, to be found in the purpose of the training. His views were that taking time to develop a horse seems to conflict with the urge to produce quickly what will suffice in a race to meet competition dates and obligations successfully. To de Kunnfy (1994: 1-2) elegant competitors with artistic appeal seems to contrast with mechanically obedient, submissive, and boring ones, while slowly progressing idealists seem to contradict the hurried results of competitive practitioners.

150

Edwards (1987: 83) held that for the most part modern dressage cannot be considered to be classical. Today only a few preserves of the classical art form are still in existence, such as the Spanish Riding School, and possibly the French Cadre Noir of Saumur, while some individuals in Spain and Portugal may still be exponents of the art.

According to Heyer (1968: 87) the fact that the Greeks had to rely on single combat techniques and the ability to recognise laws of nature and realise the horse's conformation, initiated an art of riding which has survived more than two and half thousand years. To him this art now is generally known, and unfortunately very often misunderstood, as "dressage".

Edwards (1987) and Heyer (1968) were supported by Loch (1986: 238), who held that there is a difference between dressage and High School and that the real discrepancy between the two schools of equitation lay in the disinclination to admit that there is a difference.

5.1.5.4

The artistic merit of classical riding and dressage

As far as the artistic merit of riding is concerned General Alexis-Franois LHotte, an cuyer en chef of the Mange du Saumur from 1866 to 1890, commented that one of his teachers Franois Baucher4 (a classicist), opted for what one can call the poetry of equitation, while he felt that the ambition of his other teacher, the Count Antoine Cartier DAure5 was solely to make good prose writers out of his pupils (Nelson, 1997: 79). DAure promoted a more bold relaxed, more natural style of riding across country (Loch, 1990: 236; The Art of the Horse, Dressage, 1998). Although modern dressage emphasises fluency and forward going, akin to the teachings of DAure, it nevertheless includes some of the movements of the classical school. Theoretically, all that is done in dressage conform to classical ideals, and it is in fact, one of the ideals of the Fdration questre

151 Internationale (FEI)6 to promote the spirit of the classical riding (Loch, 1990: 16) in dressage. Therefore it comes as no surprise to find that many of the proponents of classical riding, such as Albrecht (1988, 1993), Froissard (1978, 1988), Mairinger (1983), Podhajsky (1967, 1983) and Wtjen (1985) were actively involved in dressage in some way or another.

Whether the classical ideals sought after by the FEI is realised in practice, however, is questionable. Van Schaik (1986: 105), for example, postulated that some artistic elements are lost during the performance of dressage tests. He blamed this loss on the composition of dressage tests, since dressage tests are at present concatenations of very difficult movements, making it impossible for any horse and rider combination to perform any art. The most important elements of a correct performance were included by the FEI at the end of the dressage test in article 401, almost as an afterthought (Albrecht, 1988: 33). These elements are in essence the signs of good training (Albrecht, 1988: 33), and serve as a barometer of aspects such as neuro-muscular skeletal coordination, balance and correct biomechanics, for example. The inclusion of elements in such as "purity of the gaits", "ease of movement", "freedom and regularity of movement", "springiness of the steps", "engagement of the hindquarters", "correct position of the rider and correct application of the aids" and "lightness of the forehand" was to prevent judges from overlooking the qualities of the whole when they had appraised the details (Albrecht, 1988: 33).

In practice, however, this intention has not been realised since: !

Trying to estimate, with a number, the value of imponderables such as "purity of the gaits" and the elements (referred to in the previous paragraph) is not a workable idea.

This use of numerical values makes it impossible for the judge to distinguish between factors that can be attributed to the quality of the

152 training and those that are linked to the conformation and special aptitudes of the horse. !

Aspects such as submission, lightness of the forehand, ease of movements are not identical and can not be aggregated (Albrecht, 1988: 33).

The seat of the rider and correct application of the aids are, according to Albrecht (1988: 33) the most significant signs of good training. At Olympic level this crucial aspect is only awarded 20 marks out of a total of 500 in the Grand Prix de Dressage (Podhajsky, 1983: 102), with the majority of the marks being allocated to details of the test. Brger (1986: 26) concurred with this. To him an important criterium of a horses paces, which makes it easy to judge whether he is using his back correctly and not just moving his legs, is the seat of the rider, which should be comfortable in all the paces. Faced with the stark reality of competition, Henriquet and Durand (2004: 74) were of the opinion that the

wonderful article 401 resembles today a fairy tale reserved for credulous adults and children. It is obvious that, to accord with the criteria today, which have nothing in common with article 401, one must hold the horse tightly and push him forward with a hypertension which explodes the notion of poetry in equitation.

This leads to the loss of aspects such as grace, brilliance, lightness ans above all the rassembler7 (Henriquet & Durand, 2004: 74). That is why, according to these two authors racehorses and combat horses are lighter than todays dressage horses.

153 It was Brgers (1986: 26) contention that far too little importance is attached to the riders seat and position, despite the fact that they reveal so much. Unfortunately good marks are given to horses whose paces are basically wrong (analysis of dressage riding at the last two Olympic Games supports this point of view). Nor do any of the marks give any indication of how rider and animal function as an interacting system, and the constraints within which this system functions. Having the rider's hands and legs in constant motion is not penalised, for example. It is now so often seen in dressage tests, that it goes by unnoticed, thus being considered as acceptable as poor posture in modern society (Loots, 1999: 313). Gurnire (1733/1994: 75-76) blamed the habit of constantly moving the hands and legs on the rider seeking to draw from the horse all the virtuosity of which it is capable. Excessive motion in the rider offends against the grace of the rider, and causes the contact with the horse's mouth to be false, and also renders the pace (gait) of the horse to be unsure (see Figure 5.1). Henriquet and Durant (2004: 8-9) lamented the low standard of judging in some areas, and the fact that riders are not sufficiently marked down for regressions against the eight requirements found in the general goals and requirements and the position of the rider and aids of the rider of the FEI. These eight requirements are: 1) Lightness of the forehand, 2) submission to the bit with neither tension nor resistance, 3) animation of the haunches at the slightest request, 4) the neck raised and rounded, 5) gentle contact with the reins, 6) a cadence that is rhythmic and harmonious, 7) legs of the rider descended and 8) hands of the rider kept low (refer to Figure 5.1a.c &d for examples of high hand carriage).

Nowhere in any test has any attention been given to the Greek concepts of beauty and grace. In this regard Froissard (1988: 123) noted that the concept of "grace" is not a word known or employed in current equestrian language, and also that one would look in vain for a performance where it would apply. Gurinire (1733/1994: 108) gave considerable attention to this quality:

154

Grace is so great adornment for a rider, and at the same time so important a means to the knowledge of all that which is necessary for persons aspiring to become riders, that such persons should willingly spend the time required to obtain that quality at the outset of their endeavours. By grace I comprehend an air of ease and freedom which must be maintained in a controlled and yet supple posture, be it in order to remain the depth of the seat in the saddle when necessary, or to relax at the appropriate moment, keeping in so far as possible during all the movements of the horse that exact equilibrium which comes from judicious balance of the bodys weight.

Modern horsemanship also largely ignores one of the most important doctrines of classical riding, namely harmony, which only gets scant reference in the Grand Prix de Dressage (Podhajsky, 1983: 102, 105).

Horses have to adapt to situations which makes it difficult for them to be in harmony with their own bodies. Kiley-Worthington (1997: 194-199) observed that in dressage it is fashionable that the horse should move and hold its neck in a specific way. The same applies to the rider (Kiley-Worthington, 1997: 196), where he must move and hold himself in a certain way, with the consequence that a correct rider-horse posture is presented to the judge (see Figure 5.1).

Dressage also imposes certain restrictions on tack of the horse, allowing only certain movements, which are considered to be proper. Every aspect of what is done is highly controlled and ritualised (Kiley-Worthington, 1997: 196).

In order to achieve the aims, as set out by dressage training dogma, riders and trainers have to spend many years training, and become so thoroughly imbued with dressage dogma that any other type of riding is considered to be messing around. This resulted in dressage dogmas rapid absorption by the riding public as being the art of riding (Kiley-Worthington, 1997: 196). To what extent

155 modern dressage preserves the beauty and naturalness of movement, the harmony between rider and horse at such a high level to allow them to successfully participate in warfare, similar to that fought by the ancient Greeks, or the highly taxing equine activities (e.g. in the the game buzkashi) of the expert horsemen of the northern steppes of Afghanistan (see Kessel, 1969; Scanlan, 2001: 64-65), or bull fighting on horseback as practised on the Iberian Peninsula (see Belasik, 1990: 10; Loch, 1985: 173-174) is debatable. Unfortunately, obtaining answers to the latter two examples is virtually impossible, mainly due to problems of the testing of these capabilities in highly trained and expensive dressage horses. The issues of beauty and naturalness in movement, harmony between rider and horse, however, can to some extent be answered, if one looks at dressage from an artistic/classical point of view, and also when motor performance of the rider and horse is analysed by means of principles laid down by those involved in the teaching and development of poise (Alexander, 1932/1985; Barlow, 1990; Bernstein, 1967; Bentley, 1999; Dart, 1946, 1947, 1950, 1970; Feldenkrais, 1984, 1985; Hanna, 1988; Rooney, 1977, 1992). Therefore the outcomes of modern dressage riding and training should rather be considered, instead of what is proclaimed in theory by the FEI, in terms of, firstly the basic tenets of the general systems theory, and secondly in terms of the basic Greek ideal of unityunity in the rider, unity in the horse and unity between the two organisms. Unfortunately modern dressage performance falls short of this ideal, since riding in this discipline, even at the highest level appears to be just a skill (de Kunffy, 1994: 6), nor does dressage fulfil the ideals of good movement (see Figure 5.1 and section 6.4). What is probably the problem in modern dressage, is a lack of emphasis on the artistic expression of the riderhorse combination,- and the time for artistic experience of the rider, while the skills of riding are over emphasised.

According to de Kunffy (1994: 8) silence is essential for artistic riding. Also, the performance of an art, such as riding, must be true and genuine. A proponent of the use of original instruments for the playing of the compositions of the old

156 masters such as Bach and Mozart, Gustav Leonardt (1980: 2), addressed this issue in a discussion of performance of music in the Baroque and early classical period in authentic style and on authentic instruments. What he proposed for the musician, may also apply to the rider (and even the horse) during riding:

If one is convincing, what is offered will leave an authentic impression. If one strives to be authentic, it will never be convincing. It is only by trying to penetrate the world of ideas of a great mind and of his age that a performer speaking quite generally can, if he has acquired sufficient technique and himself has the secret of talent, give the impression of presenting something true and genuine.

In Figures 5.1 and 5.2 examples of riding according to the modern school of dressage and the school of classical riding is shown. The differences between the two schools of thought are apparent. In Figure 5.1 the postures of riders and horses are rigidly held, something very well exhibited by the logo of the Volvo World Cup. Also apparent in the horses in a, c and d is that on impact, the hind feet do not support the hip joints by being underneath it. In figure 5.2 the situation is quite different with the hind feet supporting the respective hip joints. Also apparent is the total ease in riders and horses. Instead of rather straight elbows, as seen in the riders in Figure 5.1 all the riders in Figure 5.2 have their arms hanging down from their shoulders with their elbows bent.

157

Figure 5.1:

Examples of riding to certain preconceived ideas or fashions. The drawing in a was adapted from T h orn ton (1 9 9 9 : 6 ), b wa s red ra wn from B aldwin (1998: 25), c adapted from C om petition Report (1998: 35) and d adapted (figure flipped from right to left) from Faurie (1997: 7). In d the typical d ressa g e wa y of rid in g is em braced in the logo of the Volvo World Cup. The postures and actions of the horses in the drawings are similar, with necks shortened and poor unison of the diagonals. All the riders all have stiffly held postures, with their elbows pushed a h ea d of th e v ertica l (see v a n S ch a ik , 1 9 8 6 : 3 5 ). Th e stilted silhouette in d exemplifies what is seen at present in dressage competitions at the highest level. In a the winner of two gold medals at recently held Olympic Games, is shown.

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Figure 5.2:

Exam ples of riding according to classical ideals. The drawing in a was adapted from van Schaik (1985: Plate 4), while b shows a rider and horse from the Spanish R iding School executin g th e p ia ffe (v a n S ch a ik , 1 9 8 5 : P la te 5 ). Observe the lowerin g of the haunches in both a and b . In b th e flexion of th e h in d leg s is extreme, hence the lowering of the croup (flexion of the haunches). The balance required to ride even unnatural movements are clear from the example in c (Fillis, 1902/1977: 323). In d is shown an admirable extended trot, the horse is suspended in the air, with excellent unison in the diagonals (Oliveira, 1988: 77). Note the slack reins in a, c & d.

159 5.1.5.5 Classical trained and "taught" horses

There have been, and there are still thoughtful riders and trainers in the equine world, such as, for example, Baucher (1843/1992), Belasik (1990, 1994, 2001), Cavendish (1626/2000), Decarpentry (1949/1987), Gurinire (1733/1994), LHotte (1906/1997), Podhajsky (1967), Pluvinel (1626/1989), Swift (1985, 2002), von Dietze (1999) and Xenophon, (1962). Unfortunately, it is possible to distort what equestrian masters, such as Baucher, Cavendish, Decarpentry, Gurinire, LHotte and Podhajsky strove for, into a very disciplinarian, unyielding and inflexible approach/dogma for both horse and rider. Any other equestrian skill, and in many cases aesthetically pleasing displays, such as western- and circus riding is considered to be second class (Kiley-Worthington, 1997: 196). Podhajsky (1967: 19-20), for example, was particularly disdainful of circus riding, as he did not consider such actions to be practised according to the laws of nature: The proof of this is shown by the many unnatural movements which he practised (here referring to James Fillis8 ), such as the canter on three legs, the canter backward, and the Spanish walk.

Yet, in order for some of these unnatural acts to be properly executed, the horse has to be trained to very high classical standards (Barbier, 1990: 171; Fillis, 1902, 236-331), as well as a rider being in possession of an inordinate amount of some of the most important aspects of riding embedded in natural laws. These are, for example, superior balance, poise, combined with superior riding and training skills. This agrees with Oliveira's (1988: 20) opinion in this regard. He pointed out the truism that if the horse is well balanced, as well as being free from mental and physical contraction, all movements can be termed classical, and also that the way in which these movements are obtained call for procedures which do not extend beyond the domain of equitation (Oliveira, 1988: 93).

160

Heyer (1968: 119) (a rider trained according to classical principles) approached equitation from a different standpoint. He did not distinguish between classical riding and dressage per se. To him training and riding of the horse is either practised according to natural principles or not, the outcome of which can be seen in the quality and grace of the movement:

The difference between classic training and schooling is that in training, the horse ridden according to the laws of nature will offer in its own time, as by-products as it were, classic movements.

The closer these movements resemble the foals frolicking jumps and airs or a youngsters moody expressions in poise and gait the better the training.

The taught horses movements on the other hand are unnatural, no matter how impressive they may look, they are outside the law of nature, inferior in efficiency, detrimental to the horses health and happiness, uncomfortable to the rider.

With the latter statement of Heyer (1968: 119) Rooney (1977, 114, 239) was in agreement. He pointed out the fact that improper synchronisation of movement may eventually prove to be detrimental to the welfare of the horse.

The above is in all probability what it is all about. Heyer (1968: 119), in contrast to Podhajsky (1967: 19-20), looked at the naturalness from the perspective of how the movement is performed by horse and rider. Horses trained according to classical principles of ancient Greece will exhibit all the attributes of good movement and neuromuscular-skeletal control outlined in sections 5.1.2.2, 6.4.1, Figure 5.2a-c, even when required to perform "unnatural acts" (Figure 5.2c). The classical trained horse is well trained in all aspects. Here even the physiological parameters such as fitness must be properly taken care of during training. On a horse in his Portugese riding school, Oliveira (1988: 28), for example, was able

161 to execute 500 repetitions of flying changes at every stridephysically a very demanding exercisewithout the horse becoming tired.

The taught horse is usually the outcome of a dogmatic approach to riding and training of the horse, and this, according to Kiley-Worthington (1997: 196) can seriously jeopardise the quality of both horse and riders performance. This happens particularly where riders and trainers become increasingly competitive. Competitiveness may result in that idealistic ideas are replaced by idealism of another nature, in which competing is not about proving and showing a work of art, but competing for its own sake (Loch, 1990: 153). Competition is something which may make individuals work harder and think through the discipline harder. Also, when competition is associated with status and monetary gain, it may all too frequently lead to serious welfare problems for the horse (Kiley-Worthington, 1997: 196). Creativity was found to be incompatible with external and internal rewards or punishments. According to Bohm and Peat 1987; 231) the reason for this is clear. When doing something for a reward, the whole order of the activity, and the energy required for it, are determined by arbitrary requirements extraneous to the creative activity itself. This activity then turns into something mechanical and repetitious, or it mechanically seeks change for it own sake. The state of intense passion and vibrant tension that goes with creative perception then dies away. The basic problem here is that when goals and patterns of behaviour are set by imposing them mechanically or externally, and without understanding, it produces a rigid structure in consciousness that blocks the free play of thought and the free movement of awareness and attention that are necessary for creativity to act.

Westerners find it difficult to remove ego from success (Claremon, 1991: 21). In riders the satisfaction of accomplishment can alter their natural reflexes, and also add superfluous movements (such as excessive movements of the hands and legs) and thoughts (Claremon, 1991: 21), or worse still, change the individual into a doer or manipulator of the horse in order to satisfy the needs of his

162 competitiveness (Kiley-Worthington,1997: 194-199). The negative side of this, however, is that competitors tend to become end- gainers9 , or outcomeoriented. This problem is usually the consequence of the fact that a rigid or dogmatic approach to riding, or training of the horse follows that of mechanistic philosophy (see section 4.2, Kiley-Worthington, 1997: 9-56; Saar, 1979: 7-14; Skipper, 1999: 2-60, for an in depth discussion of this issue).

Mechanistic philosophy, due to its accentuation of parts rather than the whole, has profound effects on riding and training of the horse. It therefore, does not take into consideration the neurophysiological and neuromuscular basis of movement (see Belasik, 1999: 42-43 and Chapters 6-8). This lack of knowledge results in the taught horse and rider and its associated unnatural movements (also refer to Figure 5.1). At the basis of movement in the taught horse or rider is inappropriate use (Alexander, 1924/1987: 5, section 6.4), which may lead to an increase in the defects and peculiarities already present in rider and horse (Kiley-Worthington, 1997: 196; Rooney, 1977: 114, 239).

5.1.5.6

The systems theory, dressage and classical riding

One of the objectives of the present study was to examine whether any of the two schools of riding in practice adhere to the principles of systems theory. In this section this issue will be only partially addressed, since many of the issues raised here will be discussed in greater detail in the chapters to follow. To come to a clear-cut solution of this problem is relatively easy in the case of classical riding, but due to inherent discrepancies in the discipline of dressage, the answer is not readily forthcoming, and will inter alia have to be sought for by looking at the culture which gave rise to it.

163 5.1.5.6.1 Classical riding and the systems theory

The "bootstrap" hypothesis in physics, introduced by Chew (1968), suggested that one should not reduce nature to its fundamental entities, but rather that nature be understood entirely through self-consistency, and that things exist by virtue of their mutually consistent relationships. This was also how the Greeks saw the whole of things, and the relationships between all things. They therefore approached the training and riding of their horses accordingly. They also aspired to unity between the physical and aesthetic. Therefore proper training not only aimed to produce a good war-horse, but also an animal which could execute all its movements with beauty, grace and harmony. From this world view emanated classical riding (section 5.1.2). Systems theory contains these elements, not only in the interaction and harmony between organisms, but also in the interaction with the environment, of which the perception of beauty, art, balance and grace by the observer forms part of the whole. Art, beauty and grace in riding, however, are not physical entities, but they should rather be considered to be processes; processes which cease to exist after its performance (Oliveira, 1988: 118).

In order to achieve this ideal of beauty and grace in riding, a natural whole will have to be constructed. In classical riding the whole constitutes aspects such as beauty, grace and functionality. Smuts (1926/1987: 86, 98) argued that both life and matter are made up of unit structures whose ordered groupings produce natural wholes which are called bodies or organisms. Likewise, is it possible that abstract wholes, such as beauty and grace, can be created out of the ordered groupings of unit structures? As mentioned previously (section 4.3.1), the making or creation of wholes in the universe is dependent on a fundamental factor, a factor which Smuts (1926/1987: 98) called holism. In the context of the present study, holism may be considered the fundamental factor responsible for the creation of the Greek ideal of harmony, beauty, functionality and perfection in horsemanship in all its ramifications (see section 4.3.1). Smuts (1987: 100)

164 saw the whole as a real character writ large on the face of nature, being dominant in biology and the higher mental and spiritual developments. Science, he felt, would long ago have seen it, had it not been so analytical and mechanical.

The former arguments help to explain why those with a scientific background have tried to deny the relevance of High School training, dismissing it as an anachronism and a relic of the days when people held anthropomorphic concepts of noble horses (Skipper, 1999: 10). She found it odd that those, who are so ready to dismiss the work of the true masters should, with all their scientific knowledge, fail to understand that High School work is above all, therapeutic for the horse, and that High School is merely the culmination of long and careful training, and not its sole aim. That classical riding does indeed have a scientific foundation is one of the aims of this study. The arguments to substantiate this standpoint will be presented in Chapters 6-8. 5.1.5.6.2 Dressage and the systems theory

Those who would take hold of the world and act on it, Never I notice succeed (Lao Tzu) (Wing, 1986: 83).

One has to look at the examples shown in Figure 5.1 and also at what transpired at the finals in the Dressage of the Melbourne and Athens Olympics, to come to an understanding of the difference between bodies with good posture and use, and those which do not have it. The ubiquitous stiff and unnatural postures observed at the two Olympic games in question are obvious in the riders and horses at Grand Prix Dressage level shown in Figure 5.1. This can be compared to the natural, connected and relaxed postures and harmony with their mounts of four riders which were trained according to classical principles (Figure 5.2).

As far as the dressage judge is concerned, Albrecht (1988: 9) stressed the importance of the acquisition of a deep understanding of all the various elements

165 of the advanced, specialised education of what he will have to assess during the exercise of his office. Since civilised man in general, however, has not been able to meet the demands of wholeness and harmony demanded by classical riding, both in himself (Alexander 1910/1996: 14-15; Dart, 1947; Sherrington, 1946: 89) and in riding (Barbier, 1990: xi-xiv; Sivewright, 1984: 36-42) new dimensions should be added to the tools of the judge in order for him to fully appreciate what is required in the execution of their difficult, but very important task. Such additions would include the already mentioned anatomical, biomechanical, neurophysiological aspects of movement, poise, the philosophy of ridingboth ancient and recentand their implications for riding. There are various reasons for these additions, of which probably the most important is that the system of judging at present seems to emphasise detail, and ignore the whole. In the era of Greek enlightenment and in the period following the Renaissance up to the last part of the 19th century riding masters were able to adhere to classical ideals probably due to their sensory awareness, their ability to observe keenly (see Burnet, 1930/1963: 26), their innate understanding of the basic requirements of neuromuscular integration, and their intuitive appreciation for the beautiful and the graceful (Baucher, 1843/1992; 99-155; Cavendish, 1626/2000; Fillis, 1906/1977; Gurinire, 1733/1994; Harris, 1992; L'Hotte, 1906/1997: 147-214; Pluvinel 1626/1989; Xenophon, 1962: 13-68).

In conclusion it can be stated that, although the ideals of classical riding are aimed for in dressage (see section 5.1.5.4), in practice this is probably only rarely achieved, if its practical outcome at the highest levels of competition is considered. This may be attributed to the fact that this discipline originated in a period of history where the mainstream philosophy did not allow for integration and harmony. One of the most important sites in which integration and harmony should exist is the way in which the brain functions. In riding, which should be mainly a bilateral cerebral activity, left and right brain hemispheres should function in an integrated way (see Dennison, 1990; Hannaford, 1995; Swift, 1985; Wanless, 1987, 2002). Unfortunately, in many there is a lack of proper brain

166 integration. This deficit of right brain function probably stems from the present educational approach (Lawson, 1990), an approach that mainly has its aim development of left brain function, functions which are analytical and sequential in nature (Eccles, 1977: 350-354; Hannaford, 1995: 78-79). The consequence of this is that riders and trainers feel themselves more at home with an analytical approach to riding, its teaching and in the training of horses.

CHAPTER 6

MOTOR ACTS

It is important that the pupil be a man and not a beast in mans clothing, and that he possesses two things, namely, a handsome and pliant figure so that he can feel free in every movement he makes (Pluvinel, 1626/1989: 25).

To be a graceful Horseman one need only apply ones eyes to determine what is graceful and what is not, ears to hear, and have memory to retain the things one must learn (Pluvinel, 1626/1989: 16).

Aware of the danger that I may bore the reader, I continue to refer to the fact that everything stiff and forced in the riders position must be avoided and that the rider must understand what is necessary for a good position and why (Steinbrecht, 1884/1995: 6).

If there is one thing that you learn in classical riding, is that you must ride it as a whole (Belasik, 2002 : 5)

For if a horse is incapable of walking correctly, beginning with the head, going to the rest of the body, up to his legs, it is impossible for him to be schooled properly (Pluvinel, 1626/1989: 93).

W hen the rider's seat is secure, his legs well down, and when his horse attains a high degree of obedience and equilibrium, the rider will dominate without effort, and his stability of seat will be assured at all times without force or contraction.

It is this total ease and relaxation which makes the rider as one with his horse, without hindering any movement (Oliveira, 1988: 29).

We have to keep in mind that the motor system functions as an entity and that it is in principle a wrong approach to try to understand impairments of different parts of the motor system separately, without understanding the function of the motor system as a whole (Janda, 1978: 28).

167

168 6.1 INTRODUCTION

The issue of natural systems was considered in section 4.3.3. In this chapter natural systems will be considered from a different perspective, namely what is seen at ground levelthe motor acts themselves. From a general systems theory perspective, all motor acts in biological organisms are the outcome of interaction between independent variables having a joint function or according to Merleau-Ponty (1942/1965: 155-156), each being a unity of signification (meaning). This is also what Greek classicism in movement would imply, but with the additional prerequisites of beauty, grace and harmony. In the discussion to follow in this chapter the efficiency of motor acts in terms of their context will be addressed, with the specific aim of looking at efficient and nonefficient systems in the process of riding, in other words, how does one discriminate between good and bad movements? Before this discrimination is attempted, some basic aspects of motor acts need to be clarified. These will be considered in the following two sections.

6.2

MOTOR SKILLS1

6.2.1 Preamble

The terms motor skill and motor dexterity have the same meaning (Newell, 1996: 396), therefore these terms will be used interchangeably in the text to follow.

Neither rider nor horse was created for the purposes of riding or being ridden (de Kunffy, 1992: 2; Harris, 1993: 3). Thus, in riding, the situation is such that these two organisms are not logically related, and therefore the one does not imply the other. As a consequence, in order for the rider to be able to ride, and

169 for the horse to be to be ridden, both have to acquire specific motor and mental skills in order to accomplish these acts. In concordance to Bernstein's (1996; 21) definition of dexterity both organisms have to find motor solutions for different situations and conditions. The learning of any skill or dexterity therefore implies interaction with the environment and adaptations to its demands. In this respect Fowler and Turvey (1978: 3) pointed out that it is

roughly apparent that the "evolution" in ontogeny of a skilled act parallels the evolution of a species. Adaptation to an environment is synonymous with the evolution of special biological and behavioral features that are compatible (symmetrical) with special features of the environment. Similarly, we may claim that facility with a skill is synonymous with the ontogeny of special coordinative features that are compatible with the special features of the skill. Insofar as an environment has structure that provides criteria for adaptations, so we may expect, not surprisingly, a task to have structure that provides the source of constraint on skilled solutions. And insofar as a species is said to be a particular biological attunement to a particular niche, we may wish to say, perhaps curiously, that the individual animal, as a skilled performer, is a particular attunement to the particular task it performs skilfully.

For any organism the adequate stimulus cannot be defined in itself and independently from the organism, since it is not a physical-, but rather a physiological or biological reality (Merleau-Ponty, 1942/1965: 31). In this respect the animal's environment should therefore not be construed in terms of variables of physics (a common practice). A considerably more useful point of departure would be that of affordance (Fowler & Turvey, 1978: 3), an aspect which will be discussed in sections 7.1.2.1 and 7.1.2.2.

170 6.3 NEUROMUSCULAR COORDINATION

6.3.1 Introductory comments

Ideas on motor control and coordination, therefore, reveal how we think about ourselves (Meijer, 2001: 9).

According to Gurfinkel and Cordo (1998: 5) Bernstein concluded that movements cannot readily be described as chains of elementary components, but, rather as structures that are differentiated into details. He viewed movements as structurally whole. Likewise Alexander (1932/1985: 34), Janda (1978: 28), Lamb and Watson (1979: 90), Merleau-Ponty 1942/1965: 177) and Sherrington (1946: 89) considered each motor act as involving the whole integrated individual. In all the books of Alexander (Alexander, 1910/1996, 1932/1985, 1924/1987, 1941) the main motif, of "the individual as a whole" recurs over and over again, with repeated references to the "Primary Control" (section 6.4.7) (Bowden, 1965: 20).

6.3.2 Neuromuscular coordination defined

Any motor skill requires that the performer should organise the body musculature in such a way that it allows him or her to accomplish the goal or skill in an effective and efficient manner (Magill, 1993: 87) To this end Kohnstamm (1901, cited by Wiesendanger, 1998) defined coordination as being the process that constrains individual muscles into a spatiotemporal pattern (synergy) to achieve common goals. Denny-Brown (1960: 793) pointed out that all that is known of motor function indicates that the nervous system contributes to each motor act as a whole. It is therefore not possible to indicate separate mechanisms for posture and movement.

Others had more explicit views on how this ideal could be attained by the motor control system:

171

Sherrington (1906: 313) approached coordination from a structural point of view, in which the central nervous system (CNS) was considered to be a meeting place where afferent paths conjoin with efferent. He therefore considered a large part of coordination to be the orderly combination of reflexes (Sherrington, 1906: 152). By virtue of its physiological properties the CNS serves as:

an organ of reflex reinforcements and interferences, and of refractory phases, and shifts of connective pattern; that is, in short, an organ of co-ordination in which from a concourse of multitudinous reactions there result orderly acts, reactions adapted to the needs of the organism, and that these reactions occur in arrangements (patterns) marked by absence of confusion, and proceed in sequences likewise free from confusion (Sherrington. 1906: 313). !

Denny-Brown (1960: 793) pointed out that motor performance can be traced from the spinal to cortical levels in various grades of refinement and in more appropriate relation to the whole organism and finally the whole environment. A segmental reflex may be performed perfectly in terms of the segmental structures it serves, but when it comes to its integration into behaviour higher and higher levels of neural activity are required.

Merleau-Ponty (1942/1965: 76), on the other hand, expressed the opinion that several authors attempted to correct the atomism of the reflex theory by the notions of integration and coordination (cf. Sherrington, 1906: 313). To his thinking these notions are equivocal. Instead he (Merleau-Ponty, 1942/1965: 79) advocated that there was no question that coordination could be anything but a functional conception, which simply means that local specificities are distributed to the associative circuits themselves at each moment according to what is demanded by the equilibrium of the

172 total constellation. He also viewed coordination as being a phenomenon, and therefore coordination itself appears as a result: The effect of a phenomenon of structure or "form" (Merleau-Ponty, 1942/1965: 79).

Merleau-Ponty (1942/1965: 86) also did not consider integration and coordination to be rigid constructions by which partial activities become solidary with each other, since in a coordinating device which is ready to function, we need to look for what is present in the actual movement ensemble, whi ch d i r e cts an d g uides the elementary effluxes corresponding to their already prepared paths (in his text Merleau-Ponty here used the physiology of language as an example of coordination. In the present text his arguments have been adapted to what is applicable to motor control). What then is that which guarantees that the effluxes will find the full synchronisations ahead of them to the appropriate keys of the total movement? To this question Merleau-Ponty's (1942/1965: 86) answer was simply that they must create themselves, in that everything happens as if we are dealing with an automatic central in which a prior message itself opens the appropriate pathways for the oscillations which will follow. The coordinated elements are thus

not only coupled with each other, they constitute together, by their very union, a whole, which manifests it as soon as the first elements of excitation are given, just as the first notes of a melody assign a certain resolution to the whole. While the notes taken separately have an equivocal signification, being capable of entering into an infinity of possible ensembles, in the melody each one is demanded by the context and contributes its part in expressing something which is not contained in any of them and which binds them together internally. The same notes in two different melodies are not recognised as such. Inversely, the same melody can be played two times without the two versions having a single common element if it has been transposed. Coordination is now the creation of a unity of meaning which is expressed in juxtaposed parts, the creation of certain

173 relations which owe nothing to the materiality of the terms which they unite (Merleau-Ponty, 1942/1965: 87). !

According to Bernstein (1967: 30), coordination hints at the common action of separate elements. Coordination therefore is an activity which guarantees that a movement shall have homogeneity, integration and structural unity which are not based upon specific processes in individual neurons, but rather on the determinate organisation of their common activity. In this respect Bernstein argued that coordination arises as an a posteriori or self-organising synergy of functional specific muscle groups (Whitall, 1995). Bernstein (1967: 127; 1996: 41) defined motor coordination as being the overcoming of excessive degrees of freedom in the movement apparatus, in other words, it is the conversion of the movement organ into a controllable system. The issue of degrees of freedom in motor acts will be further elaborated upon in section 8.3.

More briefly, co-ordination is the organization of the control of the motor apparatus (Bernstein, 1967: 127. Bernstein's emphasis).

Bernstein (1967: 109) also pointed out that the secret of coordination does not lie in the wasting of superfluous force on extinguishing reactive phenomena (inertia and momentum, for example), but rather in the employment of those reactive forces present in such a way as to employ active muscle forces in the capacity of complementary forces. In this case the movement will require less expenditure of active muscle force. This concept is not known or understood in modern riding. Riders and horses tend to stiffen up, for example, in response to the actions of their respective partners. Only in harmonious riding are reactive forces accepted and allowed to follow their natural course. Invariably in such cases the outcome is a decrease in the expenditure of active muscle force (see section 8.1.2). Turvey (1990) also considered coordination in

174 relation to the environment, and thus described it as the patterning of body and limb motions relative to the patterning of environmental objects and events. !

Thelen (1989: 261) called movements coordinated when the activities of the joints and muscles are related to one another in an ordered and regulated way in time and space. For living beings to survive, Thelen and Smith (1996) postulated that components must be coordinated to an exquisite degree. Whet this in fact does happen in man and horse will be further investigated in sections 6.4 and 6.5.

More recently Schmidt and Lee (2001: 412) defined coordination as being the behaviour of two or more degrees of freedom in relation to each other to produce skilled activity, somewhat echoing the observations of Bernstein above.

Meijer (2001: 370) viewed coordination as something which has to do with relati onships, with a whole as composed to its parts, and coordination occurring when separate processes acquire something in common.

In the horse, Rooney (1977: 114, 239) considered coordination to be the synchronisation of the components of the locomotor system.

Most of the definitions of coordination approach the issue from physiological and psychological perspectives, and by doing so, describe it as being the synchronisation of components of the neuromuscular system relative to the patterning of the environmental objects and events. The outcome of this is a movement that has homogeneity, integration and structural unity, which is based upon the determinate organisation of common activity of different neurons

175 (Bernstein, 1967: 30; Kohnstamm, 1901, cited by Wiesendanger, 1998: 112; Sherrington, 1906: 313; Turvey, 1990).

Although it is generally assumed that coordination implies homogeneity, integration and structural unity, it cannot automatically be assumed that coordination necessarily implies good use (cf. section 6.4.8). The issue of the way in which an individual uses his body (Alexander's "manner of use") should be included in any such discussions. In none of the definitions above on coordination was any distinction made between skills which are performed functionally or those which are performed aesthetically (cf. Bernstein, 1996: 229230; Herbermann, 2001: 152-159).

Merleau-Ponty (1942/1965: 87), however, viewed coordination somewhat differently in that he pointed out that coordination should not be understood as something constructed from the materiality of the structures being united, but rather as the creation of unity of meaning which is expressed in juxtaposed parts, which brings us nearer to what the ancient Greeks stood for (refer to section 3.2.4).

6.4

USE, THE CONCEPT OF MANNER OF USE AND POISE

6.4.1 Use

The concept of "use", which was introduced by Alexander (1932/1985: 22, refer to the endnote 5 of Chapter 4 for a full definition of the term), in essence states that every movement the organism wishes to make, entails activating the entire neuromuscular-skeletal system, and that this concerted activity brings about the execution of the intended movement. This is a concept supported by later research (Bernstein, 1996: 115-130; Bouisset & Zattara, 1988: 177-179; Geisler, Westerga & Gramsbergen, 1996; Geisler, Van der Fits & Gramsbergen, 1997;

176 Massion, 1992; Massion, Alexandrov & Vernassa, 1998: 127-150). For the purpose of this study this concept, as it stands, however, is not sufficient, since in order to answer to the classical Greek ideals, aspects such as aret, efficiency and the aesthetic should be added to the equation, aspects rarely, if at all considered by science and modern day philosophy (Herbermann, 2001: 152). This phenomenon was explained by the psychiatrist, R.D. Laing, who in a discussion, referred to Galileos statement that only quantifiable material were to be admitted to the domain of science. Galileo said that: Whatever cannot be measured and quantified is not scientific. In post-Galilean science this came to mean Whatever cannot be measured and quantified is not real. To Laing this was the most profound corruption from the Greek view of nature as physis, which is alive, always in transformation, and not divorced from man (Laing, 1980, cited by Capra, 1989: 139). Laing (1980, cited by Capra, 1989: 139) went on further by pointing out that Galileos program offers us a dead world: Out go sight, sound, taste, touch and smell, and along with them have since gone aesthetic and ethical sensibility, values, quality, soul, consciousness, spirit. Experience as such is cast out of the realm of scientific discourse. Hardly anything has changed our world more during the past four hundred years than Galileos audacious program. We had to destroy the world in theory before we could destroy it in practice.

Bernstein (1996: 229-230), accepted Galileos mode of thinking, and because of this strongly argued against the inclusion of beauty in his expanded definition of dexterity. One of his arguments for his way of thinking was that beauty is always subjective. At present terms which embody aret, efficiency and the aesthetic still reside within the realm of pure description, be it objective or subjective. Miller, Galanter and Pribram (1960: 213) held life to be more than just a thing, but rather to be an object or a substance that exists, but also to be a process that is enacted. It is the enactment of graceful, harmonious riding, which is so difficult to convey to others. In essence it is something that has to

177 be experienced by rider and horse and by the onlooker (see, for example, Crossley, 1977, cited by Loch, 1990: 183, on the riding of Nuno Oliveira). Since behaviour may be seen as an object for description (Miller, Galanter & Pribram, 1960: 213) this chapter will endeavour to give the best possible descriptive overview of good and bad qualities of use, and by doing so try to come to the essence of good movement and classical riding.

6.4.2 Characteristics of good and bad movement: The"manner of use"

The story of the three bears as seen by McClugage (1983: 46) will be used to describe the unknown and poorly understood termthe manner of use, a term initiated by Alexander (1932/1985: 55; 1941: 8):

There is a way of using the body that is perfectly suited to the task at hand. A basal effort that is just enough to get the job done with least wear. It might be called the Baby Bear Effort. Not too soft, not too hard. In the words of Goldilocks, "just right". Whatever the jobtoting barges, lifting bales, or quietly sitting in a chair and sipping teathere is an optimal expenditure of energy, a particular marshalling of musculature that is totally relevant to the task. Ideally there is in the action nothing superfluous, nothing redundant, nothing contradictory.

Bodies used so aptly are aesthetically stirring to watch whether they belong to dancers, athletes, or construction workers. Such bodies are also rare. Our culture appears to be overpopulated with Papa Bears, splattering the landscape with the excesses of the old college trystraining, overdoing, grimacing at jar lids. And you only need to glance at a ski hill to see evidence of overdoing there, most of it not only wasteful but counter productive. Habits of excess have made us adept at doing a thing and its opposite at the same time. We spend much of

178 our lives doing the bodily equivalent of stepping on the brakes and the accelerator simultaneously (McCluggage, 1983: 46).

Good usegood and effective movement, or "educated body language with intent" as Swift (2002: 23) referred to itis difficult to define or describe, yet, when observed is immediately recognisable. Laban and Lawrence (1979: 8) expressed the opinion that there are only a very small number of people that have the innate capacity to apply their muscular power efficiently to whatever tasks confront them. As will be shown in the discussion to follow, good use contains key elements of Greek philosophy such as unity, beauty and aret. These are also elements that should be aimed for in the world of high performance sport (Liggett, 2000: 27; Martin & Coe, 1991: 15). Except for a few references to aspects such as economy of movement (Goldthwait et al., 1945: 241; Martin & Coe, 1991: 65-66; Noakes, 2000; Saltin et al., 1995; Taylor & Rowntree, 1973), the efficiency of movement (Broer, 1973: Chapter 2), effectivity (Kugler, Kelso & Turvey, 1982: 7) and neuromuscular integration (see section 6.3), good movement or use per se is generally ignored by science.

Those more specifically involved in the quality of movement from an enactment perspective, however, approach the issue from diverse viewpoints, and although there are differences in the way in which their end results are to be achieved, the similarities in what they want to achieve in their subjects are remarkable (Alexander, 1932/1985; Barlow , 1990; Feldenkrais, 1984, 1985; Hanna, 1988; Janda, 1994; Painter, 1986; Reese, 2001a; Rolf, 1977).

6.4.3 The link between the "manner of use" and functioning The outcomes of Alexander's2 (1932/1985: 55, 1941: 8) studies on himself served to accentuate to him the principle of the unity of the body in the functioning of its mechanisms, something which involves a close connection between the "manner of use" of these mechanisms and the standard of

179 functioning throughout the organism. So, for example, was his problem with his voice, a problem concomitant with his "manner of use", which was a tendency to put his head backa tendency which was associated with undue tension in the muscles of his neck. He also noticed that any use of his head and neck, which was associated with a concomitant depression of the larynx, in him led to a tendency to lift the chest and shorten the stature, affecting him negatively.

In 1743 the Duke of Newcastle, William Cavendish (1743/2000: 133) wrote about the importance of the "manner of use" in the rider in his comments on good and bad horsemanship. His views on perfect horsemanship highlighted the fact that "manner of use" in the rider has a profound effect on the "manner of use" in the horse, as well as on the harmony between the two organisms:

Thus, tho' a perfect horseman rides with art, it seems rather natural than acquired by practice; and he makes his horse appear as if nature has produced such a creature for no other end, to be conducted, governed and ridden by man. What is more, a good horseman rides as one may say with harmony; for his horse being of the same mind as himself, moves in such an exact manner, steps so equally, and keeps such just time; turns, pirouettes, rises so equally, so easily, so lightly, that it is very agreeable to see, as well as a very profitable science to learn. For whoever is not a perfect horseman, can never ride with grace or safety; and no man can be perfect in this art, unless he learns it at the Manege; because that gives him a true and sure seat, a firm hand, a heel that moves in just time, a free posture, a powerful command, that constrains his horse. Without all this one cannot be a good horseman, nor ride a horse boldly, either for pleasure, or in war; neither pleasingly to others, nor with satisfaction to one's self.

Pluvinel (1626/1989: 24) always sat in the same posture on horseback, which was "up straight". He also maintained that in order for the horseman to be graceful, he must never move when making a horse perform,. With this McCormick and McCormick (1997: 139) and Oliveira (1988: 25) agreed, by

180 pointing out that only riders who have good positions and elegant carriages might obtain valid results from their horses.

A more modern equestrian opinion is that being on good terms with one's horse manifests itself in sound and unrestricted movement, while a poor relationship reveals itself in movements that are hesitant and timorous (Denoix & Pailloux, 1996: 91).

To Lowen and Lowen (1977: 10) motor behaviour should be both graceful and effective, and that the mark of the graceful and gracious person is selfpossession. They also differentiated between what one sees in a graceful, alive person, and a model who has been taught at a modelling school. While the pose of the latter may look attractive in a picture, it strikes the observer as stiff and awkward in real life, for it is achieved at the expense of the spontaneous motility of the body. These two authors probably saw a lack of posture-gesture merging3 in the movements of those taught at modelling schools (Lamb & Watson, 1979: 90). The experience of Lowen and Lowen (1977: 10) in bodywork confirmed to them, that one can only achieve grace by increasing the motility of the body, and if this is fused with self-awareness a high degree of self-possession is attained.

In the horse self-possession could very well be understood as "self carriage". Spontaneous self-motility of the body is the hallmark of a horse moving spontaneously, gracefully and with good use. Riders, however, not previously exposed to this kind of movement in the horse, may perceive it to be too unconstrained, to be unpleasant, too fast, or even too terrifying, all of which were experienced by all the riders the author of the present study has worked with. This was especially found during the initial stages of their training. It was only when they improved their use, and became unified within themselves, that they became able to ride their horses with ease in the very active paces.

181 6.4.4 Spontaneous and compulsive action

According to Suzuki (1973: 110) Zens original mind is a mind unconscious of itself (it is empty), whereas the diluted mind is intellectually and affectively burdened. The diluted mind then interferes with the direct connection of the original mind (the self 2 of Gallwey, 1976:13-15) with the limbs (Pieter, 1987). To establish and maintain this connection the original mind must not stop, which is to start to rationalise, with anything or at any point. If the mind rationalises, it disturbs the spontaneity and the naturalness of the individual (Pieter, 1987). In movement Feldenkrais4 (1985: 6-7) distinguished between movement of the original- and that of the affectively burdened mind, which he referred to as spontaneous and compulsive action. Whether an action is spontaneous or compulsive, depends on the internal sensation of resistance experienced while acting or inhibiting action. Feldenkrais (1985: 8-9) postulated that the way in which actions are learned plays a role in the presence or absence of the internal resistance. The difference between these two kinds of action he explained by means of the following example:

From the earliest moments of our lives, we can distinguish two sorts of actions: (1) those where we are left to ourselves to work out our own way, as in learning to comply with the demands of our bodies, and (2) those where the adult in charge of us becomes emotionally excited and encourages us to continue our actions, or discourages us to the best of her judgment. There is no clear-cut subdivision of these two actions; that is, actions in which we are left to work out our own way suddenly become the focus of adult interference, and vice versa, actions that were strictly supervised are just as suddenly left to take their own course. From this process we emerge with (1) a series of personal behavior patterns with which a comparatively low emotional tone is associated and (2) others that always accompanied with a high emotional tension.

182

The first actions are performed in their normal setting without any special bias for doing them; we can as easily refrain from them. They rarely involve hesitation; in short these are the most spontaneous acts we are capable of, and they constitute the bulk of activity of normal adults. The other actionsthose that evolved under prolonged emotional stress, or those that have been too violently transferred from one group to the other, or those which never been allowed to stay in one group or the other (because of the irregularity of the adult behaviour)continue to be associated with a high emotional intensity.

Common in the teaching of riding and training of horses are actions which e v o l ve d u n d e r p r o l o n g e d s t r e s s , wh i ch the n l ead to compul si ve behaviourbehaviour associated with inner tension and resistance resulting in strain which is always expressed through tension in the muscles of the face, the neck, the abdomen, the fingers, or the toes (Feldenkrais, 1985: 9; Janda, 1994: 198-199).

6.4.5 Non-doing or letting it happen

In order to avoid the pitfalls associated with compulsive behaviour, the "inner game" method of playing a game was developed by a tennis coach, Timothy Gallwey (Gallwey, 1976: 9, 10; 1982: 8). With his method players are taught to trust their own bodies and to play "out of their minds" and to "let it happen", thus encouraging spontaneous behaviour. He noticed that when a player tries to improve a tennis shot, it is usually associated with tense muscles due to overeffort. Hitting a shot, however, by programming the inner (unconscious) self (mind) with images rather than words, and letting the inner self hit the ball without judgement avoids the common problem of "trying too hard"and as a consequence, the shot usually is spontaneous, secure and accurate (Gallwey,

183 1976: 13, 1982: 14). This is consistent with the seeking and relaxing to equilibrium or attractor states (section 8.1.1.2.1, also see Schmidt & Fitzpatrick, 1996: 200). The Eastern approach to this is embodied in the Taoist concept of wu-wei, which is usually translated as "non-action". "Non-action", however, does not mean doing "nothing", but rather to refrain from doing "something", and to act in harmony with the ongoing cosmic process (Huang, 1997: 27; Koizumi, 1986: 67).

Perhaps the "inner game" outlook is successful, since it restricts reasoning in strictly analytical and verbal terms, but allows visual imagery of a vague, hazy kind (Koestler, 1989: 180). Bernstein (1996: 200) came across a description of this kind of experience by the Russian novelist, Leo Tolstoy (1878/1967: 273):

The longer Levin mowed, the oftener he experienced those moments of oblivion when it was not his arms who swung the scythe but the scythe seemed to mow of itself, a body full of life and consciousness of its own, and as through by magic, without a thought being given to it, the work did itself regularly and carefully.

Woodworth (cited by Koestler, 1989: 67) stated that often one has to get away from speech in order to think clearly. During the development of a skill Bernstein (1996: 203-204) suggested that the learner should concentrate on the desire to solve a motor problem as accurately and expediently as possible, since this will lead to basic meaningful corrections for the whole movement.

Training the young horse under the rider should ideally follow the principles of non-interference. Too often one encounters the sentiment in riders and trainers that they are able to observe problems such as imbalances, wrong shoulder positions or actions, improper actions of the backs of their mounts, problems which then can be corrected by the rider on an individual basis, usually by means of their hands and legs, or in extreme cases by the use of so-called training aids. The futility of this often used method, lies in the presence of the

184 phenomenon of the reactivity of movements (section 8.1.2), which means that the neuromuscular system reacts to rider or trainer corrections of a single movement detail by changing a whole series of other details that are sometimes spatially and temporally remote from the causative agent. At the same time, elements, which are closely adjacent to the first detail, are left unchanged (Bernstein, 1967: 23; Gurfinkel & Cordo, 1998: 4-5).

Horses, therefore, should not be subjected to conditions that will elicit compulsive behaviour or activation of their limbic system, but rather be allowed to seek their own balance, or to seek the self-correcting function of their biological systems (see Kugler, Kelso & Turvey, 1982: 10-13 and section 8.1.1.1). Ideally, the rider or trainer should rather 1) consider his own manner of use and 2) create appropriate body positions (affordances, see sections 6.2.1 & 8.4) to suit different situations, and then allow the horse to react spontaneously (even if the response is inadequate or incorrect at that stage), without the rider interfering (also see the use of body language in the training of the horse as proposed by Hempfling, 2001: 33-45). With time the horse will learn to reorganise itself in appropriate responses through its own experience, which, according to Gallwey (1976: 10-13) is the more natural way to learn (also see Rashid, 2000: 93). The use of body positions in riding will be discussed in section 8.5.1.

6.4.6 The essence of a motor performance: Good manner of use and the concept of poise

6.4.6.1

Proper use of the self

Good riding is an affair of skill, but bad riding is an affair of courage. Good riding will last through age, sickness and decrepitude, but bad riding will only last as long as youth, health and strength supply courage (Colonel V.D.S Williams, O.B.E., 1980: 9).

185

In a similar vein Feldenkrais (1985: xiii-xiv) commented on the emphasis of society on the subject of willpower (courage) and its origins:

Parents and teachers seem to receive sadistic satisfaction from compelling children to make an effort. If the child can do what is demanded of him with no apparent forcing of himself they will put him in a more advanced class or add something to his duty just to make sure that the poor thing learns "what life really means". Once acquired, this Asort of habit is very difficult to eliminate, and the cultural environment is there to sustain it. It is even glorified as a sign of great willpower. But willpower is necessary only where ability to do is lacking. Learning, as I see it, is not the training of willpower but the acquisition of the skill to inhibit parasitic action and the ability to direct clear motivations as a result of self-knowledge (Feldenkrais emphasis).

Feldenkrais (1985: 3-4) also observed that many people fail to recognise the true cause of their inability or failure, where in many cases this is not due to a lack of ability, but an improper use of the self. This was found to be the root cause of the inability to ride properly in all the riders the author has had the privilege to work with and to observe (in the first instance those under his direct tuition, and secondly those at local and international shows, problems which were then conveyed to their mounts). What then is the proper use of the self? This issue will be discussed in the section to follow.

6.4.6.2

Poise

Howorth (1946: 1401) suggested that good movement is the basis of dynamic posture, which implied the use of the body and its parts in the simplest and most effective way, using muscle contraction and relaxation, balance, coordination, rhythm and timing as well as gravity, inertia and momentum to optimum advantage.

186

With this Goldthwait et al. (1945: 241) concurred and stated that to stand erect, to walk or move easily, to have the various parts of the body so perfectly adjusted that easy balance and graceful use is the result, is a situation to be desired for reasons of far greater importance than just the aesthetic. They continued with the argument that such elements are of absolute importance for the fullest economic efficiency, since the use of the body in proper poise insured the least friction with consequently the greatest amount of energy available for what may be required of the individual.

Dart (1947) expressed the opinion that the use of such a qualified term as proper poise, could be misleading. He pointed out that poise connotes the temporary suppressed mobility of balance, equilibrium or equipoise, and figuratively, equanimity or rest5. Seunig (1974: 113) supported this contention by stating that poise is the result of balance, and that in the horse it implies the state of the horse in motion, in which it can maintain itself in the uniform timing it desires, supported by only by its four legs. Alexander (1932/1985: 75-78, 1924/1987: 19, 36-40) and Dart (1947) were both convinced that poise is not a bodily state to be achieved by harsh physical exercise (cf. Barker, 1985: 172192; Howorth, 1946; Pilates & Miller, 1998; Schrecker, 1971: 18-21, 24-28), for examples of this kind of approach to postural rehabilitation), but rather by means of restful study and observation. With this Feldenkrais (1985: 155) agreed, and pointed out that no voluntary direction can correct bad posture, but one should rather employ induction in order to make the faulty control perceptible. By doing so, contradictory action is lifted by recovering the ability to inhibit the contracted parts and to excite the flabby, toneless ones, in other words the re-balancing of muscle action. In the rider Brger (1986: 21) emphasised that the rider who does not recognise the necessity of educating himself will destroy within a short time the work of art created by a master.

187 The above directives on the attainment of poise are in line with the philosophy of Socrates who stressed that the "unexamined life is not worth living for a human being" (Plato, 1979, 44). For Socrates, examining life, and in the present case, use, meant becoming clear about what is worthwhile and why. The unexamined life pursued by most people consists in doing what is expected, out of fear or habit, and taking for granted the validity of the current attitude of the society (Matson, 1979: 76). On the other hand, according to Plato, knowledge, can only be what man has found out for himself after long and rigorous search (Kitto, 1970: 193).

Dart's (1947) definition of the term poise stresses the absence of unnecessary and imbalanced muscle tension. Dart (1947) defined poise as being a character of repose or rest in the good body whether it is in the relatively static positions of lying, sitting or standing, or is actually in progressive motion during the activities of life's daily routine or of sport. Dart (1947) further added that poise is a body state which can be achieved only by steady and carefree education of the body for balance and maintenance of balance. For the rider who wants to ride and school horses the same applies, his first duty is to educate himself, no matter his age (Brger, 1986: 37).

Brger's (1986: 82) definition of poise closely follows that of Dart (1947) in that poise implies perfect balance or stability of equilibrium, equality of weight in all directions. Thelen's (1985) description of the essence of a skilled motor performance in work activities, in athletics, in dance, and everyday functions such as walking, eating or maintaining balance also concurs with that of Dart (1947) and Goldthwait et al. (1945: 241), in that it is seemingly efficient, as well as smooth and graceful. Feldenkrais (1985: 110) emphasised the fact that in good action, the sensation of effort is absent no matter the actual expenditure of energy. Oliveira (1988: 17) stated that since equestrian art is the perfect understanding between the rider and horse, the ensuing harmony allows the horse to work without any contraction in his joints or his muscles, permitting him

188 to carry out all movements with mental and physical enjoyment as well as with suppleness and rhythm.

Oliveira (1988: 27) further pointed out that only the rider, free from any contraction, will have a horse equally free from contraction, which supports Gurinire (1733/1994: 108), who asserted that in order to obtain grace there should be an air of freedom and ease. Albrecht's (1988: 16, 18) standpoint ties in with those of the former two authors. He deemed "ease" to be one of the most important elements of a correct performance in horse and rider, and considered it as being the absence of excessive muscle tension. Associated with this is von Ziegner's (2002: 40) concept of freedom, something closely related to the desire to move forwards. Freedom, according to von Ziegner (2002: 40), refers to a lack of constriction of the joints of the horse's legs, and the reach and scope of the movement. The amount of muscle tension in an individual, therefore, determines the quality of its movement. In order to attain the optimal amount of muscle tension for the execution of a task the body has to be poised, so that easy balance and graceful use are not the only result, but also that the poised body insures the least friction with consequently the greatest amount of energy available for what may be required of the individual to stand erect, to walk or move easily (Goldthwait et al., 1945: 241). In support of these notions, Ridgway and Harman (1999) noted that when an improvement occurs in the posture of the horse, there generally is a more "fluid" movement, because the more relaxed the muscles are, the more fluid is the movement of the joints. They associated decreased range of motion in the joints with hypertonicity, an essential characteristic of the condition known as muscle-imbalance (a condition discussed in depth by Janda, 1993, 1994; Loots, Loots & Steyn, 2002; Norris, 2001; Richardson, 1992). Albrecht (1988: 17) remarked that the regularity of movement and the concordant activity of the trunk and limb muscles, all depend on the absence of superfluous tension. Bernstein (1996: 120) and Norris (2001) were aware of the effect of the precision of muscle control in the postural muscles on what they observed in the action of other muscles and the

189 movement of the individual as a whole. Even if a task is demanding, it should still be characterised by effortlessness. The latter can be seen in the horse which does not throw out his legs towards the ground, but rather stretch them forward, as if he were trying to reach the farthest distance possible with his feet (Oliveira, 1988: 81).

Lengthening of muscles/structures during a motor act is a crucial objective of good movement. In riders it is only lengthening of the spine from the waist upwards and from the waist downwards, which is accentuated (Harris, 1985: 35; Herbermann, 1980: 29; Schusdziarra & Schusdziarra, 1990: 60; Sivewright, 1984: 133; Swift, 1985: 42). Oddly, however, direction in movement, or as Wanless (1987: 53) refers to it; an attitude of physical and mental expansion, rather than that of contraction, is given little attention in physiological, perceptual motor learning or in clinical literature (for a full discussion of this issue see section 8.1.2, endnote 6). The value of this kind of attitude to motor control is found in equine as well as other literature (McCluggage, 1983: 24-25; Wanless, 1987: 51-55)6 in the often used example of the "unbendable arm" or Aikido arm exercise (Wanless, 1987: 52). Actions like these are only possible if the organism is able to release the tension in certain muscles, so that the proximal part of a limb, or the head can lengthen in a given direction.

Feldenkrais (1985: 149) declared that the whole man must move at once, while from a dance perspective, Bartenieff (1980: 7) emphasised total shaping and total mobility. Feldenkrais (1985: 149) observed that the inability to move as a coherent whole is lifted if contradictory motivations are lifted: This coincides with relieving the muscular contractions enacted with these contradictory motivations, with or without the individual's awareness. Only a few individuals are able to function like thiswhat is normally seen is unnecessary action of the arms, legs and parts of the axial skeleton, or muscle imbalance, the latter usually characterised by unnecessary stiffness or slackness in certain muscles (Janda, 1993, 1994; Janda & Schmidt, 1980; Jull & Janda, 1987: 257-263; Loots, Loots

190 & Steyn, 2002; Norris, 2001), disconnectedness7, or parasitic movements as Feldenkrais (1985: 20) described it (cf. Belasik, 1999: 45-46; Kottas-Heldenberg, quoted by Loch, 1989; McCluggage, 1983: 46, section 6.4.8 and endnote 8 of Chapter 8).

Being connected implies that body parts and actions do not behave as being independent from each other, but rather act as a physical unity (or are drawn into an ordered, coordinated pattern as the definition of order parameters8 would have it, (cf. Kelso, 1995: 8, 70; Lamb & Watson, 1979: 101-102). Michel Henriquet, a devout follower of Oliveira, pointed out that the rider cannot be a judicious horseman if he cannot make use of his aids and cannot profit the resources of the horse. For the purposes of this discussion is the reference by Henriquet and Durand (2004: 2) to the fact that the rider cannot position himself properly on horseback, if he has not learned the rules which determines his posture, and that it is necessary for the mind to understand them fully at the same time that the body accustoms itself to them.

Belasik (1999: 45) also discovered the value of connectedness, and stressed that the rider who is able to ride strongly forward is connected, because with connectedness comes leverage. That is why it is essential that riders acquire the ability to ride from the base of their skulls and upper quarter into their seats in order to obtain necessary leverage. Once this unity is achieved freedom in the use of their arms and legs will become possible (see Coghill, 1929: 79-110, 1933b; Geisler, Westerga & Gramsbergen, 1996). The truly collected or collectable horse, according to Belasik (1999: 45), does not imitate a simple pelvic tilt by a disconnected rider, it rather imitates the firm, extended spine of a poised rider. With this sentiment Henriquet agreed by stating that the horse can maintain his position in rassembler (according to Nelson, 2004: xi, it literally means to gather together) only if the rider collects himself, since this is a position which unites each part of the riders body and establishes optimal

191 muscular tonicity, a deep seat and a stable centre of gravity (Henriquet & Durand, 2004: 24).

Lamb and Watson (1979: 101-102) drew attention to the fact that mastery of a new skill is very dependant upon the ability to effectively merge postural and limb movement (posture-gesture merger, see section 6.4.8). The existence and importance of merging are rarely realised by riders or trainers.

In recent times there is a movement away from Cartesian dualism, and a greater acceptance of the unity of body and mind (Kwant, 1968: 27-30; Merleau-Ponty, 1945/2002: 175). Feldenkrais (1985: 54) and others (Alexander, 1924/1987: 19; Reich, 1927/1999: 271; Swift, 2002: 23) did the same by adding to the concept of physical unity, the unity between the physical self and the mental or psychological self. This allowed Feldenkrais (1985: 54) to link the degree of muscular tension to that of the emotional: The common association of good posture with poisethat is, mental or emotional tranquillityis in fact an excellent criterion of good posture. Neither excessive muscular tension nor emotional intensity is compatible with good posture. Good posture means acting fast but without hurry; hurry means generally heightened activity that results not in faster action, but only in increased muscular contraction. Good posture means using all the power one possesses without enacting any parasitic movements. In the horse Jackson (1992: 50) argued that collection9 is associated with a state of mental and physical relaxation or poise. In contrast to this he pointed to the fact that the frantic horse appears anxious and unrelaxed, its muscles are tense, and they do not work together effectively. As a consequence such an animal will invariably be imbalanced and its gait will collapse in locomotive disarray. He also (p. 51) emphasised the importance of understanding the difference between natural impulsion and forced locomotive behaviour. As examples of the two

192 actions Jackson (1992: 51) compared the collected action of the levade10 to the compulsive, shaky and dangerous action of a horse rearing.

The action of a horse rearing is an example of an acute motor action. Of a more chronic nature are the often unnoticed emotional and psychomotor disturbances, which in both human and equine are reflected in their backs (Denoix & Pailloux 1996: 91). Ridgway and Harman (1999), for example, pointed to the fact that equitation produces physical and emotional stress in the equine, which should be identified and corrected. Riders, according to them, should be made aware of their role in creating back problems in horses. Without addressing rider problems, treatment and rehabilitation efforts for the horse may be ineffective (Ettl, 2000: 39; Ridgway & Harman, 1999). The latter standpoint, in the author's experience, even applies to horses rehabilitated by any of a variety of rehabilitative techniques such as physiotherapy (Bromiley, 1987: 53-112; Denoix & Pailloux, 1996: 103-187; Ridgway & Harman, 1999), those developed by the Feldenkrais Method trained Linda Tellington-Jones (Tellington-Jones, 1995, 1999; Tellington-Jones & Bruns, 1990) and equine massage (Ettl, 2000: 56-91).

Ideally, conscious actions should be mono motivated according to Feldenkrais (1985: 20), who also expressed the opinion that the skill of acting consists in acquiring the ability of inhibiting and excluding all parasitic elements that tend to enact themselves by habit, conditioning and stereotyped motion. In many cases the latter is the outcome of anxiety (see consequences of the startle or defence response in section 7.3.2.2 and Bentley, 1999: 36, Jones, 1965; Jones et al., 1959; Jones et al., 1964, and the consequences of stress on the limbic system in Janda, 1994: 198-199).

In the East (Iron Shirt Chi Kung) the concept of ease in movement is also stressed. Goss, (1986: 221) for example, proposed that:

193 In order for full movement potential to be possible, the body must spontaneously return to its center of relaxed alignment after movement. This is the relaxed idling position that is most unblocked and energetically economical, and out of which movement flows.

At this point it should be pointed out that some of the terminology frequently used in the present study, such as use, misuse, connectedness, disconnectedness, muscle-imbalance, posture (static and dynamic) are all facets of the same phenomenon, poise or the lack thereof.

6.4.7 Summary: The essential characteristics of poise

From the above it is clear that good movement (static and dynamic) is characterised by equilibrium, balance, smoothness, rhythm, grace, being centred, efficiency and economy of movement, effortlessness, functioning as a unit (integration or being connected), spontaneity, a lack of undue muscle tension, absence of parasitic movements, as well as the absence of emotional intensity. According to Dart (1946, 1947, 1950), Feldenkrais (1985: 54) and others (see below) poise is associated with: !

Good manner of use, which gives quality to the execution of the movement. Graceful, flowing and economical movements are not possible in a tense body, and since the body reflects the mind, the tense person will also reflect tenseness in movement (Feldenkrais, 1985: 54; Saar, 1979: 9, 21; Sarno, 1991: 29-58).

Ideal absolute position of the different body parts, and their positions relative to each other. This characteristic is found to be critical in the attainment and maintenance of poise. As a consequence the position of one body part may affect the function and efficiency of others (Ayub, 1987: 69-75, 77; Baucher, 1843/1992: 135; Goldthwait et al., 1952: 32-

194 72). In this respect Bernstein (1967: 112) highlighted the significance of the tonic reactions of the neck, reactions which are elicited by the position of the head and neck (see Fukuda, 1961; Magnus, 1926ab). He (Bernstein, 1967: 112) considered these systemic reactions to have high degrees of plasticity, and therefore to be decisive coordinational prerequisites to movement or positions, and that the physiological purpose of these reactions is not limited to the communication of a necessary and a simultaneous rigidity to the trunk, but also to encompass the total preparatory reaction of the periphery to the conditions of the external (static and dynamic) field of forces. Albrecht (1993: 32) supported this concept in riding by indicating that in the rider the position of the head is of considerable importance in the balance of the whole. Alexander (1932/1985: 49-51) went as far as to refer to the position of the head and neck as the Primary Control" in movement. Feldenkrais (1984: 123-129) also pointed out that the carriage of the head affects the state of the musculature. Belasik's (1990: 33) view has direct implications for the rider:

There are no coincidences in the postures of the seat - riding, zazen, martial arts. Posture is all-encompassing. Breathing is a path, and awareness is the result. If we inhibit awareness through contortions of the body or contortions of the mind, the results will be same: a rigid being and in riding, an inflexible seat. The correct posture alone has the power to open one's consciousness. !

In a series of talks on the BBC, Sir Geoffrey Vickers V.C. (cited by Bowden, 1965: 36) explained that the condition that gives us our wholeness and gives us the satisfaction of natural action is closely linked to the control or command given by balance. Sir Geoffrey went on to point out that "it is only when we have stability that we can take the initiative". In riding it is a well-known fact that the unbalanced rider cannot take control of his or

195 the horse's actions, nor can such a rider take the initiative, i.e. to move in a specified direction, for example. !

Within the context of good movement and neurophysiology it may be well to paraphrase remarks made by Fowler and Turvey (1978: 6) on the learning of new skills. As far as the nature of the actor is concerned they hold that the relationships between muscles are sufficiently plastic to allow him to constrain or organise his musculature into different systems. When it comes to the nature of skills, however, it should be understood that skills have structure, and that discovering an optimal self-organisation for such a structure has to be in reference to those variables of stimulation corresponding to environmental and biokinematic relations of the action that the actor is to perform. The issue of these variables will be addressed in section 8.1.1.1.

Movements seem to be performed on their own. This is probably due to the fact that when participating within the laws of nature, a diminishing of the burden of movement control is the outcome. By participating within these laws, learning a new skilled motor act is consequently tantamount to becoming attuned to the laws of dynamical-self organisation that govern an effector system, resulting in actions that become effortless (Schmidt & Fitzpatrick, 1996: 203).

Movement is characterised by the quality of stillness, a quality important in classical riding. According to Mairinger (1983: 56) the rider should at all times sit as still as possible in order to allow the horse to find its own balance. Those who are in control of their bodies is able to demonstrate the quality of stillness in activity (Mairinger, 1983: 56) or poise (Gelb, 1981: 68).

196 6.4.8 Lack of poise or the phenomenon of misuse

6.4.8.1

The nature of misuse

This section will be introduced by comments made by Lowman (1958: 14), because of its relevance to classical riding. He pointed out that if

coaches would review their kinesiology and physiology, they would appreciate the fact that faulty posture indicates a shift of a body segment in relation to other segments, and shifting of joint positions or alignment in relation to the normal gravitational lines.

The habitual assumption of out-of-line positions requires compensatory adjustments in the controlling ligaments and muscles.

He continued with the practical consequences of such a habit (Lowman, 1958: 14):

In faulty posture, the normal length of these opposing muscles is altered so that if one is adaptively shortened its opponent must be stretched or lengthened. Therefore, their performance in effecting an certain movement is not normal.

To this it may be added that the maintenance of a specific body position or posture will also not be normal. This, and the incidence of abnormal neuromuscular function will be the consideration of this section.

As such, it seems to be an accepted fact that coordination implies an implicit belief in the wisdom of the body, in that integrated neuromuscular-skeletal action will invariably result in correct, efficient motor acts. Coordination, however, does not necessarily imply good use as Bernstein (1967: 104) discovered:

197 Knowledge about the processes of co-ordination is not obtained deductively from knowledge of the effector process. Until the present, while the moving periphery has been regarded as an exact somatic projection of the somatic effector apparatus, reproducing in the form of movements with particular exactitude and simplicity all those chains of effector impulses which operate in it, there has seemed no need for any physiologic organisation in the form of co-ordination. If the centre transmits a regular and efficient chain of effector impulses to the periphery, it will appear at the periphery in the form of equally regular and efficient movements; if the chain of central effector impulses is irregularly and inefficiently organised, its peripheral projection will also be an irregular and badly organized movement. But in both cases the movement will be co-ordinated, that is, they will accurately reflect what is contained in the central impulse. Both of them will be accurately fulfilled (reflected) at the motor periphery, in exactly the same way as a grand piano reflects with equal accuracy the playing of a good or a bad pianist. Alexander (1932/1985: 32-33) accentuated the integrative aspect of the manner of use, as well as the fact that misuse in one part of the body leads to similar problems in other body parts:

Observation in the mirror shewed me that when I was standing to recite I was using these other parts in certain wrong ways which synchronized with my wrong way of using my head and neck, larynx, vocal and breathing organs, and which involved a condition of undue muscle tension throughout my organism. I observed that this condition of undue muscle tension affected particularly the use of my legs, feet and toes, my toes being contracted and bent downwards in such a way that my feet were unduly arched, my weight thrown more on the outside of my feet than it should have been, and my balance interfered with.

what I was doing with my legs, feet and toes when standing to recite was exerting a most harmful general influence upon the use of myself throughout my organism.

198

Here we see that the use of a specific part of the body

in any activity is closely associated with the use of other parts of the organism, and that the influence exerted by the various parts one upon another is continuously changing in accordance with the manner of use of these parts. If a part directly employed in the activity is being used in a comparatively new way which is still unfamiliar, the stimulus to use this part in the new way is weak in comparison with the stimulus to use the other parts of the organism, which are indirectly employed in the activity, in the old habitual way (Alexander, 1932/1985: 34-35).

When diagnosing the site of movement dysfunction in the human and horse it is not prudent to accept a local or the immediately identifiable lesion being the primary one (Janda, 1978: 28; Ridgway & Harman, 1999). In this respect Janda (1978: 28 stated that there are many indications showing that a local dysfunction or lesion may be secondary to a lesion which could be quite remote, and at first sight with no obvious relationship to the lesion which provokes the symptoms for which the patient is seeking help. What is applicable to the human in the statement to follow may equally be applied to the equine.

From the above arguments it is clear that although neuromuscular-skeletal coordination patently accompanies all motor acts, the coordination pattern may be in some instances be of such a nature that use of the individual is affected negatively (Barlow, 1990: 17; Janda, 1978: 28; Jull & Janda, 1987: 259-260). Even in pathological conditions such as Parkinson's disease and chorea (e.g. Huntingdons disease), for example, conditions which are characterised by abnormal, spontaneous and rhythmical movements, there is some form of neuromuscular coordination. Due to their synergistic muscle action, these movements are considered to be coordinated and highly regulated, yet, they do not serve any purpose (Roberts, 1995: 306; Ruch, 1966: 286). Thus, the

199 common practice of judging the quality of a movement on the basis of its neuromuscular-skeletal coordination only, is certainly not a valid procedure, nor can coordination considered to be synonymous with harmony, something suggested by Meijer (2001: 11). Also, the use of so-called "normal" individuals in order to acquire norms of good movement or biomechanics (see Clayton, 2001: 205-214; Woodhull, Meltrud & Mello, 1985, for example) may be questionable, since "normal" individuals are, according to Dart (1947), Loots, Loots and Steyn (2001), Loots, Loots and Steyn (2002) and Sherrington (1946: 89), and also to what was observed in the present study, not easily found. The general acceptance of misuse as being "normal" in the human by the general population and even science can be explained by the already mentioned high prevalence of this condition in modern society (section 6.4.8), and the fact that disconnected movements (e.g. twirling a tray on the finger, while wriggling a foot into a slipper, drinking a glass of water) impresses the observer (Lamb & Warren, 1979: 85-90). In the rider this would be the excessive use of the hands, actions in the trunk and the constant use of his hands, and in the horse it may emerge as disconnection between the movement of the front- and hind legs, or even between legs of the same segment, stiffness in, or hollowing of the back and neck, and tossing of the head. A more unobtrusive example of disconnectedness is its effects on the motor patterning process, expressing itself in in the visually observable problem of muscle-imbalance, which is indicated by structural and functional alterations of muscles and alterations in body segment alignment and changes in the equilibrium point of a joint (Jull & Janda, 1987: 259-260; Loots, Loots & Steyn, 2002; Norris, 2001).

Misuse is not only a problem of the rider, but is commonly found in ridden and trained horses, even at the highest levels of training in dressage. In the equine one often notices stiff and hollowed backs, stiff, shortened and stilted paces, the unwillingness to bend, crookedness, loss of rhythm, problems aptly described by Herberman (2001: 119-122) and Podhajsky (1967: 17-69). Although ungainly, disharmonious, ungraceful and inefficient, the movement of the lame horse is

200 also coordinated in some way or other (cf. Buchner, 2001: 252-263 for a description of the kinematics of lameness in the horse), and in injuries of the back, the particular coordination may be non-specific, and therefore make it difficult to distinguish the nature/origin or site of a specific injury from another (see Denoix & Audigi, 2001: 173-179; Rooney, 1982; Ridgway & Harman, 1999). Riders with stiff backs and excessive use of the hands and legs, affect the movements of their mounts in a negative way (Brger, 1986: 222-223; Gurinire, 1733/1994: 75).

Riders and horses may show a lesser, a greater, or total lack of efficient neuromuscular coordination or poise. Those riders and horses falling into the latter two categories are aptly described by those trained in the Alexander Technique as being "disconnected" (Becker, 1984, personal communication). In the late 1800s Steinbrecht (1884/1995: 6) was aware of this connectedness when he pointed out that the rider's spine is like the trunk of a tree from which all limbs branch out and to which all organs are attached. The activity of the organs and the forcefulness of the limbs he felt, must also be a function of the trunk. Lamb and Watson (1979: 86-90) developed a practical approach to the phenomenon of disconnectedness, an approach which can be linked to Alexanders (1932/1985: 32-33) and Coghill's (1933b: 134) mechanism of total integration (also see following paragraph), and what one sees in riding. Lamb and Watson's (1979: 28-33, 90-108, 150-175) assessment of movement patterns in the individuals they studied, led them to distinguish between what they referred to as 1) gestural- and postural movements, and 2) and the fact that these two actions may be mergedposture-gesture merging.

Movement of one or more limb only, with no postural involvement is a gesture. These are movements in which there is a "lack of flow between parts of the body" (Lamb & Watson, 1979: 89), and are therefore, and examples of disconnectedness. Gestures (for example the movement of a limb only, such as the lifting of the hand in a meeting in order to draw attention) are, according to these two authors,

201 in many cases in a certain sense also futile and without meaning, they may also be a source of discomfort to the person doing these actions (especially when they are repetitive, e.g. as seen in a one man-band), they also lack spontaneity and require extreme conscious control (Lamb & Watson, 1979: 86-90).

Coghill (1929: 88-89, 1938), noted that in the development of behaviour there are two processes operating simultaneously. The one is the expansion of the total pattern as a perfectly integrated unit; while the other is the individuation of partial systems, which eventually acquire more or less discreteness. In the salamander embryos which Coghill (1929: 79-110, 1933ab) studied, the total pattern extended first through the trunk and tail. The important point of what he observed during this development was that the parts involved, were always perfectly integrated. As the totally integrated pattern expands through the organism, its parts, one after the other, begin to acquire an individuality of their own, something which represents a late acquisition in animal ontogenesis (Merleau-Ponty, 1942/1965: 45). Coghill (1929: 89) surmised that:

local reflexes emerge as, in the language of "Gestalt", a "quality upon the ground"; that is to say, that they emerge as a special feature within a more diffuse but dominant mechanism of integration of the whole organism.

Coghill (1929: 89) was strongly of the opinion that this mechanism applied universally to the vertebrates, including man. He also found no evidence for his hypothesis that behaviour, insofar as the form of the pattern is concerned, is merely a combination or coordination of reflexes. Simon (1962) echoed these sentiments by stating that if one is given the properties of the parts and the laws of the interaction between parts, to infer the properties of the whole it is not a trivial matter. Coghill (1929: 89) also pointed out that there is conclusive evidence of a dominant organic unity from the beginning. That evidence appears not only in the manner in which behaviour develops, but particularly in the manner in which the nervous system puts the principle into effect, since the

202 nervous system concerns itself first with the maintenance of the integrity of the individual, and only later makes provision for local reflexes or reactions.

Bernstein (1996: 116-156) had a viewpoint similar to that expressed by Coghill (1929: 89), but his was from a phylogenetic perspective. He distinguished between a preextremity level (neck and trunk, Coghill's integrative) whose origins can be traced back to the earliest fish, a level of multi-articular links (limbs, Coghill's acquisition of individuality), a level which developed in order to subserve all possible locomotions on the ground. The two other levels, proposed by Bernstein (1996: 130-156) is not of concern here.

The preextremity level is mainly preoccupied with the preparatory background to all movementsactions which are not always discernablea background which is necessary for smooth and economical movement (also see section 6.4.6 on the manner of use). It is important to take cognisance of Bernstein (1996: 120), who specifically pointed out that the precision of background controlwhich is the functioning of the level of muscle tone and postureis a prerequisite of good motor coordination.

Two principles, which are that of integration and individuation, therefore, constantly operate in the organism. Integration and individuation are, however, antagonistic principles of development, since integration tends to maintain the integrity of the individual, while individuation tends to destroy it (Coghill, 1938). Yet, the two processes cooperate in all phases of development, and a normal individual depends on a fine balance maintained between them, and if used correctly, integrated and properly functioning wholes can be formed. In this respect Lamb and Watson (1979: 90) made an important observation when they pointed out that the nature of movement is apparently co-operative, so that actions which take no account of the whole body are both seen and felt to be a source of discomfort, and cannot be maintained for any length of time.

203 In this lies one of the present-day challenges of attempts to attain the demands of classical riding: To have the ability to move as a whole body in which one is able to include into the larger whole smaller wholes (see section 8.1.1.1 & 8.1.1.2).

It is in the "disconnected", and the ineffectively coordinated rider that this fine balance is absent, firstly, that which is seen in the lesser or greater absence of the diffuse and dominant mechanism of the proper integration of the rider's trunk within itself, and secondly in the destruction of integration by overt individuation, which are exemplified by excessive reliance on the use of the hands and legs, actions which, according to Lamb and Watson (1979: 85-90), convey little meaning. In an interview Arthur Kottas-Heldenberg, the Oberbereiter of the Spanish Riding School pointed to the importance of a secure trunk in the rider, when he suggested that horses would be so much happier and achieve more brilliance if the riders seats were more secure and still (Loch, 1989). The problem of disconnectedness can also be seen in the horse, in which the legs are moving without the all-important coordinating and supporting contribution of the back and other trunk muscles to the gait (see Belasik, 1990: 70, 71; Denoix & Pailloux, 1996: 57-63; Harris, 1993: 19-31).

What is at issue here, is that since we are dealing with the presence or absence of poise in riders and horses, coordination of both static- and dynamic motor acts in both is dependant, inter alia, upon the quality of what emanates from the dynamics of the motor act. In the experience of the author of the present study, one of the most striking deficits in those with brain injury is an inability to control motor acts as an integrated whole. This could explain Coghills (1929: 89, 90) observation that the CNS concerns itself with the maintenance of integrity of the individual. In this respect one may again refer to Alexander (1932/1985: 32-33) who pointed out the fact that misuse in one part of the body leads to similar problems in other body parts. There also seems to be a general pattern of use

204 common to most individuals, exemplified by general patterns in muscleimbalance found in different individuals (Jull & Janda, 1987: 260-263; Loots, Loots & Steyn, 2002). From the former one may postulate that any motor act, whether good or bad, is controlled as a totalityin other words, during any motor act one will not encounter good use in some parts of the body, and in others not (in this respect the reader is referred to section 8.4.5 on absolute coordination).

6.4.8.2

Misuse or lack of poise as a pandemic problem

6.4.8.2.1

The situation in man

This is the sort of thing I mean: do sight and hearing afford mankind any truth, or aren't even the poets always harping on such themes, telling us we neither hear nor see anything accurately? And yet if those of all the bodily senses are neither accurate nor clear, the others will hardly be so; because they are, surely, all inferior to those (Plato, 1993b: 10).

the majority of people do not realize that human beings are still propelling an already maladjusted and damaged mechanism along the difficult road of modern life, whist relying for guidance upon an imperfect and sometimes delusive sensory apparatus (Alexander, 1924/1987: 38-39).

The issue of misuse needs to be discussed here, in view of the etiology of this problem and it's philosophical and practical implications on riders and riding.

Alexander (1910/1996: 12) observed that people live in nearly complete ignorance of the way they use their bodies, and also that most people are distorting the form, and thus impairing the working of the whole organism, by bad coordination, muscular over-tension, and misuse of the parts of the body in their relationship to one another. These symptoms are considered to be signs of a body not in peace with itself (Alexander, 1910/1996: 12; Barlow, 1978: 16).

205 Barlow (1978: 16) was also of the opinion that a general pattern of misuse is found in everybody. Consistent observations are over-contracted neck muscles, resulting in a loss of the free poise of the head on the spine. These actions in turn leads to over-contraction of some muscles of the trunk, and lack of proper tone in other muscles of the body, resulting in an exaggeration of the natural curves of the spine. This is also what Janda (1993: 196-203), Janda and Schmidt (1980), Jull and Janda (1987: 257-263) and Loots, Loots and Steyn (2002) pointed out in their papers on muscle-imbalance, and that which Reich (1949/1973a: 48) referred to as muscle armouring, a condition he considered to be characterised by immobility. The startle response may be considered to be an extreme example of muscle armouring (Bentley, 1999: 36).

One of the most obvious outward signs of muscle-imbalance is malposture (Janda, 1978: 29; Loots, Loots & Steyn, 2002). In the human, this is not a problem of recent origin (Bang & Bojln, 1950, cited by Asmussen & HeelblNielsen, 1959; Barlow, 1955, cited by Fenton, 1973: 23; Barlow, 1956; Cochrane, 1924; Dart, 1947; Fenton, 1973: 11-26; Kiernander, 1956; Loots, 1999: 287-291; Sherrington, 1946: 89). The prevalence of malposture is high (Bang & Bojln, 1950, cited by Asmussen & Heelbl-Nielsen, 1959; Barlow, 1955, cited by Fenton, 1973: 23; Barlow, 1956; Cochrane, 1924; Dart, 1947; Fenton, 1973: 1126; Janda, 1978; Janda & Schmidt, 1980; Kiernander, 1956; Loots, 1999: 274291; Loots, Loots & Steyn, 2001; Sherrington, 1946: 89). Dart (1947) even considered this problem to be pandemic. Due to the high prevalence of malposture, Loots (1999: 313) argued that malposture at present is such a common, and accepted part of most people's appearances and habits, that it has become unnoticed, not only by themselves, but also by others. Dart (1947) attributed our acceptance of our warped adult bodies to the fact that few people take the trouble to unravel their thoughts concerning themselves, or to bring their ideas about their bodies to some order. A recent paper (Seaman & Winterstein, 1998) on joint complex dysfunction in the spine (according to Seaman, 1997 a joint complex is made up of 2 vertebrae, the intervening disc two posterior

206 zygapophysial joints with their fibrous joint capsules, several intrinsic ligaments, the muscles their blood and nerve supply) shed some light on one of the possible backgrounds to the problem of muscle-imbalance and faulty sensory appreciation in humans. Seaman and Winterstein (1988) pointed out that the CNS is greatly influenced by somatosensory input. They speculated that joint complex dysfunction may induce the phenomenon of dysafferentationan increased or decreased mechanoreceptor discharge (Knudson, 1999)which in turn may lead to the condition of somatosensory system dysfunction, and if it results in excess stimuli to the CNS muscle spasm and muscle-imbalance may be the consequence (Seaman, 1997).

6.4.8.2.2

Misuse in the horse

Some authors have recently drawn attention to the issue of equine posture (Harris, 1985: 19; Harris, 1993: 41, Fig 6a; Herbermann, 2001: 136; Ridgway & Harman, 1999; Seunig, 1983: 64). In the horse malposture, as in the human, often goes unnoticed, or is even accepted to be the norm, since malposture in horses abounds, and is accepted in show arenas as well as in pictorial material in the literature on dressage (Crossly, 1995: 147; de Kunffy, 1992: 60; Fisher & Hood, 2004; Froissard, 1988: 95; Hill, 2002; Loriston-Clarke, 1989: 52, 110; Roberts, 1992: 137; Winnett, 1993: 53, 95, also refer to Figures 5.1, 6.1 & 6.2). Fisher and Hood (2004) indicated that horses with tension around the poll often exhibit patterns that are found in humans with similar problems. They are often hormonal in their behaviour, spooky, noise sensitive, unfocussed with significant tension around the temporal muscles (also see Ayub, 1987; Baucher, 1843/1992: 128, 135 on the integrative function of the muscles in man and horse). In many instances faulty posture in the horse is presented to be an example of the ideal (see, for example, Loch, 2001: 198, 202; Loriston-Clarke, 1989: 110; Roberts, 1992: 137; Winnett, 1993: 53, Figure 6.2).

207 The incidence of malposture horses has not been determined yet, but judging from what one sees at shows, training sessions and riding lessons, as well as the often found reference to it in equine literature (though not referred to as malposture) (Brger, 1986: 217; Crossley, 1983: 98; Ettl, 2002: 39-44; ffrench Blake, 1980: 33-34; Froissard, 1988: 24; Harris, 1985: 61; Knopfhart, 1990: 5, 15; Loch, 1997: 260; Mseler, 1973: 81; Seunig, 1983: 6, 63; The German National Equestrian Federation, 1985: 69) it would probably be high. The underlying causes of malposture in man and horse, however, are different. In man it could be due to an inability to come to terms with the rapid changes of modern life (Alexander, 1924/1987: 1-2), which overstretch mans adjustability (Tinbergen, 1978: 233). This problem may also be of psychological origin and man's deviation from nature (Reich, 1973b: 294, 1943/1975: 374, 1927/1999: 250-298) or it could be traced back to premature or too violent demands made on the person (Feldenkrais, 1985: 121), whilst in the horse its principal cause would in all probability be the interference of man, such as not being allowed to follow its natural patterns, and/or bad training (Brger, 1986: 217; Ettl, 2002: 39; Loch, 2000: 10; OConnor, 1990: Seunig, 1983: 6, 53, 62). Ettl (2002: 42) and Ridgway and Harman (1999) specifically pointed out the fact that riders play a significant role in causing muscular tension in their horses.

6.4.9 A pictorial analysis of malposture (misuse) in man and horse

Physical measurements of malposture do not always convey the true nature and all the facets of the problem. One of the most important of these is the underlying background to this problemmuscle-imbalance. This was discovered by the author following numerous discussions with individuals in the field of medicine and physical rehabilitation. For this reason it was decided to approach malposture in man and horse from a pictorial perspective. Pictures were found to be useful for the analysis of human posture and muscle tension by Barlow (1956) and by Winter and Hall (1978). To the experienced eye a photograph of a horse and rider has great value, according to Herbermann (2001: 135), since

208 pictures reveal accurately the performance of horse and rider at the particular moment the picture was taken. Herbermann (2001: 136) also felt that analysis of pictorial material allows the observer to recognise the poor attributes of a horse under saddle, such as having a forced appearance, being unbalanced and awkward. This investigative approach tallies with that proposed by Barlow (1956) for the human, in which not only the positions of certain anatomical landmarks may be analysed, but also other aspects associated with posture such as general and local muscle imbalance, as well as the presence of superfluous muscle tension (Norris, 2001). When dealing with the equine, technical points to be considered are, inter alia, the correct position of the horse's head, sufficient length in the neck and the horse being in front of the rider (Herbermann, 2001: 136), and the presence of diagonal unison in the trot (Herbermann 2001: 90; Tuller, Turvey & Fitch, 1982: 263). The physiological background to and the importance of diagonal unison in the trot is explained in section 8.4.6. For the analysis of some typical postural problems found in the horse, pictorial matter was used (Figures 6.2, 6.3 & 6.4).

Examples of the nature of poor posture in the human and horse are illustrated in Figures 6.1 and 6.2 (also refer to Figures 4.2 & 5.1). For comparison, good use in horses is shown in Figures 6.3 and 6.4. Six middle-aged subjects, taken from material in the study by Loots, Loots and Steyn (2001) were selected to illustrate typical postural abnormalities in the human (Figure 6.1), while examples of the postures of horses were taken from various sources (Figure 6.2). Horses drawn from the present study are shown in Figures 8.7, 8.8 and 8.9. In Figure 6.2 riders and tack were omitted from the drawings in order to better illustrate the postures of the horses (due to the fact that riders are in full riding attire their postures could not be analysed). Yet, it seems as if dressage judges at Olympic level consider poor posture in horses and it's associated poorly coordinated movement as being acceptable. Scrutiny of what occurred in the Musical Kur at the Melbourne and the recent Athens Olympic Games supports this assumption. Therefore, the question previously raised in sections 5.1.5.3 and 5.1.5.6.2, as to whether

209 modern competition dressage could be considered as being classical, can now be reconsidered on the basis of the above. Again the answer is a definite no, simply because the basic requirements of grace, ease and harmony are not met.

210

A ll th e su b jects on th e left a re leaning forward. The necks are all shortened and lordotic. In all the backs there is kyphosis in the thoracic areas and lordosis in the lumbar areas. The way in which each subject attempts to deal with his mechanical problem is unique. In none of the subjects, however, is the head and other anatom ical landmark placem en t correct as sh own b y th e v ertica l lin es (in red).

A pparent in th ese 3 su b jects is thoracic rotation, with individual a ttem p ts to p la ce the h ea d c e n t r a l l y a b o v e t h e c e n t re o f gravity (lines in red).

Figure 6.1:

Lateral and anterior views of postures of 6 middle-aged male senior executives, showing poor body mechanics and a large variability of in the way in which position of body landmarks are being dealt with (from the data of Loots, 1999).

211

a Posture of horse doing medium trot (modified from Loriston-Clarke, 1987: 53).

P ostu re of horse in Figure 6.2a during

collected trot (m odified from Loriston-Clarke, 1 9 8 7 : 5 3 ). In b oth exa m p les th ere is sev ere shortening of the neck, poor diagonal unison and in su fficient engagement of the hind quarters. There is also not any lowering of the haunches in the hors e pe r for m ing the c olle c t e d t r ot ( c f. Handler, 1972: 107, 145, 177).

c In this horse there is severe shortening of the neck, poor unison of diagonals (red arrows) in the trot (modified from Back (2001: 122).

d Poor unison of diagonals (red arrows), stiffly held shortened neck (m odified from LoristonClarke, 1987: 110).

Figure 6.2:

Poor postures of dressage horses whilst being ridden. In order to make the posture of the horses more clear, riders were omitted.

212

e An impressive extended trot according to Loch (1990: Plate 15). Yet, the movement is stiff and the neck shortened. Unison in the diagonals is poor (red arrows) (m odified from Loch, 1990: Plate 15).

f Poor unison of diagonals (red arrows) during the extended trot. The horses neck is stiff and shorten ed. (m odified from Winnett, 1993: 53) Compare to extended trot in Figures 6.3a and b.

g The unison in the diagonals (red arrows) is p oor in this extended trot. Th e horses n eck seems to be somewhat m ore relaxed than that of the previous example (modified from C rossley, 1995: 76).

Figure 6.2 (cont.):

Poor postures of dressage horses whilst being ridden (riders omitted). Note the poor positions of the necks in horses in a-g and the associated poor movement, exemplified by the lack of diagonal unison.

213
a Excellent unison of th e d ia g on als (blue

arrows) during an extended trot. Being a horse from Iberian descent, the neck is carried high, but is kept relaxed (modified from Henriquet & Durand, 2004: 195).

Excellen t u n ison of the diagonals (blue

arrows) in the extended trot. The neck is also ca rried h ig h , sin ce th is h orse was of Iberia n breeding (modified from Oliveira, 1988: 77).

c Excellent unison of diagonals as exhibited by the simultaneous period of the support phase of th e rig h t fore and the left hind, as well a s th e s im u lt a n e o u s o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e n e g a t iv e supporting reaction in the other two leg s (see M agnus, 1926a). The relaxed execution of the m ov em en t b y th is h orse is notable (m odified from a photograph by Equerry Photographers of a horse ridden by the author of the present study).

A horse from a school in the UK where

classical principles are taught. The unison of the d ia g o n a l s i s g o o d ( b l u e a r r o w s ) , b u t t h e movement is not as relaxed as seen in the three exa m p les ab ov e (m od ified from L och , 2 0 0 0 : 198).

Figure 6.3:

Good postures of horses whilst being ridden (riders omitted). In the first two examples (a & b) the horses are executing an extended trot. Both of these horses are ridden by exponents of the art of classical riding. The third horse (c) is ridden by the author of the present study. The horses in c and d are in a working trot.

214

a Note the lengthened position of the neck and the good unison (blue arrows) in the diagonals (modified from Back, 2001: 121).

b The neck has a lengthened position, also note the animation in the m ovem ent and the unison (blue arrows) between the diagonals (modified from de Kunffy, 1992: 41).

c Horse being worked on the longing rein. Note th e free a n d rela xed mov em en t. The

engagem ent of the hind leg s is excellent. The h o r s e b e i n g Ib eria n b re d , h a s a h ig h n e c k carriage (modified from Henriquet & D urand, 2004: 49).

Figure 6.4:

Postures of free moving horses. Note the freedom in the movement in all of the horses .

6.5

THE WISDOM OF THE BODY

6.5.1

Is self-organisation always appropriate?

If all the mechanisms available to the body for the maintenance of equilibrium under various external and internal conditions are considered, one would expect that they should be endowed with sufficient wisdom to cope with the problems of

215 modern life, and in the context of the present milieu, the changes effected upon the function of motor systems (Kugler, Kelso & Turvey, 1982: 10-14). Important questions, in this respect are 1) what is the allowable tolerances for motor acts in order to function effectively within a specified trajectory and, 2) what is the time required for any biological system to come up with an appropriate solution to an alteration of sufficient magnitude in the organism's structure, alignment, environment, etc., to induce an update in the function of a system, and 3) whether a suitable solution to problems in systems is always possible? Dubos (1968: 94) came to the conclusion that in its mental and physical manifestations, the wisdom of the body is far from perfect. The ultimate results of seemingly protective or adaptive responses may sometimes turn out to be deleterious.

From the examples below it will also become obvious that in many respects the human body is not always equipped or able to deal properly with an overload or changes imposed upon it. Alexander (1924/1987: 1) was of the opinion that man probably could only rely on the wisdom of his body when living in his natural state. When living in industrialised society, he posited that man is not properly equipped to deal with unnatural and artificial circumstances imposed upon him (Alexander, 1924/1987: 1; Tinbergen, 1978: 233). Studies on insulin disorders (Heller, Heller & Vagnini, 1999: 9; Serfontein, 2001: 248-251) as well as other studies by Mandal (1984), Julius (1991) and Julius and Nesbit (1996), support Alexander's basic concept of man's inability to deal with the rapid changes which modern lifestyle brought about. Firstly, it has been shown that man has been unable to deal satisfactorily with the sharp increase in the intake of refined carbohydrates which began in the previous century (Serfontein, 2001: 249). This inability led to conditions known as insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemiaconditions, which now are associated with non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus, hypertension, coronary artery disease (Reaven, 1988) and visceral obesity (Colberg et al., 1995). Secondly, Mandal (1984) found that even those subjects that were trained in the

216 proper mechanics of sitting on chairs were unable to maintain proper posture for long periods of time sitting in contemporary designed school furniture. Thirdly, excessive sympathetic activity since childhood may eventually lead to high blood pressure in adulthood (Julius & Nesbit, 1996). The latter phenomenon can probably be ascribed to the fact that the nervous system is a short-lasting controller of the circulation, and according to Julius (1988) the arterial baroreceptor mechanism is not able to affect the average blood pressure over long periods of time due to their quick resetting.

Likewise, it is possible that certain "set points" or effectivity (see Kugler, Kelso & Turvey, 1982: 7 for a discussion of the latter principle) in postural and movement control systems, exceed their linear dimensions and therefore have to be reset on a continual basis in order to try to cope with imposed situations, resulting in a new motor habit, a habit which in most cases could be inappropriate (see the examples above). This situation which modern man has to content with, is made worse by the inability to appreciate sensory feedback correctly (Alexander, 1924/1987: 79-80).

From a systems philosophy perspective Laszlo (1972: 249) surmised that the individual's constructions and cognitions are not dictated by his environment, but by

his present (=cortical) organization, which evolved over a long series of past interactions in phylo- as well as ontogenesis. The choices of the human agent are built into his present psychophysical organization, and that organization, reflecting the outcome of past interactions, has sufficient autonomy built into it to give rise to, and (when known) to provide an explanation for, the most indubitable sensations of having made self-determined, free choices.

Although the organism has freedom of choice, one is forced to ask the question whether the choice taken is the most appropriate in an individual with habitual

217 poor use. One can also wonder whether changes in his current poor use or habits will achieve the desired end of grace, ease and harmony in riding. It has been suggested that muscle-imbalance, which is an example of poor use, influences the muscle patterning process negatively (Jull & Janda, 1987: 259260) in that, for example, a tightened muscle has a lowered excitability threshold, which can lead to the situation in which this muscle can be activated more than is required. It was also found that tight muscles may be activated even when they should actually be inactive (Janda, 1978: 32). The consequence of this is that under circumstances such as these, movement cannot be performed properly and that muscles which should be used during the movement are not activated to the required degree (Jull & Janda, 1987: 259-260). Janda (1978: 29) also pointed to a strange anomaly found in patients with muscle-imbalance, in that when attempts are made to strengthen weakened or inhibited muscle its activity rather tends to decrease than to increase. So in practice, when weak abdominal muscles in the human are strengthened, it is actually the tight back muscles that "benefit" (Janda, 1978: 32). It was also pointed out by Kugler, Kelso and Turvey (1980: 40) that, if a there is a persistent change in an organism's disposition, it will "bias" the final resting location of a movement.

This leads to the predicament of whether one can take for granted, firstly that in biological organisms all initial-conditions11 can be accepted to be ideal (e.g. their current postures and tension in their muscles or muscle-groups), and secondly whether the acting of forces upon the various body segments can be expected to be correct. Thus, when any system is compromised to some extent, such as found in a rider or horse with muscle-imbalance or malposture. Practical experience in the teaching of riding to participants in the present study has invariably pointed to the fact that in the beginning of their training all rider and horse combinations, initial conditions were found to be far from ideal. This affected not only the way in which they executed their movements, but also the nature and direction of forces acting upon their body segments. Riders also had difficulty in fully understanding what is conveyed to them (see Janda, 1978: 32).

218 This was associated with the fact that riders and horses were more prone to initiate less than ideal movement trajectories than those required for the achievement of harmony, ease and grace in riding. Poor "manner of use", is thus indicative of the fact that self-organisation in living beings is not always appropriate in terms of the requirements for good movement. Indeed this problem may be the norm in most, if not all, cases. When organisms function well within their biomechanical, physiological and psychological norms, however, as probably to be found in the natural state (see Jackson's, 1992: 141-153 concept of natural riding) the initial conditions would probably be nearer to the ideal.

Mans poor sensory awareness is associated with a superstition prevalent even among cultured persons. This superstition was explained to the American philosopher and educationist, Professor John Dewey by F.M. Alexander12 (Dewey, 1927: 27-28): They suppose that if one is told what to do, if the right end is pointed to them, all that is required in order to bring about the right act is will or wish on the part of the one who is to act. He used as an illustration, the matter of physical posture; the assumption is that if a man is told to stand up straight, all that is further needed is wish and effort on his part, and the deed is done. He pointed out that this belief is on a par with primitive magic in its neglect of attention to the means which are involved in reaching an end. He went on to say that the prevalence of this belief, starting with false notions about the control of the body and extending to control of mind and character, is the greatest bar to intelligent social process. It bars the way because it makes us neglect intelligent inquiry to discover the means which will produce a desired result, and intelligent invention to procure the means. In short, it leaves out the importance of intelligently controlled habit (last emphasis by the present author).

219

The practical implication of Alexanders comment is that due their deficient sensory appreciation, individuals are unable to break away from their normal habits and what feels to be correct to them (Dewey, 1927: 70). In most of mankind conditions have already been formed (cf. Loots, Loots & Steyn, 2001) for producing a bad result, and this bad result will occur as long as those conditions exist (Dewey, 1927: 29). Something different does happen when an individual acts upon his idea of standing up straight. For a little while he stands differently, but only in a different kind of badly (Dewey, 1927: 29). This outcome can be expected since such an individual does not know what standing upright feels like. In riding examples of this kind of problem are numerous; riders are unsure about what they should do and how to attain a specific outcome. In this regard Dewey, (1927: 29-30) pointed to the following: !

That when an individual with an incorrect habit tries to act in accord with it, he will only be able to carry this idea into execution with a mechanism already there. If this mechanism is defective or perverted (already shown to be a pandemic condition, see Dart, 1947; Loots, Loots & Steyn, 2001; Sherrington, 1946: 89 and section 6.4.9) the best intentions in the world will only yield poor results. This is so because conditions have already been formed for producing a bad result, and the bad result will occur as long as those conditions exist.

Given a bad habit and the will or mental direction to get a good result, the actual happening will be a reverse or looking-glass manifestation of the usual faultcompensatory twist in the opposite direction.

Bad bodily sets point to distortions of sensation and perception.Only when a man can already perform an act of standing straight, would he be able to know what it is like to have a good posture, and only then will he be able to summons the idea for required for its proper execution.

220

Therefore it is imperative that both organisms are guided towards good use in a holistic way. By addressing the problem of poor use in rider and horse in such a way both rider and horse can be guided towards good use (this is what happened to the riders included in the present study, refer to Table 6.2 and Chapter 8). Alexander (1932/1985: 54), Bernstein (1967: 23) and Feldenkrais (1985: 105) all pointed out that trying to correct movement details will not solve the problem, since this practise affects the movement as a whole, in many instances negatively (see section 8.1.2 on the reactivity of movements). To the untrained eye, all the neuromuscular adaptations to corrections will not always be immediately apparent. Fortunately, as far as the value of the improvement in use in the rider is concerned, riding has a particular advantage over other movement disciplines and sporting codes, in that the change in the quality of the motor acts of the rider, however minute, can be determined by the observer, by simply observing the improvement in the movement of the horse (Artus, 2001personal communication), or by taking note of what the rider perceives. In this respect McCormick and McCormick (1997: 67) suggested that horses give us living biofeedback.

It is therefore inappropriate under these circumstances to study movement coordination by constitutive reductionismthe reduction of the movement into its most basic constituents (Gurfinkel and Cordo, 1998: 5). In the words of Bernstein (1967: 104):

The understanding of motor co-ordination, like many other scientific goals, has been achieved by a negative method - through observation of the phenomena of lack of co-ordination - and has only gradually been enriched by the accumulation of observations on pathological movement. Like all the knowledge acquired by negative means it has constantly suffered, and suffers at present, from the absence of accurate determinations.

221 The above comment on the reductionistic approach as represented by the Cartesian paradigm should not be construed as a rejection of this approach, however. Since reality involves complicated patterns of ecological interaction, an artificial segmentation of reality may become a useful device of acquiring knowledge about different aspects of reality (Koizumi, 1986: 68). The aesthetics of non-action, however, may be an aid to further knowledge, since it suggests a holistic approach to reality. It is holistic in the sense that both the body and mind are involved in the acquisition of knowledge of the world around us. It is also holistic in the sense that it offers a valid alternative to the Cartesian world view. For the purposes of the present study the aesthetics of non-action explicitly recognises the ecological nature of reality which includes man as being part of the cosmic process. While the Cartesian paradigm tries to understand nature by separating man as an object of our rational inquiry, the aesthetics of non-action tries to comprehend nature by placing man in the midst of the cosmic process (Koizumi, 1986: 67). This approach would tie up with the ideals of classical riding in which harmony between rider and horse is underlined (see sections 3.1.2, 3.1.3, 3.2.3.2, 3.2.11 & 5.1.4).

The reduction of movement into its basic constituents, which are only but the expression of smaller wholes, however, can by their inclusion into larger wholes successfully be employed in riding. Examples of the breaking down of equine motor performance to its essentials are to be found in studies on its locomotion, such as kinematics, electromyography (EMG) and kinetic analysis of equine locomotion (Clayton, 1994ab; 1995; Clayton & Schamhardt, 2001: 56-73; Galisteo et al., 1997; Holmstrm, Fredricson & Drevemo, 1995). For the rider or trainer in the classical method, and especially those who have access to these techniques, will find that they may yield useful and accurate information on changes in the quality of neuromuscular coordination. An example of this kind of approach within a holistic paradigm is discussed in section 8.5.

222 6.6 THE ATTAINMENT OF POISE

6.6.1 In the rider

It is now clear to me that different paths can lead to the same result. In western education we are so steeped in our precious scientific method that it seems inconceivable that there could be more than one correct answer for a question or a problem. You can take your pick. They all work if correctly applied (Belasik, 1990: 76).

Faulty posture always expresses the emotional stress that has been responsible for its formation. The most frequent and observable one is the stress of insecurity in its different aspects, such as hesitation, fear, doubt, apprehension, servility, unquestioning complianceand their exact opposites (Feldenkrais, 1985: 55).

During the education of all the riders in the present study indicated that in each rider physical problems were indeed related to insecurity in all its different manifestations, be it physical or mental (Feldenkrais, 1985: 55). In addition to those listed above by Feldenkrais (1985: 55) an extra insecurity found in riders was that related to their bodies, in conjunction with a poor awareness of the physical. One can therefore concur with Linden (1994) that when one has to deal with poise in the rider, the totality of the situation, as well as the emotional, psyche, cultural elements and the spiritual should be taken into consideration.

In order to explain this kind of approach to riding Linden's (1994) use of somatic education in the rehabilitation of a jazz pianist with disabling pain in the right arm will be used as a basis. In the present study the "rider" in this study is made up of a composite of 5 riders with more or less identical problems, which was the fear of riding following previous riding accidents.

223 All the riders were passionate about riding and wished to continue their riding careers despite all their fears.

The riders and their problems were mainly approached from a physical perspective, an approach that can be considered to be the most central aspect of their education and training. At no point were any attempts made to cure or fix the original underlying problem: Some form of fear (e.g. that of falling, performing poorly, etc.).

The primary aim of all procedures employed was to teach the riders the actions and sensory awareness associated with poised riding. Riding lessons with these individuals therefore encompassed interweaving work on their use and associated body mechanics, the associated changes in sensory awareness, and the psychological responses to changes in use and body mechanics. This was done mainly whilst riding. As basis to the teaching of these aspects riders were guided into to more appropriate use of their bodies by the employment of methods found in the Alexander technique, the Dart exercises, the Feldenkrais method, Somatics and principles used in T'ai Chi Chuan (refer to Table 6.2 for these and other techniques employed in the attainment of poise) (Barlow, 1990: 189-205; Bentley, 1999: 69-180; Dart, 1946, 1947, 1970; Feldenkrais, 1984: 66171; Galant, 1984: 25-27; Hanna, 1988: 101-153; Macdonald, 1998: 30-91; Plummer, 1982).

The initial sessions entailed assessment of the riders, their use and postures and the way in which they conducted themselves during simple actions such as the walk, rising and sitting trot and the canter. Physical analysis of these individuals revealed physical postural aberrations such as those described by Loots, Loots and Steyn (2001) and Loots, Loots and Steyn (2002). The physical parameters, found in the riders, are listed in Table 6.1.

224 Apparent from the table is the adherence of riders to the typical muscle imbalance pattern (Janda, 1978: 28, 1993: 196-203, 1994: 196-203; Janda & Schmidt, 1980; Jull & Janda, 1987: 259-260; Loots, Loots & Steyn, 2002).

Following this, the riders were then assisted in gaining conscious awareness of the tensions and imbalances in the way they used their bodies, and the consequences of this on the movement and responses of their mounts. For these riders the typical approach to muscle-imbalance such as abdominal muscle exercises, stretching exercises, exercises to strengthen lower back stabilisers (McGill: 2002: 216-218, 239-256; Nieman, 2003: 188-189; Norris, 2001: 124-132, 189-200) were not prescribed, since these exercises basically rely upon mechanistic principles, and therefore they only attempt to correct specific deficiencies. The exercises prescribed, however, were selected and adapted from those listed in Table 6.2. The training of the rider (and also the horse) was aimed at teaching riders to selfeducate by focussing their attention or consciousness inward upon their bodily functions, such as giving attention to their proprioceptive sensations (Hanna, 1986: 179). The riders were thus taught self-knowledge and internal control mainly by the use of proprioception. Riders were prevented from "doing things", but were rather encouraged to allow for self-organisation to take place, and to take note of the sensory consequences of whatever happens. This approach to the achievement of poise included the following basic elements, elements which were not necessarily addressed in the order given below: !

Riders were made increasingly aware of the position and interrelatedness of their different body parts, and the way in which these parameters affected the carriage and movement of their mounts. The taking up and holding of specific postures and body positions were discouraged since this invariably led to the taking up of stiffly held postures.

225 ! The origins of their poor use and biomechanics and the ways in which the movement of their horses were affected, were brought to the attention of the riders. Particular effort was made to acquaint riders to the ways in which they responded to what the horse was doing, and then to refrain from trying to change the movement and carriage of the horse.

Table 6.1:

Physical manifestations in 5 of the subjects in the present study, following riding accidents. The manifestations outlined below were found in all of the subjects.

PHY S IC AL AT T R IBUT ES (a) Lack of pois e/m us c le imbalance

PHY S IC AL M ANIFESTAT IONS IN R IDER S Poking head associated with cervical lordosis. Kyphosis of the thoracic spine. Lordosis of the lumbar spine. A tendency to lean forward in the saddle and lift the knees when c hallenged in s om e w ay or oth er. T hes e tw o ac tion s w ere u s ually associated with the startle pattern. Muscle tension was found to be an exp ression of the typical muscleimbalance pattern (see Jull & J and a, 19 87 : 25 7-2 63 ; Loots , Loots & Steyn, 2002).

(b)

Q uality of the seat of the rider

Insecure and unstable. H ips stiff with abdominal muscles not active. U nstable, especially during paces such as the trot and canter. T he musc les in the arm s and hands w ere held stiff and tight, p r o m ot in g th e u s e of g e s t u r e s w h i c h t en d ed to res t r ic t f o r w a r d movement in the horse. T he wrist joints were held rigidly.

(c) 5.

T he rider's legs T he rider's arms and hands

6.

R esponse to the movement of the horse.

All unexpected or perceived unpleasant movements of the horse were g reeted w it h a s t a r t l e p a t t e r n a n d ve rb al exp res s ion s of f ear an d insecurity.

The concept of self-organisation of the horse in response to the use of the rider was introduced gradually. This was done, for example, by requesting the riders to take note of their sensory experiences to what the

226 horse was doing. Through all this, riders were also encouraged not to interfere with the horse, but rather to let it "do its own thing". !

Riders were introduced to the concept of using the core of the body, and filling the tanden (area below the level of the navel) with force (see Belasik, 2002: 38), and to imagine the body being a bow (Brger, 1986: third Figure following p. 208). Particularly useful here was educating riders in the habit of linking the vertex, the coccyx and the heels together as one unit of action. A common assumption in Western culture is that strength should be associated with being tough and hard (Linden, 1994). In riders overt toughness and hardness are common problems, and are usually associated with "trying too hard" and the excessive use of the upper and lower limbs by the rider (Steinkraus, 1961: 54). The correct use of the core of the body was found to minimise these problems.

Riders were advised not to try to emulate the actions of other riders, but rather to find their own poise from within.

The way in which riders breathed during riding was found to be extremely important. Firstly by concentration on rhythmical breathing, such as found in meditative practice can be used to "unfix" parts of, or of the total body (Belasik, 2002: 40). In order to achieve this ideal, however, riders had first to be taught the correct breathing technique (see Barlow, 1990: 213216; Drake, 1991: 11; Zi, 1986: 28-119).

Breathing was also found to be a useful tool in asking for downward transitions. This is an effective technique proven in a countless number of horses. Riders were taught to ask for downward transitions by simply to exhale sharply following a deep inspiration. Holding the breath before expiration may also assist the novice rider in stabilising the torso before and during transitions, without having to tense up muscles unnecessarily.

227

Lastly it was also found that by altering the breathing frequency and depth of breathing in the rider stride length in the horse could be altered.

6.6.2 In the horse

Various techniques are available for the attainment of poise in the horse. These are listed in Table 6.2 and discussed in Ridgway and Harman (1999). These two authors strongly advocated the use of Tellington-Jones TTouch and TTeam techniques (Tellington-Jones, 1995, 1999; Tellington-Jones & Bruns, 1990). The present study also pointed out the fact that an excellent way to improve use in the horse is to ride it with a good manner of use in the rider (Figures 8.7, 8.8, 8.12 & 8.13).

6.7

SENSORY AWARENESS

6.7.1 The rider

The basic process in movement is awareness and a sense of being, according to Huang (1997:16). To Hanna (1988: 7) it was obvious that man, for example, requires a constant stream of sensory information from the environment (internal and external) in order to maintain ongoing control of motor acts. Bernstein (1967: 106-111) viewed sensory feedback, in the following way: !

The motor effect of a central impulse cannot be decided centrally, but it is decided entirely at the periphery, i.e. at the last spinal and neuromuscular synapse, at the muscle, in the mechanical and anatomical changes of forces in the limb (or other body part) being moved. In this respect Bernstein was ahead of thinking of his time and in many respects ahead of what is currently offered in neurophysiology.

228

The decisive role in motor control is played by afferentation, and this is what guides the CNS in terms of the mechanical and physiological conditions of the motor apparatus. Others (Alexander, 1910/1996: 56-57; Dart, 1947; Feldenkrais, 1984: 155-161; Hanna, 1988: 1-92) were aware of this, and therefore emphasised the importance of sensory awareness in movement, especially in the way Bernstein (1967: 117) considered it to be. This was the maximal full and objective perception both of the object and of each successive phase of and detail of the corresponding movement, directed towards the solution of a particular problem. Bernstein (1967: 117) outlined the first attribute of receptors in the context of this role as that of completeness or synthesis. Among the fields we find, for instance, the body scheme, the spatio-motor field, the synthesis of objective or qualitative space and so forth. The second determining sign of receptors as participants in the annular coordination processobjectivitywas considered by Bernstein (1967: 117) to be of great importance. According to Bernstein (1967: 119) each meaningful motor directive demands not an arbitrary coded, but an objective, quantitatively qualitatively reliable representation of the outside world in the brain. Such action woul d also constitute an active implementation for the correct cognition of the internal and external environment. Bernstein's (1967: 119) assumption, however, may be true in theory, but in practice, however, it is not so, if the pandemic nature of faulty sensory appreciation is considered (see section 6.4.9).

229 Table 6.2: A classification of techniques for restoring poise in rider and horse (Barlow, 1990: 189-217; Bartenieff, 1980: 229-262; Baucher, 1843/1992: 99-155; Bentley, 1999: 69-179; Cohen-Nehemia & Clinch, 1982; Dart, 1946, 1947, 1970; Feldenkrais, 1984: 66-171; Hanna, 1988: 95-153; Kasselle & Hannay, 1995; Lowen & Lowen, 1977: 59-151; Macdonald, 1998: 30-91; Norris, 2000: 69-91; Pang & Hock, 1984; Putkisto, 1998; Reyneke, 2002:78-205; Ridgway & Harman, 1999; Robinson et al., 2000: 27-264; Robinson & Thomson, 1997: 28-125; Schrecker, 1971: 18-65; Tellington-Jones, 1999: 6-35; Westermayer, 1985; Winsor, 1999: 53-124). Table updated from the original classification by Plummer (1982) and as modified by Loots (1999: 203).

ACT IVE R equires active participation, therapistindependent once learned C ontinuous Alexander technique*. Bauchers flexions of the neck* Interm ittent 1. Anti-gravity exerc is es : Yog a, T ai C hi C huan. 2 . S e n s or y aw ar en es s : D a r t p o s t u ra l e xe r c is e s , B a r t e n ie ff F u n d am entals , F elde n k r ais M eth od , B ioenergetics, M itzvah e x e r c i s e , R e i c h i a n t h e r a p y, Te llin g ton - J o n e s E q u in e A w ar en es s ( T Tou c h ) M eth odT Team ground work*. 3. Muscle lengthening

PASSIVE Subject is passive, therapist-dependent Peripheral R olfing, s hiats u*, acupuncture*, a c u p r e s s u r e* , p olaris atio n , t r i g g e r p o i n t t h e r a p y, n e u r a l point therapy, n e ural therapies , c on n ec tive tis s u e m as s ag e, p s yc h op eris t a l t i c m as s ag e, S h i a t s u * , Te l l in g t o n - J o n e s E q u in e A w aren es s M e t h o d - th e T Touches*. C entral C h ir op r ac tic an d o th er s p in a l

m anip ulation methods*.

(s tretc hing) exerc is es *: Meth od Putkis to, orthotherapy, corrective gymnastics, kung fu, karate 4. D eep m u s c le s trengthening and stabilising*. P ilate s C on tr olog y, s tab ilis ing the lower back. 5. In c reas ing th e m otility of the body: Bioenergetics.

* Exercises or techniques suitable for horses

230

In the present study correctness of sensory experience was found to be a problem in all the riders. This was especially the case in knowing where the different body parts are in relation to each other, and what they were doing. Figure 6.5 shows an example of this. The figure is a composite of what was found in all riders whilst riding a circle to the right when they started training with the author of the present study. The right shoulder of this rider points slightly to the outside of the diameter of circle (to their left). All riders, however, insisted that their shoulders were inclined to the inside of the circle (to their right), and that the inside shoulder was lowered, while the opposite was invariably the case. There was also a universal tendency to lift the inside shoulder. Riding circles to the left had fewer problems in all riders, except in cases where their mounts were stiff to the left. What one can conclude from this is that faulty sensory appreciation may contribute to faulty motor acts, which gives truth to the nursery rhyme which starts with "There was a crooked man, who walked a crooked mile". He would have ridden a crooked horse as well.

6.7.2 The horse

In the horse it is important to take note that the horse should not be stressed during exercise or training, since this causes the large propulsive muscles to take charge and reduce proprioceptive awareness (Ridgway & Harman, 1999). As previously pointed out these two authors recommended the proprioceptive education and use of the Tellington-Jones TTouch and TTeam training for this purpose (Tellington-Jones, 1999). Other suitable exercises are those flexions and groundwork developed by Baucher (1843/1992: 99-155).

231

Figure 6.5

A composite representation of all the riders involved in the present study whilst riding a circle to the right. Note the perched seat, forward inclination of the trunk, the slight inclination of the riders shoulders towards the left (outside), and the raising of the right shoulder. The horse is also on the forehand and not bent to the right.

CHAPTER 7

PRINCIPLES OF MOTOR CONTROL

The work of this authorremaining to this day too little known by readers in the Westrepresents one of the pillars of Soviet physiology and psychology, so much so that it is impossible to understand fully the subsequent development of those sciences if we do not take account of these works (Alexander Luria, 1979: xi, referring to the work by Nikolai Bernstein).

He [Nikolai Bernstein] viewed movements as structurally whole (Gurfinkel & Cordo, 1998: 4).

Despite our enthusiastic embrace of reductionism as a philosophy, most of our hypotheses do not, in fact, result from the reduction of a high order phenomenon into its constituent entities. Rather we tend to start with an almost random collection of bits of data in medias res and then extrapolate and generalise upward to 'principles' having no necessary place in the greater scheme of the organism. 'Principles' such as stiffness regulation and coactivation are interesting observations obtained in one or a few muscles under one or few behavioral conditions, usually highly constrained and artificial (Loeb, 1987: 112).

The few instances in which neurons, muscles and limbs have been studied during natural behaviors unconstrained by artificial limitations have been sobering experiences for sensorimotor neurophysiologists (Loeb, 1987: 112).

It is difficult, sometimes impossible, to study in detail an in vivo human situation. Models, although representing only some aspects of the reality, help to provide details and quantified observations (Panjabi et al., 1989: 198).

232

233 7.1 INTRODUCTION

Movements are part of actions, and actions serve the needs of the organism and also the survival of the species (Kornhuber, 1974: 599). Research within the area known as motor control, is directed toward the understanding of the basic principles controlling natural voluntary movements, which according to Massion (1992) meant producing the optimal response in a context involving external and internal constraints. What should be taken as a model construct by which to characterise the control and coordination of movement? This was a pertinent question raised by Kugler, Kelso and Turvey (1980: 30). They identified several candidates which presented themselves over the years. These are as follows: !

The linear chaining of reflexes, or more generally, the concatenation of stimulus-response connections.

The musical-score metaphor of motor control of the late 1800s, a concept which was transformed into the contemporary concept of a central motor programme.

The error-correcting mechanism fundamental to cybernetics and its allied disciplines.

The fourth is a model construct of dissipative structure, which is closely consonant with contemporary thought in biology.

Latash (1998b: v) postulated that the study of motor control differs from the traditional biomechanical, behavioural or neurophysiological studies of movements by its clear emphasis on the processes of motor control. The first scientist to work in the field of motor control was the Russian Nikolai Alexandrowitsch Bernstein (1896-1966). He was considered to be one of the

234 premier minds of the previous century (Gurfinkel & Cordo, 1998: 1). To him the study of principles underlying motor control was of paramount importance (Bernstein, 1967: 143-144). It was probably he who first came to the realisation of the totality of forces in the interpretation of the "construction" of movements (Kugler, Kelso & Turvey, 1982: 6). He also distinguished the new physiology, called physiology of activity from the past physiology, termed the physiology of reactions (Mecacci, 1979: 89). Phillips (1986, quoted by Gurfinkel & Cordo, 1998: 5) aptly contrasted Bernstein's strategy to that of Sherrington (1906).

Sherrington's strategy was to start from "most automatic" movements and work toward their cellular basis. A different strategy was adopted by N. Bernstein and his pupils in Moscow between and after the two World Wars. They started from skilled "least automatic" performances such as hammering a nail, using a file, and striking piano keys, and resolved their four dimensional structures by ingenious methods of the greatest accuracy and refinement. They were working toward complex neuronal networks rather than short chains of cells.

In his preface to Mecacci (1979), the great Soviet psychologist, Alexander Luria (1979: x-xi), concurred with the Phillips (1986) comment above by explaining that Bernstein used the results of his studies to formulate the fundamental principles of the physiology of coordination and the physiology of activity. Bernstein, according to Luria (1979: x-xi), also demonstrated that physiology should not limit itself to the investigation of the reflex processes of the more elementary structures, but rather should establish the study of human activity by the use of scientific principles. That Bernstein (1967: 143-144) was aware of the tendency of neurophysiologists involved in the study of motor control to study in part, rather than the whole, is apparent from his comment that in the hundred years which preceded the 1960s, he found the classical physiology of the nervous system to be characterised by two sharply defined features, of which:

235 ! The first was the study of the organism under quiescent inactive conditions, conditions which were artificially secured by decortication, anaesthesia, or by fixing the experimental animal in a stand under conditions of maximal isolation from the external world. !

The second characteristic feature consisted of the concept that the organism exists in a state of continuous equilibrium with the universe surrounding it.

Both these features will be discussed in more detail in sections 7.1.1 and 7.1.2. The reason for this discussion is to highlight the basis upon which present day assumptions about movement control is based, and the way in which these perceptions have found their way into the training of horse and rider.

7.1.1 The first feature of the classical physiology of the nervous system The first feature was the study of the operation of the organism under quiescent inactive and well-controlled conditions. In line with the predominance of the mechanistic atomistic world view (see section 4.2.1) the approach was analytical in that every organ and every process was studied in isolation, with the exclusion of side effects or mutual interactions. As pointed out above such inactive conditions in neurophysiology were artificially secured wherever possible by anaesthetisation, decortication, decerebration, making the animal spinal or fixing it to a stand under conditions of maximal isolation from the external world. A large number of these experiments, and their outcomes, were reviewed in the classic monographs of Magnus (1926ab), Roberts (1978) and Sherrington (1906).

The work of Sherrington and others (cf. Creed et al., 1932; Sherrington, 1906: 7-214), had by its analytical method of study, brought out the reflex in such bold relief that, according to Coghill (1929: 90), its discreteness as related to the

236 pattern as a whole, has come to be overestimated by behaviourists (see Watson, 1913, 1932). Likewise were the experiments by Pavlov accepted by many as exalting the place of discrete reflex mechanisms in behaviour, without taking into consideration the fact that the classical conditioned reflex involves the afferent part of the reflex arc only, while nothing new is evoked in the effector function (Coghill, 1929: 90).

The absolutism of the mechanistic point of view led to the conviction that the whole is nothing but the sum of its parts, assuming that the organism is a collection of cells, and that all behaviour can be considered as being a chain of reflexes, and that a sufficient acquaintance with the individual elements would be enough for the comprehension of the edifice constructed from them (Bernstein, 1967: 144, also see section 4.2.2.1 for the behaviouristic perspective of perceptual motor learning). In his unique approach to research in neuroscience, Bernstein, however, liberated this science from the reflex tradition (Latash, 1998c: 51), as did others (Goldstein 1934/1995: 69-84; McCrea, 1986; Merleau-Ponty, 1942/1965: 44; Zehr & Stein, 1999). These authors all emphasised that firstly, even in laboratory conditions, few pure reflexes are found, and secondly that these reflexes exhibited a lack of constancy, and thirdly that reactions are dependent on context and even humoral factors. Merleau-Ponty (1942/1965: 43-44) further noted that the reflex, as defined in the classical conception, does not represent the normal activity of the organism, but rather the behaviour of a sick organism, since lesions of the CNS disrupts the functional continuity of the organism (with decreased ability to self-organise, see concept of disconnectedness, sections 6.4.6.2 & 6.4.8.1). This may, according to the author of the present study also be true for those considered to be physically normal, but, have in fact fallen prey to the condition of functional pathology (Janda, 1978: 27) (where functional pathology comprises the functional impairment of the motor system and its interactions with the whole organism, Lewit, 1974, cited by Janda 1978: 2), such as found in muscle imbalance (also see Janda, 1977, cited by Janda, 1978: 30).

237 Merleau-Ponty (1942/1965: 32-33) also pointed out that Sherrington's entire work (here referring to Sherrington, 1906) showed that orderthe adaptation of the response to the stimulus and of the mutual adaptation of the parts of the responsecannot be explained by the autonomy of pre-established pathways, since it is paradoxical to conserve the notion of the reflex arc without being able to apply it anywhere in fact. Why the reflex theory made such an impact is a mystery, since Sherrington (1906: 7) already pointed out in 1906 that a simple reflex is a purely abstract conception and that the simple reflex is a convenient, if not, a probable fiction.

During the last quarter of the twentieth century, the realisation emerged that while the term reflex is a convenient one, its associated connotation that reflexes are stereotyped and immutable, is patently false (Turvey, 1977: 219, 221-227; Zehr & Stein, 1999). Rather, these "immutable reflexes" have been shown to be quite sensitive to modulation (Belen'kii, Gurfinkel & Paltsev, 1967; Turvey, 1977: 230, 233; Zehr & Stein, 1999). Karl Popper (1977: 135-138) also expressed himself strongly against the theory of the reflex, as well as to the theory of the conditioned reflex, and their use in the explanation of adaptive learning. According to him neither conditioned-, nor unconditioned reflexes exist (Popper, 1977: 136).

7.1.1.1

The rise of new branches in neurophysiology

Perusal of recent conventional texts in neurophysiology seems to indicate that this discipline still mainly adheres to a mechanistic and parts (structural) approach to motor control and movement. The general approach to motor control and use, found in texts on neurophysiology confirms this assumption (Alexander & Crutcher, 1990; Allen & Tsukahara, 1974; Creutzfeldt, 1995: 325369; Gramsbergen, 2001; Eccles, 1977: 274-294; Ganong, 1999: Chapters 6 & 12; Ghez, 1991: 533-547; Goldman-Rakic & Selemon, 1990; Guyton & Hall, 2000: Chapters 54 & 55; Meyer, Meij & Meyer, 1994: 7.8-7.20; Noth, 1992: 21-

238 28; Rhoades & Tanner, 1995: Chapter 5; Roberts, 1978; Schmidt, 1978: 158204, 1987; Schmidt & Lee, 2001). Another failing of those involved in the study of motor behaviour was the assumption that what is seen in motor behaviour provided a good readout of the status of the function of an individual's nervous system, an assumption currently still employed. What earlier researchers failed to appreciate was the extent in which in the infant, for example, biomechanical challenges, may sculpt the brain (Thelen, 1998: 268; Thelen, Kelso & Fogel, 1987). From this one may deduce that in riding, the emphasis should rather be on the biomechanical sculpting of the neuromuscular-skeletal system instead of emphasising what the rider or the horse should be doing. One can thus do away with the common practice of "giving instructions" (a centripetal approach by the rider, instructor or trainer), and preferably allow the rider and horse to self-organise according to the demands of the biomechanical challenges of their task. Following the First World War, interest in the working conditions of man gave rise to new branches of physiology such as the physiology of work and physical exercise, psychotechnics and biomechanics (Bernstein, 1967: 144). This stemmed from Soviet neurophysiological and neuropsychological thinking of the middle 20th century, which was a revision of the common concept of function of individual organs or cerebral locations (for example, secretion of bile by the liver, or assigning certain mental processes to specific cerebral centres), and to replace it with the concept of functional systems (such as digestion and mental processes, both processes which operate in systems) (Mecacci, 1979: 116118). In the West, a review of cerebellar function by Mackay and Murphy (1979) came near to this ideal by unwittingly employing Smuts wholes within wholes concept, as well those found in the general systems theory (Lazslo, 1972: 4748), when they presented their outline of a motor hierarchy, in which they argued that the cerebellum should be considered a system of collateral chains superimposed upon reflex arcs.

239 In both kinesiology and psychology the above discussed mechanistic way of thinking, led many researchers to model the nervous system to a computer which receives stimuli, processes information, and on the basis of the latter programmes a behavioural response (Whitall, 1995: 245; Schmidt, 1991: 45125; Schmidt & Lee, 1999: 96-169). The contribution of this kind of approach to our knowledge and understanding of the physiology, and the localisation of functions of the nervous system (Grillner, 1975; Gramsbergen, 2001; Latash, 1998a: 109-151; McCrea, 1986; Roberts, 1978, 1995; Schmidt, 1991: 45-125; Schmidt & Lee, 1999: 96-169; Sherrington, 1906/1952; Williams & Warwick, 1980: 1009-1023), as well as knowledge of the consequences of disease of and trauma to the nervous system (Gilman et al., 1990: 84-484; Ironside, 1998: 829872; Phillips, Mller & Stelmach, 1989), however, cannot be underestimated. Despite its reductionistic inclination, this kind of research contributed extensively to the synthesis of current knowledge of the integrative function of the motor system. In this respect the work of Creutzfeldt (1995), Magnus (1926ab), Roberts (1978, 1995) and Sherrington (1906) are excellent examples (for comments on the contribution of Sherrington to the functioning of the nervous system, refer to McCrea, 1986, and Turvey, 1977). Although genuine examples of reflexes in the sense of reflex theory exist, Popper (1977: 138), nevertheless expressed the view that these are in fact part of the genetically determined functioning of organswhich can only be understood from the standpoint that it solves, like a theory, a problem, problems of adaptation to a changing environment. This he explained as follows (Popper, 1977: 138):

The pupillary reflex solves the problem of keeping the amount of light that reaches the retina between ceratin definite bounds. It thereby allows the retina to be more sensitive to light than if it were unprotected, and so to be useful even in very dim light. Our organs are problem solvers. In fact, all organisms are highly active problem solvers. That we use, sometimes, a reflex arc in order to solve our problems is not surprising. But the reflex theory according to which

240 all behaviour is of the stimulus-response character is mistaken and should be abandoned. Organisms are problem solvers and explorers of their world.

As early as in 1935, Buytendijk and Plesner (cited by Merleau-Ponty, 1943/1965: 130) realised this, and pointed out that reactions are not sequences of events, but that they rather carry a certain intelligibility within themselves. Through the provision of reflexeswhich in fact range from simple to more complex movements which are coordinatedevolution has provided a partial answer to the degrees of freedom problem (see Bernstein, 1967: 125 and section 8.3.1) by the development of intra- and inter-systemic hierarchies with respect to subsystems and suprasystems (refer to Smuts', 1926: 98-99 concept of holism, and to Laszlo's, 1972: 47-4 concept of the development in the direction of more hierarchical structuration). The burden of control is ontogenetically further reduced through the gathering together of reflexes into larger functional units (Turvey, 1977, 218). Droulez (1988: 251) and Roberts (1995: 93) pointed out that at one time it was possible to believe that, postural activity, and most of locomotor activity consisted of a complexly interacting network of reflexes, but recent work has thrown doubt upon this belief. It is not the reality of the reflex mechanisms that is in question, but the problems lie in the accounting for the central nervous processes involved in achieving the observed coordination of muscular activity. A complicating factor is that there are many apparently automatic reactions that must depend, for their initial development, on some process of learning. Such behaviour patterns are, hence, to be classed as 'habits' rather than as 'reflexes'. The nature of the responses in the 'true reflexes', on the other hand, appears to depend entirely on the detailed anatomical structure and layout of neural connections within the nervous system (Roberts, 1995: 93).

This raises the question of whether the original concept of the "reflex" was not ill-founded, and whether with the present knowledge of nervous function, it would not be more apt to refer to skeletal motor "reflexes" as coordinative

241 structures 1 , a designation first proposed by Easton (1972). He defined coordinative structures as being the involvement of one or more muscles working together. Kugler, Kelso and Turvey (1980: 17) and Kugler, Kelso and Turvey (1982: 60-61) suggested a more precise definition, and defined a coordinative structure as being a group of muscles, often spanning a number of joints that is constrained to act as a single functional unit. It is proposed here, that the concept of coordinative structures should actually be extended and include both afferent and efferent systems, since the one cannot be separated from the other. Kelso et al. (1980: 49, 66) argued that when muscles function as a single unit, the resulting coordinative structure exhibits behaviour qualitatively like that of a force-driven mass-spring system. This, to large extent was the argument followed in the present study in so far as instruction of riders, who were advised to consider their muscles as being made up of elastic bands.

Coordinative structures constitute a set of organisational constraints which emerge as a function of various energy transactions, and scale changes at multiple levels of organisation (ranging from motor units to muscles). Emerging constraints form a dynamic manifold of gradients and equilibrium points. The layout of the manifold uniquely and specifically indexes biomechanical configurations in terms of stability and energy dissipation (Kugler, Kelso & Turvey, 1982: 61). Previously Kugler, Kelso and Turvey (1980: 17-20) argued that a coordinative structure could be considered to be a dissipative structure. A dissipative structure is an open system which is maintained far from equilibrium (Prigogine & Nicholis, 1971). Such structures conserve stability at the price of energy dissipation (Kugler, Kelso & Turvey, 1980: 15, 1982: 61). An important feature of these structures is that they provide an information basis that is continuously scaled to artificially or naturally incurred changes in the dimensions of the system. In riding two issues pertaining to this are of concern, of which, the first is the attainment of equilibrium, and the second is the maintenance of this equilibrium while the dissipation of energy is kept to a minimum.

242

Turvey (1977: 220), viewed the issue of reflexes from a more central perspective, which allowed for greater latitude, since he referred to reflexes and functional combinations of reflexes as coordinated structures2. This would then accommodate some of Roberts' (1995: 93) so-called "habits". Easton (1972) pointed out that reflexes may well compromise the "basis" of an infinitely large set of all motor acts, where a "basis"3 is a mathematical structure found in the theory of vectorial spaces (Turvey, 1977: 219). As previously pointed out in this study (section 4.3.3) these systems can be considered to be attractor states, which organisms will preferably resort to, given a certain set of conditions.

As an example of this, one could consider the manner in which a coyote solves the problem of keeping a hare in sight whilst chasing it (Schmidt, 1982: 224). Here information from the eye receptors serves to guide the actions of the coyote's eye and head positions, whilst the receptors in the small neck muscles serve to guide the actions of neck musculature and those in the rest of its body (Abrahams, 1977; 1981; Alexander, 1932/1985: 49-51; Dutia, 1991; Fukuda, 1961; Magnus, 1926ab; Roberts, 1995: 121-124). In the horse the use of this system is useful in ensuring the correct canter depart on the right rein, when for example, the horse's head needs to be slightly flexed to the right in the poll. The purpose and use of this system for the rider will be discussed in section 8.4.2.

How we conceive motor control and the function of coordinative structures therein, may have a profound effect on the way in which training of the horse and rider is undertaken. It is now possible to infer that normal motor coordination is based to a huge extent on reflexes/habits, or probably more apt, attractor states (see sections 4.3.3 & 8.1.1.2.1), which may well underlie all or most volitional movements in man and animals (see Easton, 1972; Turvey, 1977: 220), since these can be regarded as being part of smaller wholes.

243

7.1.1.2

Reductionistic thought in riding

Reductionistic thinking has also found its way into riding, with both negative and positive consequences. So, for example, are riders currently taught individual elements of riding, where the seat, the thought aids, the weight aids, the leg and rein aids, are discussed and taught as being individual elements with no or very little emphasis on the integrated function of the body as a whole (cf., for example, British Horse Society, 1982: 30-48; Harris,1985; 36-41; Herbermann, 2001: 13-57; Sivewright, 1984: 122-158; The German National Equestrian Federation, 1985: 45-78: Wanless, 2002). Even at the highest levels of dressage, actions of the riders follow the mechanistic paradigm, exemplified by excessive activity in their legs and hands, as well as the overuse of half halts, resulting in stiff and stilted paces in their mounts. Not everyone is ignorant of the need of a more integrative approach to riding. As previously pointed out (section 4.3.1), a few authors such as Bentley (1999), Moffett (2001), Swift (1985, 2002), Tottle (1998), von Dietze (1999) and Wanless (1987) made attempts in this direction. In the field of the locomotion in the horse Gramsbergen (2001: 50) also pointed to a recent increase in the awareness of the significance of the introduction of a more integrated approach to movement and its control in the horse, when he expressed the need for kinesiological research as given by the dynamic systems approach (section 8.1).

7.1.1.3

The advent of the exploration of the basic processes that underlie behaviour

A meaningful approach to the process of motor control was not considered well up into the 1960s. In the late 1960s, however, there was a swing of the pendulum back toward the study of the basic processes that underlie behaviour (Stelmach, 1978: xi), something which is in agreement with the "new spirit in

244 science and philosophy" in which the notion that meaning is a key factor of being (Bohm, 1989: 43; Pylkknen, 1989: 13; Wilkins, 1989: 9) was explored. A watershed for reconceptualising research in the field of motor development came in 1982 with the publication of a paper on the control and coordination of naturally developing systems by Kugler, Kelso and Turvey (1982), a paper in which they discussed new theoretical ideas about motor control and coordination, stressing the importance of the work of Bernstein. This paper is highlighted here, because it is the present authors opinion that parallels can be drawn between motor development and the learning of skills such as riding (also refer to Coghill, 1929: 79-110 and sections 6.4.6.2 & 6.4.8.1).

The study of basic processes in motor control not only focussed on effector responses, but also on the entire processing system. Rather than viewing only a small part of motor behaviour, for example, contemporary approaches to motor behaviour are accentuating a complete conceptualisation of behaviour of all the processes that characterise motor acts (Stelmach, 1978: xi). Such an approach probably led Broome (2000: 3-4) and Rooney (1977: 114, 239) to a dynamic systems approach in the study of faulty body mechanics, when they noted that these conditions usually are the consequence of a serial distortion rather than that of just a single lesion. Serial distortion in both human and horse affects the muscle patterning process (Jull & Janda, 1987: 235-260), and therefore, it can be considered to be a problem in the domain of muscleimbalance (see sections 6.4.8.1 & 6.4.8.2).

The pandemic condition of misuse was discussed in section 6.4.8.2. Only a very small minority of those involved in riding instruction and training, are aware of this problem itself, its high incidence and significance. The consequence of this is that riding instructors and trainers are: !

Ignorant of the essentials of good movement (see section 6.4.2).

245 ! Unaware of the fact that horse and rider should ideally be considered as being fused components of a self-organising system. !

The consequences of misuse (see section 6.4.8.2) of the rider on his own riding, as well as their consequences on the movement of the horse.

Unacquainted with the fact that they should guide both rider and horse towards a condition of poise, before any serious teaching of the rider and horse may be considered. This approach has a safety connection in that in a poised rider-horse combination, the likelihood of an accident is less (see Harris, 1985, for an introductory discussion on the issue of rider safety, and the way in which it is affected by current misconceptions).

Classical riding concerns itself mainly with cyclic, rhythmical and repetitive movement, movement which at all times require harmony between rider and horse (Albrecht, 1993: 7; Cavendish, 2000: 133; Handler, 1974: 51-52; Mseler, 1973: xix; Oliveira, 1988: 17-18, W tjen, 1958: 4), as well as a deep consciousness4 of the processes giving origin to this harmony. From this perspective Bernstein's (1967: 144) second characteristic feature of conventional (classical) neurophysiology may now be considered.

7.1.2 The second feature of conventional physiology of the nervous system

The second characteristic feature of conventional neurophysiology consists of the concept that the organism exists in a state of continuous equilibrium with the universe surrounding it, which, according to Bernstein (1967: 144) is a situation whereAa rigid equilibrium is maintained by means of appropriate reactions, unrelated to each other, and made to each successive stimulus impinging on the organism from the surrounding environment. The whole existence and behaviour of the organism were visualised by the reflex theory adherents to be

246 a continuous chain of reactions on the stimulus-response model. The standard of the classical materialistic physiologists was the reflex arc (cf. Martini, 2006:439-445), and their central aim was the analysis of regularities in reactions considered as rigidly determined input output relationships.

Bernsteins physiology of activity, departs from the latter cited presupposition, by stating that the organism finds itself in a continuous non-equilibrium with the environment. This line of thought proposes that the organism has to evaluate the situation in which it finds itself, and then coordinate and regulate itself and its behaviour in order to attain the best motor adaptation. Since the environmental situation varies continuously, the behavioural activity cannot be predetermined, but should rather be plastic and subject to modifications and adjustments (Bernstein, 1967: 144-145; Mecacci, 1979: 90-91). In this respect Merleau-Ponty (1942/1965: 130) posited that in man or animal, experience is not the recording and fixation of certain actually accomplished movements: It rather builds up aptitudes, that is, the general power of responding to situations of a certain type by means of varied reactions which have nothing in common, but the meaning. This is similar to what Schmidt (1975, 1976, 1977) later proposed in his schema theory of motor control (section 7.2). Reactions are therefore not a sequence of events; they carry within themselves an imminent intelligibility as has been pointed out previously (see Buytendijk and Plesner, 1935, cited by Merleau-Ponty, 1943/1965: 130).

Merleau-Ponty (1942/1965: 130) also underlined the unity between situation and reaction when he stated that they are linked internally by their common participation in structure in which the mode of activity proper to the organism is expressed. Hence they cannot be placed one after the other as cause and effect, they should rather be regarded as being two moments of a circular process. Thus everything which impedes on the activity of the animal also eliminates the reflexogenic power of certain stimuli, and cuts them off from its "sensory universe".

247 The practical implications of this to classical riding are clear. Since in classical riding, rider and horse should constitute a harmonious unit, any wrongful action on the part of the rider or horse, may impair the circular process between situation and reaction. Thus, as has been observed in riders in the present study, will the rider who is able to ride with ease, be able to create forward impulsion and engagement in the horse, by the use of invisible aids. The stiff rider, on the other hand, who clamps the saddle with the strength of his legs, not only physically impairs the elasticity of the horse's back muscles (Brger, 1985: 223), but also deadens the horse's sensitivity to other actions (stimuli) of the rider, thus requiring excessive use of body and leg aids. Here it is not only the horse's sensitivity that is impaired, but that of the rider as well, since it was found in this study that riders functioning in this mode were unable to correctly report on the movement of their horses (Steinbrecht, 1884/1995: 13), and what was communicated to them. The importance of rider and horse sensitivity in the horse-rider combination becomes obvious if the reference frames (Paillard, 1990) utilised in the organisation of movement are considered. The first of these is the geocentric reference frame, which is based upon the gravity vector and the reaction forces (see discussion on degrees of freedom in section 8.3.1 in this respect) of the supporting surface.

The second is the egocentric reference frame based upon the position of the various body segments at a given time. Among these segments, the position of the head and trunk is prevalent in the organisation of movements in the peripersonal space (also see Alexander, 1932/1985: 49-51; Bernstein; 1996: 120; Coghill, 1929: 79-110; Coghill, 1933b, and discussion in section 6.4.7).

The third frame of reference is the exocentric in which the external space is used as a reference value. In the latter situation the link between the external space and the egocentric frame of reference is probably achieved representing a given point in space firstly by means of retinal coordinates, and secondly by means of head and trunk coordinates given by the proprioceptive chain which

248 links the various body segments from the eye to the feet (Caminiti et al., 1990; Roll & Roll, 1988: 32-33; Roll, Vedel & Roll, 1989; Soechting & Flanders, 1989ab). This may, according to Roll, Vedel and Roll (1989) be intuitively acceptable, since the legs, like the trunk and head are carriers of the eyes in space. This would suggest that integrative processing of all these sources of muscular feedback subserves postural adjustment and that these feedback channels participate in conjoint elaboration of a body reference (Roll, Vedel & Roll, 1989). If the proprioceptive chain linking the different parts of the body, however, is found to be interrupted or biassed, it will not only negatively affect perception, but also lead to an erroneous movement outcome (Massion, 1992; Seaman & Winterstein, 1998). The latter aspect was explained in section 6.4.8.2.1, where it was pointed out that imperfect and sometimes delusive sensory apparatus result in a general misuse of the body (Alexander,1924/1987: 38-39). Merleau-Ponty (1942/1965: 30-31) explained that when one tries to make the notions of stimulus, receptor and reflex arc more precise, one sees them merge into each other. The reflex then ceases to be a series of events juxtaposed in the body. One now finds that the adequate stimulus cannot be defined in itself and independently of the organism, since in itself it is not a physical reality, but rather a physiological or biological reality. From this follows the notion (MerleauPonty, 1942/1965: 31) that which necessary releases a certain reflex response is not a physico-chemical agent; it, however, is a certain form of excitation of which the physico-chemical agent is the occasion rather than the cause.

This is explained by the fact that the excitation in itself is already a response, and not an effect imported from outside the organism, since it is the first act of its proper functioning. A common misconception amongst riders is the implicit belief in the wisdom of the body, and that their seats and body positions can be maintained and corrected by means of reflexes (or by means of their will), and that they therefore are able to deal even with critical situations. Initially, riders

249 in the present study, found the notion that an essential part of riding is the ability to make the action of the horse a physiological reality, and not a physical one, to be an alien concept. The riders in the present study, therefore, needed careful guidance into the principle that riding does not only entail reactions, but in equal measure the seeking of stimuli. In the present study this procedure contributed to harmonious interaction between riders and their mounts.

7.1.2.1

The theory of affordances

Concurring with the view expressed above by Merleau-Ponty (1942/1965: 13), Fowler and Turvey (1978: 3) put forth that the organism and its environment are not logically separable and that the one always implies the other. Therefore, as previously been stated, an organism's environment should not be construed in terms of the variables of physics as commonly understood. It would be more appropriate to speak in terms of affordances. Gibson (1977: 67-68) suggested that the affordance of anything is a specific combination of the properties of its substance and its surfaces taken with reference to an animal. Thus would ground or any other solid surface, afford standing, walking, trotting and cantering to a horse, while its back would afford sitting/riding to a rider.

Affordances are the aspects of the world to which adaptations occur (Fowler & Turvey, 1978: 3). In order to achieve or to build up a skill, rider and horse must learn to constrain or organise their musculature into different systems (Fowler & Turvey, 1978: 6). Following this perspective, Fowler and Turvey (1978: 6) postulated that the learning of a motor skill involves discovering optimal selforganisation. From a skill point of view, one can thus state that skills have not only structure, but also implies the ability to allow optimal self-organisation.

250 Following his initial definition of affordances Gibson (1977: 79) proposed a more elaborated form, which stated that affordances are a combination of physical properties of the environment that are uniquely suited to a given organismto its nutritive system or its action system or its locomotor system. Whether an affordance is perceived or attended to, will change as the need of the observer changes, but, the affordance being invariant, it will always be there to be perceived (Gibson, 1977: 78). As far as the organism's locomotor system is concerned, it is necessary to understand that the perception of the environment is inseparable from the proprioception of its own bodythat egoception and exteroception are reciprocal (Gibson, 1977: 79). The affordance of something, however, does not change as the need of the observer changes, nor will an affordance be bestowed upon an object by a need of the observer and by his act of perceiving it. The object simply offers what it does because it is what it is (Gibson, 1977: 78). Riders are usually unable to interpret or perceive affordances for what they actually are. Examples of this in the present study, were firstly the misinterpretation of increased animation in the hind limbs of the horse by riders, which to the rider signified an increase in speed, rather than rapid lifting of the hocks, and secondly the inability of riders to correctly assess the position of their different body parts in relation to each other and in relation to the horse.

Affordances could be conceived as information specifying the adaptive value of objects or events for organisms. The concept of Gibson of affordances was an important result of considering the senses to operate as perceptual systems, rather than uncoordinated sensory channels (Mace, 1977: 59).

Since affordances are the aspects of the world to which adaptations (learning) occur it is possible to identify special features of the environment referred to above, as a set of affordances (Fowler & Turvey, 1978: 3-4; Whitall, 1995), and equate the latter with a "niche" as suggested by Gibson (1977: 69). In the adult, for example, a set of stairs may afford walking, but due to the difference in body

251 scale, climbing to an infant (Whitall, 1995). Likewise, the body movement of the horse in a sitting trot may, due to faulty egoception and exteroception, afford rigidity in many riders and their mounts, whilst in riders of the Spanish Riding School, correct egoception and exteroception in the riders (Figure 4.2) and horses (Figure 5.2) would afford poise in both rider and horse and therefore harmony.

7.1.2.2

Affordances in riding

In riding affordances may be approached from two different perspectives. The first of these is that the act of riding could be considered as a single niche, which is comprised of a large number of affordances. Secondly, that each affordance could be regarded as being a niche in its own rightniches, which may be made up of, for example, by the physical characteristics and movement of the different parts of the human and equine bodies relative to each other. Both points of view tie in with Smuts' (1926/1987: 98-101) concept of holism, in that one can start with a simple affordance and by adding others to it construct a small niche (smaller whole) and then by adding other smaller niches to the first eventually end with a larger whole. Should one be fortunate to obtain synchrony between these, the Greek ideal of harmony, rhythm and grace could be the consequence. Belasik (2002: 37) is probably the first author who realised the extreme importance of one organism affecting the other in riding:

The rider's position has evolved under two inseparable sets of pressures. The motivating factor of the first set is to establish a rider's posture on the horse from which the rider can efficiently effect the action of riding. The motivating factor of the second set is that the rider should be positioned on the horse in such a way that (if not ethically, then at least practically), the horse can efficiently effect the action of being ridden. The horse's form and that of the rider, meld to produce a new form that moves differently than either being by itself (Belasiks emphasis).

252

One can go even further, and postulate that once communication between rider and horse is at a level as high as this, it will only require the creation of a suitable environment (affordance) by a subtle change in the distribution of body weight or body language in the rider to instigate the horse to start executing what is required (the use of the so-called invisible aids), such as a brilliant collected trot, the riding of a circle with the horse correctly flexed and bent, or the transition into a canter. In a similar way one could execute variants in paces such as the working and extended trot by simply using the proper affordances. Affordances, in the context of the present study, are therefore to be understood to be natural actions of the poised body of the rider with which the horse can readily identify, actions which, inter alia, follow or mimic the postural reactions described in man and experimental animals (Fukuda, 1961; Magnus, 1926ab; Roberts, 1995: 121-124). An example of such an approach is demonstrated in section 8.4.2. The above assumption of affordances being natural actions in the body of the rider, preempts the creation of a combination of physical properties in the body of the rider, creations that are uniquely suited to afford a change in the motor behaviour of the horse. Experience with rider-horse combinations in the present study has shown that this approach invariably resulted in the attainment of greater unity/harmony between rider and horse. This concept is in contrast to the commonly used system of the "rider's aids", aids which firstly, the horse has to learn, secondly, which is something that can be used by the rider even in conditions which are not really conducive to the initiation of required changes in the horse's motor behaviour. So, for example, is it possible, even for the poorly seated rider, to induce a horse to strike off into a canter, due to the fact that the response to the canter aid has been sufficiently imprinted in the horse by the process of learning. Research in coordination dynamics has in fact pointed out the similarities between the neural mechanisms found in man and animal. This is so because

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time and time again, generic dynamical mechanisms are exploited by living things to provide both flexibility and stability of motor function. Why, one asks, are these generic systems so ubiquitous? One might propose they appear so frequently because organisms and environments have co-evolved in such a way that those regularities and styles of change that work are selected (Kelso, 1998: 217).

An example of this positional approach, is elegantly described by Belasik (1999: 42-43) in the comments made by a fictitious Count:

He told us at first he was simply attracted by the whale's movement and the horse's movement. But upon some investigation he realised that the similarity of movement was governed by the similarity of anatomical structure. The laws of motion were so intrinsic in the bodies of mammals that they were even stronger than the mediums of sea or land. They were stronger than the pressure of any place they might end up. He extrapolated that the same similarities must exist between horse and man.

Would that not help explain so many of those mysterious riding position connections? The rider extends his spine, he brings his chin in, arches his extended neck and the horse does the same. The rider's position puts the horse on the bit by teaching the horse through a sympathetic gesture. The horse can easily relate because it has an almost identical underlying nervous and skeletal structure.

The horse probably reacts to these rider affordances simply due to the fact that it recognises inherent neuromuscular patterns emanating from the rider (cf. McCormick & McCormick, 1997: 139). In this respect the observation of the psychiatrist Paul Schilder (1978: 16) may be useful. He argued that the postural model of our own body is connected with the postural model of the bodies of

254 others, which results in that experience with our body image and experience of the bodies of others are closely interwoven with each other (Schilder, 1978: 16).

Whitehead (1992: 378) observed that both the two French philosophers JeanPaul Sartre and Maurice Merleau-Ponty were quite clear that in everyday circumstances man lives his embodiment in what Sartre (1943/1956: 306-339) termed the "body-for-self", which is the "natural" mode5. In all his interactions with his surroundings man simply presumes on its involvement, its capacities and appropriateness of the response. In addition both philosophers see the acquisition of new movement patterns as an almost unconscious response by the individual in the world as it presents itself. Merleau-Ponty's (1942/1965: 95) view of the learning of a new motor skill is thought provoking. He pointed out that learning and the development of behaviour do not, properly speaking, achieve anything new. What happens is that one finds only the transfer to certain stimuli the power of releasing new movements, the motor conditions of which are considered as given in advance. The development of so-called new movements consists only in the different associations of already pre-existent movement, a sentiment later echoed by Schmidt (1975, 1976, 1977). This is probably due to the fact that the movement repertoire of both man and horse is relatively small. Broer (1973: 11-31) and Tobias (1982: 56-57), for example, observed remarkable resemblances between the body mechanics and dynamics of many different activities. Broer (1973: 11-13), found movements in dance and baseball to be quite similar, while Tobias (1982: 56-57) pointed out similarities between movement patterns observed in ballet and baseball, and in dance and baseball, as well as in karate and ballet stances and movements. Also, great similarities were found to exist between underhand patterns implemented for the underhand throw, and the serve in volley ball and badminton, and for overhand patterns employed in the overhand throw, badminton clear and the tennis serve (Broer, 1973: 14-19). The great range of actions man is capable of is indeed due to the fact, following Merleau-Ponty (1942/1965: 95), that man becomes, through the process of learning, capable

255 of uniting pre-existing movement elements into new patterns (see Schmidt, 1975, 1976, 1977).

Merleau-Ponty (1942/1965: 125) also claimed that our embodiment works, as it were, without need for conscious direction, in an ongoing relationship with the environment. It answers our needs almost automatically, that is, if we allow it to. Gallwey (1976: 7-25, 1982: 87-94, 93) urged man not to over-intellectualise the body, but rather to leave it to respond to the situation itself, or to let it just happen. In a similar vein Zuzuki (1985: 7) suggested that it will serve our requirements better if we do not concentrate on it:

Man is a thinking reed but his greatest works are done when he is not calculating and thinking. 'Childlikeness' has to be restored after long years of training in the art of self-forgetfulness. When this is attained, man thinks yet he does not think. Calculating and thinking behaviour by the rider is an action alien to the horse. Belasik's (1999; 43) fictitious Count aptly described the outcome of this kind of behaviour in the rider:

Then there is the uneducated rider who tries to drive the horse with his seat bones. The rider curls his hips under, rounding his back, thereby sitting further back on his buttocks and pushing hard down and apparently under. The rider's intention is for the horse to follow - tuck its hips under, sit a little more on the haunches and collect or engage. But the horse does not follow this. So the rider tries harder. The harder he tries, the more he depresses the back of the horse and the horse locks his hind legs out behind. The horse's pelvis tips the opposite way to the rider's intention.

Initially the idea of firstly not employing the intellect and the current unnatural system of the rider's aids, and secondly the suggestion that the horse is able to

256 understand and follow natural positions and/or movements in the rider's body, may sound preposterous to those schooled in the traditional manner of riding and teaching. The human subjects in the present study, however, have demonstrated conclusively that it is quite possible to teach such a new approach to riders. Central to this kind of approach is improvement in the manner of use in the rider. This was achieved by means of the author of the present study guiding the riders into more appropriate body positions and even actions with his hands and some cases even his whole body (Table 6.2). Training was done with the rider either mounted or dismounted. This kind of training also includes familiarisation with aspects such as holistic thinking, heightened level of sensory awareness and the development of a proper "method" for realising the desired outcome (see section 6.7). All these ideals then become part of the riding instruction (see Figures 7.1, 8.1b and 8.7 for examples of the effect of such training on the rider'smanner of use). During the course of such riding instruction the attainment of specific goals was not emphasised, but rather were suggestions to let things happen spontaneously (Gallwey, 1976: 7-25, 1982: 8794, 93), and that riders cultivate an acute awareness of the processes involved in the execution of the act (Alexander's, 1924/1987: 5 "means whereby"). This will probably assist in the creation of circumstances in which harmony has the greatest chance of occurring (Herbermann, 2001: 157-158).

This way of communication, which one may call spontaneous communication, will eventually have as its outcome the perfect understanding between rider and horse. Nuno Oliveira was probably one of the greatest modern exponents of this understanding. His mastery to harmonise with his mount was presumably due to his ability to create suitable environments for the horse in which to perform the brilliant movements for which he was famous, as well as his ability to control his mounts without visible aids (Loch, 1990: 182). Loch (1990: 181) alluded to the "legendary" Oliveira lightness, a characteristic which was the product of Oliveira's strong and controlled back (Crossley, 1977, quoted by

257 Loch, 1990: 183). Crossley (1977, quoted by Loch, 1990: 183) further commented on the Oliveira lightness by stating that:

The Oliveira theme, unmistakably apparent in the horses they (Oliveira and his son, Joo) train for themselves and for clients is embodied in the in the three principles of collection, impulsion and lightness, the first and last taken beyond the conception of most riders. But of the three it is lightness that makes the most vivid impression on the average visitor and which is Nuno Oliveira's greatest contribution to twentieth century dressage.

Niches or affordances could, however, hinder or promote the process of learning, depending on the way the participants experience and respond to these during riding. Inappropriate coordination of movement and unsuitable relationships between body parts (disconnectedness, muscle-imbalance) may increase the number of individual (and smaller) "niches" and also the number of degrees of freedom in motor control (section 8.3.1) that the horse and rider have to contend with, thus unnecessarily making neuromuscular control in both human and animal extremely complex.

The way in which niches or affordances are utilized by two organisms interacting with each other will determine whether the interaction is harmonious or not. From the perspective of one of these, the rider, for example, affordances are made up of the combination of the substance properties of rigidity, compliance, suppleness, levelness, flatness, stability and movement of the saddle and horse's back identifies the surface and medium for the support for his posture, his stability and the way he controls the horse. The horse, on the other hand, has a more difficult task, since it has to consider: 1) The properties of the supporting surface on which it moves, 2) The properties of its surroundings, 3) The movement of the rider's body and body parts, as well as 4) The rider's aids, all of which may continuously disturb its equilibrium (Hempfling, 2001: 52) (also

258 see Sivewright, 1979: 145-164; Steinbrecht, 1884/1995: 9-41; The German National Equestrian Federation, 1985: 58-78; van Schaik, 1986: 33-45).

Learning at the level in which only the creation of conditions is sufficient in order to produce a desired response is very much dependent on the quality of sensory awareness in both rider and horse. The less tension in the body, and the less force used the easier it is to be aware of what the other partner in the riding equation is doing. Oliveira realised this and underlined the need for a lack of the use of force (Oliveira, 1988: 33). One of his maxims was:

If the horse is happy, everything will be all right; if he is constrained everything will go wrong. And in case that it is necessary to use force, then one enters the domain that does not fit the equestrian art, neither for that matter, in the circle which civilised people dwell (Boisseau, 1979, quoted by van Schaik, 1986: 45).

The root of the common use of force by riders can amongst other things be attributed to the misunderstanding and overuse use of the so-called "aids". W hat the term "aid" conjures up in riders is the image of having to "do something", something, which has to encourage or force the horse to do whatever the rider has in mind.

An example of this commonly observed practice, is the shoulder-in, where riders are taught to use the inside leg, which in practice leads to attempts by the rider to push the horse sideways by means of this leg. The consequence of all this is the unsettling of the rider's seat, the collapse of the rider's hips to one side, the rider becoming crooked and the horse constrained in its movement. Instead of "doing something", however, the rider should rather create environments (affordances) to which appropriate motor responses in the horse will occur. The shoulder in could then simply be obtained by the rider changing the directions in which his upper body and seat respectively actthus creating an affordance,

259 which will allow the horse to make the necessary adaptationthe shoulder-in. Figure 7.1, an engraving by Charles Parrocel, for the book Ecole de Cavalerie by Gurinire (1733/1994: 135) is an example of this, and shows a rider guiding his mount into a the shoulder-in by means of the correct affordancewhich in this case is his body position and the excellence of his manner of use. The body position of the rider includes rotation of the eyes, head and torso to the right, a deeper seat on the right, thus assisting the positioning of the fore quarters of the horse to the inside of the area (to the right), steering the hind quarters of the horse forward along the side of the arena with his body weight, straightening of the right (inside) leg, creating a pillar and pressure on the inside stirrup. Additionally one sees slight lowering of the riders inside hand and slight raising of the outside hand. This body position of the rider follows a specific generic pattern which will be discussed in more depth in section 8.4.2.

7.1.3 Use and the control of movement in higher animalsperspective of the present study

When the dynamic systems theory is applied in horse riding there are some pertinent aspects that need to be addressed, such as the way in which an organism first assembles an action (coordination), and then guides the action to its completion (control). Traditionally, two levels of explanation are used to understand these processes: The first of these is the intentional or psychological, and the second the physiological or machine. Schmidt and Fitzpatrick (1996: 197-198) posited that it is not only the dynamical processes of the nervous system (which they considered to be a micro-system) that need to be understood, but also the dynamical processes that neural systems are nested within. According to them, the nervous system is nested within an action (effector) system and the action system within an environment (ecological psychology). Their perspective of the dynamical theory of behavioural control is that the dynamics of the higher order levels of structure constrain, and at some point determine, the structure of the neural dynamics, (which includes the

260 dynamics of the microscopic nervous system); and that there are laws written at a more macroscopic space/time scale that include the environmental properties and the information that specify them, which are namely the laws of perceiving and acting.

Figure 7.1:

An example of the concept of affordances during the riding of the shoulder in. N ote the exem plary manner of use of the rider, the positioning of the rider's eyes, his head and torso to the right, the deep seat and straightened inside leg (which creates a pillar), as well as the softness of the reins, and by doing so the rider is creating a suitable environment for the horse in which it can perform a correct shoulder-in. The background to the position figure is further elaborated upon in section 8.4.2. N ote that there is no need to push the horse sideways with th e rid er's in sid e leg , a s is cu rren tly com m on p ra ctice ( F ro m G u r in i re , 1733/1994: 135).

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7.2

THE CONCEPT OF A CENTRAL MOTOR PROGRAMME

The concept of a central motor programme developed from the musical-score metaphor of motor control of the late 1800s (Kugler, Kelso & Turvey, 1980: 30; Turvey, Fitch & Tuller, 1982: 240). According to this approach an executive system in the CNS selects from memory a plan for movement to be executed (analogous to a musical score) and implements the plan by manipulating the motor area (area 4) (analogous to a keyboard). The detail of what is played on the keyboard might be expressed in terms of motor units, alpha-gamma links, muscles or joints (Turvey, Fitch & Tuller, 1982: 240).

The idea that a central programme in the CNS is solely responsible for the control of the motor activities of the organism, is not new. Lashley (1917), however, was the first to use the term "motor program". Miller, Galanter and Pribram (1960: 16-19) later presented a well-developed argument for the notion of a "Plan" as being responsible for the sequence of events of a motor action, a plan which to them was essentially the same as a programme for a computer. This "Plan" they defined as being any hierarchical process in the organism that can control the order in which a sequence of operations is to be performed (Miller, Galanter & Pribram, 1960: 16).

Bernstein (1967: 37) was the first to introduce the concept of a central motor programme, when he stated that:

there exist in the central nervous system exact formulae of movement (Bewegungsformeln) or their engrams, and that these formulae or engrams contain in some form of brain trace the whole process of the movement in its entire course in time. We may affirm that at the moment the movement began there was already in existence in the central nervous system a whole collection of engram which were necessary for the movement to be carried out to its

262 conclusion. The existence of such engram is proved, however, by the very fact of the existence of habits of movements and of automatized movements.

The motor programme does not provide all the details, however. Many modern viewpoints contain not only the open-loop feature of earlier views, but also extensive sensorimotor integration (Schmidt et al., 1998: 331). Current evidence indicates that the centrally produced, programmed activities are blended with inputs from a variety of sources to provide the final motor output (Grilner, 1975; Kornhuber, 1974: 599-600; Smith, 1978: 173-180). Therefore one can refer to centrally programmed motor control and its sensory input as information-processing theories (Schmidt & Fitzpatrick, 1996: 195). Although the relative proportion of the peripheral input to motor control remains debatable, it is accepted that at least some of the fundamental aspects of motor acts are specified in advance. In addition, Schmidt et al. (1998: 331), suggested that longer movement sequences are not controlled by single programmes, but rather by a string of programmes. Each of these lasts for about 200-300 ms, and can be considered to constitute a unit of action.

Schmidt (1975, 1976) and Shapiro and Schmidt (1982: 115) suggested that any programmed action could be considered to be generalizable across certain dimensions. In order to accommodate for the fact that all possible movements and each of their variants cannot be individually stored in the central nervous system, and to explain how individuals correct response for a movement they have not performed previously in exactly that way, Schmidt (1975, 1976) proposed his schema theory. A schema can be defined as being a rule or a set of rules that serves to provide the basis of a decision. A schema is developed by the abstraction of important pieces of information from related experiences and combining them into a type of rule (Magill, 1993: 91). Originally Bartlett (1932: 201) defined schema as being an active organisation of past reactions, or of past experiences, which must always be supposed to be operating in any well-adapted organic response. That is, whenever there is any order or

263 regularity of behaviour, a particular response is possible only because it is related to other similar responses which have been serially organised, yet which operate not simply as individual members coming one after another, but as a unitary mass.

The schema theory, such as being proposed by Schmidt (1975, 1982: 196-208) constrains the control of movement to CNS only, a course which still embraces the musical-score approach. Schmidt and Fitzpatrick (1996: 195) was critical of the idea of an internal representation that prescribes the activity of the effector components underlying the movement. According to them an

alternative approach would be to view the motor control system as an entity, which can attune itself to external or internal influences by means of selforganisation is a way in which motor control can be explained. Although Bernstein (1967: 37) proposed the existence of a motor programme in the CNS his work blends into the systems approach extremely well.

7.3

INTEGRATION AND INTERDEPENDENCY OF NEUROMUSCULARSKELETAL CONTROLPRESENT ADVANCES

7.3.1 Operation of the body musculature as an intricately linked web

Early in the previous century Coghill (1933b: 134) observed that the pattern of total integration expresses itself in a total pattern of action without physiologically distinct parts. He regarded an action as total when it involves all the muscles of a functional system that are capable of responding at that time. To this Tinbergen (1974: 26) added that the innumerable muscles of the body are continuously operating as an intricately linked web. Janda (1978: 28) pointed to the fallacy of not understanding the function of the nervous system as a whole:

264 We have to keep in mind that the motor system functions as an entity and that it is in principle a wrong approach to try to understand impairments of different parts of the motor system separately, without understanding the function of the motor system as a whole.

The integrated function of the CNS was echoed by Nashner and McCollum, (1985: 135):

In general then, the simplest movements of a single segment require a global scheme for controlling the forces of muscles throughout the body.

Working in the field of reeducating individuals to better neuromuscular integration Feldenkrais (1985: 149) realised that the whole man must move at once. It should be reiterated here that integrated neuromuscular function does not guarantee good movement (Bernstein, 1967: 104). One of the most integrative branches of physiology is the study of motor control. This field of study includes the biomechanics of the musculoskeletal system, muscular physiology and neurophysiology. While in conventional physiological texts the issue of use is never considered, Alexander (1932/1985: 22), Bernstein (1929, cited by Gurfinkel & Cordo, 1998: 4), Coghill (1929, 1933ab), Jones (1965), Jones et al. (1959), Stevens, Bojsen-Mller and Soames (1989) brought it to light, and as a consequence, they studied movement and its control in their natural settings.

Bernstein's first scientific work was carried out on the biomechanics of human movement during manual labour, a study which led to the conclusion that movements could indicate processes in the brain (Gurfinkel & Cordo, 1998: 3). In 1928 Bernstein proposed the concept that the motor skills of a living organism could be regarded as morphological objects. In this respect, he wrote

(Bernstein, 1929, cited by Gurfinkel & Cordo, 1998: 4):

265

The basic vital properties that exist in the movements of living beings clearly confirm their close analogy to anatomical organs or tissues. Firstly a live movement reacts and secondly it regularly evolves and involutes. I noted and described the former of these properties as early as 1924 AAA. Studying the biodynamics of movements involved with cutting with a chisel I was able to show that it is impossible to alter selectively any one given detail in this movement without affecting others.

Since it is impossible to form an opinion concerning general principles of motor control based upon the study of one movement only (cutting metal with a chisel), Bernstein and his colleagues also studied motor control while exercising subjects on parallel bars and rings, discus throwing, walking, running, jumping, skiing and swimming (Gurfinkel & Cordo, 1998: 4). Revealed to Bernstein (1967: 78) in his study on walking and running in humans, was that biodynamic structures live and develop, a principle also observed by Coghill (1933ab) in developing embryos, and Kugler, Kelso and Turvey (1982: 5-79) in growing children. The analysis of dynamics during striking movements (and any other ballistic movement for that matter) showed that inertial forces are the dominant factors that the central nervous system (CNS) has to control in order to produce accurate movement (Gurfinkel & Cordo, 1998: 4) (section 8.1). Probably the most important conclusion Bernstein drew from the chisel-cutting study, and studies he later did on locomotion, was that even highly complex movements are organised as integral units (Gurfinkel & Cordo, 1998: 4), conclusions also shared by others in view of their studies on animals and themselves (Alexander, 1932/1985: 29; Coghill, 1933ab; Feldenkrais, 1985: 149; Jones, 1965; Jones et al., 1959; Tinbergen, 1974).

266 7.3.2 Questions pertaining to self-organisation and learning

7.3.2.1

Self-organisation

A pertinent question in riding is the availability of evidence that self-organisation exists in horses. In his Questions Equestres General Alexis-Franois L'Hotte (1906/1997: 173) related his observations on troop horses that were previously employed in a regiment. These horses were found to bear marks on their knees, indicating that they had fallen before. Allowing horses like these, to subsequently work in mountainous areas with free heads and necks, freed them from rider constraints and allowed them to move under their own constraints. These horses were then able to gain the abilities of covering steep terrain and uneven surfaces, abilities only obtained if nature is allowed to be the teacher. L'Hotte (1906/1997: 173) considered the book of nature to be the most accurate, the wisest and most useful to consult. It is notable that currently there are some references to the fact that horses should be allowed to resolve their own motor problems (Belasik, 1990: 87, 1999: 42-43, 2002: 37; Rashid, 2001: 20-40, 93). Unfortunately, due to a lack of understanding of learning principles, attempts by the horse to solve his own motor problems are far to often called resistance and evasions (Schaffer, 2001: 4, 12).

7.3.2.2

Learning

If novice riders and novice horses initially self-organise appropriately to training, or being ridden, effective eventual self-organisation will require having to go through the process of learning, which is only possible after an extended period of correct training and introspection (Belasik, 1990: 33, 79; Dart, 1947; KottasHeldenberg, cited by Loch, 1989). Rote repetition of exercises during the learning process, however, does not necessarily guarantee efficient and appropriate self-organisation, since self-organisation has to work from a given functional basis, and if this basis is based upon muscular imbalance and its

267 ensuing malposture, then both rider and horse may later end up with habitual problems in their "use" of things they have learned. One of the most prevalent responses in novice riders when asked to execute a sitting trot, for example, is to resort to the startle or defence pattern or reflex. In man, this pattern is characterised by a strong reaction in the head-neck-shoulder muscles, with their activation resulting in the adoption of a posture intended to protect the head and other sensitive areas. This reaction results in the thrusting of the head forward and retracting it, lifting of the shoulders, extension of the arms, flattening of the chest and flexion of the knees (see Bentley, 1999: 36; Janda, 1994: 199; Jones, 1979: 132-133; Jones, Hanson, & Gray, 1964; von Dietze, 1999: 13). Janda (1994: 199) found this pattern to be exactly the same that occurs in upper crossed syndromea problem found in muscle-imbalance. In the horse the startle or defence pattern is characterised by tightening and shortening of the neck, as well as pulling back of the head (Bentley, 1999:36; Knopfhart, 1990: 5). A response, which largely resembles the startle pattern, is also commonly found in riders trying to urge their mounts into a canter. The rider, therefore, should rather become a problem solver, and become adept at the selection of appropriate motor behaviour suitable for the situation. Ideally these responses should be selected from the intrinsic neurological patterns and musculoskeletal dynamics, common to both man and animal, in order to convey meaningful messages to the horse. Some of these patterns and dynamics were revealed by mechanistic and reductionistic neurophysiological research, and found to be of value for the present study, and certainly to be useful in the teaching of classical riding (some of these principles will be discussed in section 8.4.2, also refer to Koizumi, 1986: 68; Magnus, 1926ab; Fukuda, 1961; Roberts, 1978; Roberts, 1995).

CHAPTER 8

MOTOR ACTS: A BERNSTEINIAN AND DYNAMIC SYSTEMS APPROACH

Working in the pursuit of lightness, does not mean to work each part of the horse in an isolated manner, but rather all the legs, and all the muscles will function perfectly as a whole, because of the stability and complete lack of contraction in the rider (Oliveira, 1988: 56-57).

At the still point of the turning world. Neither flesh nor fleshless; Neither from nor towards; at the still point, there the dance is, But neither arrest nor movement. And do not call it fixity, Where past and future are gathered. Neither movement from nor towards, Neither ascent nor decline. Except for the point, the still point, There would be no dance, and there is only the dance, TS. Eliot: Burnt Norton.

in the movement domain, our efforts must be directed toward more holistic accounts (Thelen, Kelso & Fogel, 1987).

268

269 8.1 THE DYNAMIC SYSTEMS APPROACH TO MOTOR CONTROL

8.1.1 Introduction

Quintessentially the organisation of a motor act has been described as consisting of two stages. The first stage is coordination, when an organism assembles an action (probably reflected in the Bereitschaftspotentialreadiness potentialin the cerebrum, which precedes the execution of voluntary movement by some 800 msec (Deecke, Scheid & Kornhuber, 1969; Kornhuber, 1974: 600). The second is the control stage, which guides the action to its completion (Schmidt & Fitzpatrick, 1996: 199). This is presumably reflected in the motor potential which starts about 50 msec before onset of the movement on the EMG (Deecke, Scheid & Kornhuber, 1969; Kornhuber, 1974: 600).

Traditionally, two levels of explanation have been used to explain these processesone psychological and the other physiological. On the psychological or intentional level, the description is of the assembly or coordination of the action system, with respect to a goal state or intentional directness to some aspect of the environment (Schmidt & Fitzpatrick, 1996: 199). This is probably what Kornhuber (1974: 599) referred to as the strategic aspect of motor control. The control of the action is about applying rules of action based upon the occurrent environmental circumstances specified by perceptual information, can be likened to Kornhuber's (1974: 599-600) tactical aspect of motor control. This physiological or machine state point of view is about the description of an action system with respect to efferent neural signals that appropriately potentiate the necessary effectors and their metabolic resources. In contrast to this, dynamic control theory proposes that the control of an action is defined in terms of an afferent tuning of the effector system states (Schmidt & Fitzpatrick, 1996: 199).

270 Whereas ordinarily, the neural processes described in the previous paragraph are viewed as efficient causes, they are said to produce percepts and actions. The ecological approach, on the other hand, is biassed upon a different metaphor in which neural processes are supportive bases of perceiving-acting (according to Turvey & Carello, 1986 the latter term denotes the circular causal process involving forces giving rise to flows/forms/times and flows/forms/times constraining or giving rise to forces). Nestings of lawfully related properties are therefore what matters (Turvey & Carello, 1986). This is why Gibson (1966, cited by Turvey & Carello, 1986) stated that in perceiving-acting the nervous system functions vicariously. The dynamic systems theory of action posits a level of analysis which embraces both the above two descriptions, outlined in the previous paragraph, by a common language of explanation operating on the psychological and physiological levelsthe language of dynamics. Whitall (1989) observed that some writers suggested that is organised according to natural and universal laws with non-specific input from the CNS. Movement is not conceived to be the result of a priori prescription by motor programmes or spinal pattern generators; rather, movement emerges a posteriori mainly because the body follows the natural laws of motion, that is, dynamical laws. Therefore, instead of the psychological and physiological entities traditionally proposed to understand motor coordination and control, the dynamic systems theory assumes dynamical structures of control spread across several levels of analysis (neural, metabolic, biomechanical informational and environmental), whose functioning is bound by dynamical principles of self-organisation (see section 4.3.3.1). It is the self-organisational principle which academics, horse riders and trainers find difficult to comprehend, since there is no doinginvolved.

Self-organisation is a phenomenon that is now recognised to be widespread in nature, in chemical reactions, lasers, slime moulds, foraging by ants, flocking behaviour in birds, the development of walking in human infants, neural processing in the CNS and human nature (Wheeler, 2005: 279-280).

271

A simple example of self-organisation in the physical world is the one where hurricanes develop, for example, as a result of the simultaneous presence of certain wind and water temperature conditions (Magill, 2001: 57). What selforganisation results in, therefore, seems to be dependent upon internal and external environmental conditions. The self-organisation which follows implies, according to Kelso (1995: 2, 16) structure or pattern formation, which arise spontaneously as the result of large numbers of interacting components (section 8.1.1.1). Since riding is alien to both horse and rider (de Kunffy, 1992: 2; Harris, 1993: 3) it is an activity which has to be learned by both parties, the end product depending on the circumstances in which the learning took place.

In classical riding the initial conditions (see section 8.1.1.1 for an analysis of this concept) in rider and horse should prevail as close to the ideal as possible, throughout any given pace. Due to the fact that the horse is continually moving, these initial conditions will follow onto each other in quick succession during each phase of the horses movement, be it during the walk, during the trot or during the canter. For the rider the implication of this is that his momentary biomechanics, physiology and psychology should be in such a state as to create an ideal platform from which felicitous self-organisation may come about. Perusal of texts on classical riding suggest that this is only possible if the rider is poised (i.e. the manner of use is of a high standard, see Cavendish, 1743/2000: 133; Gurinire, 1733/1994: 75; Oliveira, 1988: 25; Pluvinel, 1626/1989: 24; Seunig, 1974: 113; Xenophon, 1962: 41), and that interference with these motor acts be kept to a minimum (see Gallwey, 1976, 1982). At this point it is appropriate that Cavendishs (1743/2000: 133) admonishment be reiterated, which stated that in horsemanship, as in other things, regularity is beautiful, while distortion and compulsion must be without grace. He further added that there is an elegance moreover in horsemanship, which looks as if it was natural, tho it proceeds from art. To return to the physiological prerequisites of the classical rider and horse, it can be further added that both rider and horse should be

272 continuously aware of their internal and external environments, which requires the rider to sit as quietly, and the horse to move as quietly and rhythmically as possible (this in the horse would only be possible if is moving forward calmly). To both the novice rider and horse this is difficult, and even impossible, since proprioceptive sensations of the body's inner movements are different from external sensations of the eye and ear (Hanna, 1986: 179). With time, however, and the correct tuition rider and horse will be able to integrate and interpret sensations from these two sources correctly. As far as the rider is concerned, Brgers (1986: 20) proposal of the manner in which this ideal can be attained concur with those of Gallwey (1982), and Zuzuki (1985: 5-9). According to their proposals the rider should learn the art of relaxation, which to Brger (1986: 20) denoted detachment, serenity, enjoyment of work for the sake of beauty, unconcern with success or failure, praise or criticism. Once the power of total concentration of the mind on the senses has been achieved the relaxed rider can become the central pivot of the movement of the horse, become an integral part of the horse, and all his reactions will be so immediate that they elude the eye of the most observant spectator (Brger, 1986: 20).

8.1.1.1

Coordination from a dynamic system perspective

Jeka and Kelso (1989: 5) posed the question why it should be crucial to discover the principles of coordination among large numbers of interacting components. Their solution to this issue was that this cooperative behaviour lies at the root of understanding ourselves, and the world we live in. Such fundamental behavioural functions depend on temporally coherent functional units distributed throughout different regions of the CNS (Jeka & Kelso, 1989: 5).

Given that nervous systems, and the environment within which these systems have evolved, are all multi-dimensional, the laws of coordination are expected to be instantiated at numerous scales of description. It is further possible that the link between neuronal activities (microscopic events or smaller wholes) and

273 behaviour (macroscopic events or larger wholes) could reside in collective effects (pattern formation) at the microscopic level that create macroscopic order or disorder (Jeka & Kelso, 1989: 5). This probably explains the

importance attached to initial conditions, conditions which according to Bernstein takes into account the current state of the body and its relation to external space (Gurfinkel & Cordo, 1998: 7). Therefore, in the present study these conditions will not only be related to the initial position of body parts as Turvey (1990) would have it (also cf. Wheeler, 2005: 281), but deemed to be the prevailing initial conditions in rider and horse, i.e. their manner of use. At this point it should be stressed, however, that it has been demonstrated that in the long term, with the correct training (body work, e.g. Alexander Technique, the Feldenkrais Method and tuition in classical riding such done in the present study), common solutions will tend to emerge without specific instructions or imitation to that effect, despite very different initial postural and movement patterns (Reese, 2001a and Figure 8.7 of the present study). This makes it possible that one can view the problem of coordination as being continuous with efforts to understand pattern formation in complex systems with many interacting components, and here in particular, with the concept of selforganisation within non-equilibrium systems (Jeka & Kelso, 1989: 5). If Hakens (1975, 1983: 195, 199, 231-232) theory of synergetics1 is used as a basis, coordination may act as an order parameter2, in that it gives orders to subsystems, and that it also describes the degree of order (zero when disordered state, and a maximum in an ordered state). Haken (1975) proposed that the order parameter represents the behaviour of the system on a macroscopic scale, and therefore this parameter would be a macroscopic variable. From this it can be deduced that order parameters compress system complexity in systems that contain many degrees of freedom, to only one or few degrees of freedom (Haken, 1975; Thelen & Smith, 1996: 55) (the issue of degrees of freedom will be discussed greater detail in section 8.3.1). Order parameters, and their dynamics are, according to Jeka & Kelso (1989: 6) lowdimensional. The significance of the resulting dynamics (which are in general

274 non-linear) is that they may give rise to complex behavioural patterns, which include multistability, multiple patterns and flexibility (Jeka & Kelso, 1989: 6). An example of this kind of arrangement is shown in Figure 8. 15.

All of the latter behavioural patterns have resonances in riding. The issue of manner of use has been discussed previously. In all paces rider and horse should exhibit multistability, have access to multiple patterns, and above all be flexible to the demands of an ever changing situation. At this point it may be good to take note of the fact that none of these attributes can be taught or learnt specifically (section 8.1.1.2). The only way that individuals can acquire these is to follow the advice of those who endorse the philosophy of non-action or letting it happen (Gallwey, 1976: 9, 10; 1982: 8; Herrigel, 1985: 47-48; Huang, 1997: 27; Koizumi, 1986: 67, sections 6.4.5 & 8.1.1.3). In practise it means that riders allow their bodies to flow with the stream and when horses are trained they should be allowed to work things out for themselves. The amount of information that is necessary to describe the individual states of neurons and muscles is very large, and ways must be sought to select the relevant qualities to compress the amount of information. This would be difficult if the brain is treated as a general-purpose machine capable of producing arbitrary outputs to arbitrary inputs (Jeka & Kelso, 1989: 6). This particular scenario was also discussed under the heading of the effects of mechanistic thinking on life in general in section 4.2.2.1. An alternative strategy would be to treat the brain more like a special purpose device that temporarily selforganises for particular tasks (Jeka & Kelso, 1989: 6; Schner & Kelso, 1988).

8.1.1.2

A central hypothesis for self-organising systems

As a preamble to the contents of this section a short introduction is given to the subject of a dynamic and Bernsteinian approach to motor acts in this section.

275

A central hypothesis to the theory of dynamic systems control of movement is that the joints and muscles never work in isolation (Bernstein, 1967: 22; Thelen, Kelso & Fogel, 1987), or as Haken (1983: 191) put it, the workers are working together by some kind of mutual understanding. Self-organisation also involves the inclusion of the external forces as parts of the whole system (Bernstein, 1967: 129; Haken, 1983: 194). A good rider will, for example, know that the position and use of different body parts will not only affect his riding, but also his ability to communicate with the horse (see section 6.4.1). According to Thelen, Kelso and Fogel (1987) one of Bernsteins (1967: 22) signal contributions to the field of motor control was his explication of this ensemble nature of movement. He realised that bodies move through time and space as integrated wholes, since actions in any individual segment are reflected in the activities of the whole system. Movement, however, is not dependent on muscle forces alone. Bernstein (1967: 129) realised that movement outcome could not be predicted by muscle forces alone, but was the ensemble result of both muscular and nonmuscular forces, forces which include inertial and reactive forces from the moving body and forces associated with contact with the supporting surface and medium (Thelen, Kelso & Fogel, 1987). The organisation inherent in the coordinative structure dissipates the problem of degrees of freedom (section 8.3.1) by grouping muscles together and also by using the forces generated the moving system as information contributing to the constraint of the action (Kugler, Kelso & Turvey, 1982).

The problem for motor behaviour is how, in the context of ever changing form, context, and ever adapting movement, the actions of those parts are coordinated and controlled (Thelen, Kelso & Fogel, 1987). The solution recognised by Bernstein, which is the cornerstone of contemporary formulations of the notion of functional synergy or coordinative structures (see section 7.1.1.1, note 11 in Chapter 8, and the references to the evolution of the synergy theory in Thelen, Kelso & Fogel, 1987).

276

Two further points are relevant to the synergy concept. Of these, the first is the concept of primacy of function in defining the constraints on the units of action. Muscles are constrained to work together because they accomplish common goals, and not because of a strict mapping of their relationships that exist prior the movement. This concept is contrary to models of motor control which are based upon hierarchically recruited, hard-wired or reflex-like subunits of behaviour (Thelen, Kelso & Fogel, 1987).

Secondly, and related to the first, is the special systems quality of coordinative structures, in which the order and regularity emerge from the unique relationships among the elements (Thelen, Kelso & Fogel, 1987). This order and regularity are not readily predicted by the elements themselves. As emergent phenomena, coordinative structures or synergies are thus sources of information. In prescriptive theories of motor control, commonly found in neurophysiological literature (Allen & Tsukuhara, 1974; Ghez, 1991: 533-547) the effector system only serves as a sink of information as the recipient of executive commands. The self-organising and autonomous properties of coordinative structures arise from their dynamical nature (Thelen, Kelso & Fogel, 1987).

8.1.1.2.1

Self-organisation within a dynamic system

For a clarification of how a dynamic system operates, and the way in which it self-organises, the reader is referred to van Gelder (1997: 424-429) and Schmidt, and Fitzpatrick (1996: 199). In practice, the dynamic systems

approach to movement production and control can be modelled with a nonlinear differential equation. Here the term nonlinear indicates that the response of the system, as described by such an equation to an input signal, may change disproportionally to changes in the input signal (Haken, 1983: 14; Latash, 1998a: 177). An example of this in the horse would be the abrupt change from

277 one pace into another, such as from walking to trotting, or from trotting to canter as the velocity of movement increases (see Magill, 2001: 53; Turvey & Carello, 1986). In the human these changes will occur when walking turns into running as the speed of locomotion increases, or in the case of classical riding, the riders response to changes in the paces of the horse (Harris, 1985: 42-49). Non-linear equations, such as this, cannot be solved analytically (Latash, 1998a: 177). Genuine dynamical systems exhibit high degrees of coupling where every variable is changing all the time, and all pairs of variables are, either directly or indirectly, mutually determining the shapes of each other's changes (van Gelder, 1997: 437). For rider and horse van Gelders (1997: 437) statement has important consequences. In a dynamic system one can, for example, expect that the position and function of one body part will affect the function and efficiency of others (Ayub, 1987: 69-75, 77; Baucher, 1843/1992: 135; Bernstein, 1967: 23; Goldthwait et al., 1952: 32-72). Posture is an example of such a variable, a variable which Belasik (1990: 33) considered to be something all-encompassing. Posture in a poised individual, be it rider or horse, (see section 6.4.7), is associated with exemplary absolute positions of the different body parts and their positions relative to each other, positions held by only the minimal amount of muscular input. Important in this respect are the tonic neck reactions, which can be considered to be subsystems with enslaving properties (Haken 1983; 199) is the significance of the tonic reactions of the neckreactions that are elicited by the position of the head and neck (Bernstein, 1967: 112, also refer to section 6.4.7 and Fukuda, 1961; Magnus, 1926ab; Magnus & de Klein, 1912ab; Magnus & de Klein, 1913; Sherrington, 1946: 89). The tonic reactions will be further elucidated in section 8.4. These systemic reactions have high degrees of plasticity, and therefore are decisive coordinational prerequisites to movement or positions. The physiological purpose of these reactions is not limited to the communication of a necessary and a simultaneous rigidity to the trunk, but also to include the total preparatory reaction of the periphery to the conditions of the external (static and dynamic) field of forces (Bernstein, 1967: 112). In the present study it was found that

278 horses are very sensitive to the state in which the rider's trunk finds itself, or to be more precise, the rider's "manner of use". Correct positioning of the head, neck, upper and lower back, in conjunction with appropriate tone (tonus) of the muscles in these anatomical structures can, for instance, help to balance the horse and even serve as a strong forward aid to the horse, and also as part of the aids employed by the rider to execute specific movements (see Figures 7.1, 8.1 & 8.7).

From a functional and a classical riding point of view, the dynamic systems approach to movement control, asserts that movements may be considered to be manifestations of self-organising processes, which lead to stable coordinative structures that demonstrate a limit cycle behaviour (Latash, 1993: 179). Since a dynamic system is nonlinear, it is structurally stable, it also has a preferred solution or a preferred set of solutions (Kugler, Kelso & Turvey, 1980: 21). What are the preferred solutions in riding, classical or dressage? Since riding is alien to both horse and rider (de Kunffy, 1992: 2; Harris, 1993: 3) these will have to be learned, a learning process which, as has been stated previously, should follow the path of non-doing.

When dealing with self-organisation in riders and horses, two issues have to be considered in the context of classical riding and modern competition dressage. These are 1) can structural stability be expected to be an outflow of selforganisation at all times, and if it does, what form will this structural stability eventually assume, and 2) are the initial and prevailing conditions and responses of the rider and horse always appropriate to the current situation rider and horse find themselves in? !

The first question on structural stability can be answered by referring to a previously statement, that structural stability is achieved mostly by those involved in the art of classical riding, but rarely achieved elsewhere, even at the highest levels of competition. Structural stability is a problem in many motor activities, but nowhere is it as important as

279 in riding, and therefore it can be expected that the individuals involved in this will endeavour to be as stable as possible. The preferred way of most riders and horses to become structurally stable is to become rigid in some way or other.

Spasticity and rigidity are common components of a variety of motor disorders resulting from injury to the brain, spinal cord, or certain degenerative diseases in the CNS such as multiple sclerosis and Parkinsons disease (Latash, 1993: 265). A sizable part of motor deficits that ensue from these conditions are, according to Latash (1993: 263, 272-274), more likely to be a consequence of adaptation to the primary disorder, than a consequence of the disorder per se. Stiffness and rigidity may ensue in response to that imparted to each other during riding by rider and horse, in those suffering from functional pathology. The muscle stiffness and rigidity found in novice riders may due to additional factors. This will be elucidated in section 8.1.3. !

The answer to the second question is to be found in both theory and practice. Section 6.4.8 dealt with the theoretical part, in which it was concluded that in general the manner of use in man is poor, indicating that the initial or prevailing conditions in which each movement has to be executed are unsuitable, situations which then augers for inappropriate self-organisation. That this is indeed the case can be attested to, by what is seen during any form of riding (sections 5.1.5.3, 5.1.5.4, Figure 5.1). In Figure 8.1 the opposite of this is shown where both riders and horses show a good manner of use.

Motor behaviour, then, is implemented by imposing a new order on the system. As a result external movement patterns depend on both the motor task and the initial state of the system (Latash, 1993: 179; Wheeler, 2005: 281). Factors that need to be further considered here,

280 are the overall balance and the state in which the musculature of the organism finds itself during the whole of the execution of a motor task, something exemplified by their "manner of use" (see Alexander, 1932/1985: 34, 55; Ayub, 1987: 69-75, 77; Jull & Janda, 1987: 235-260, and also sections 6.4.1 & 6.4.2). Most of the motor activities in horses and riders are made up out of cyclic and repetitive movements, and these, being part of a dynamical system, embrace mutually influencing components. These components will tend toward, relax or settle towards equilibrium or attractor states (Schmidt & Fitzpatrick, 1996: 200). Complex, dynamic systems tend to seek preferred behavioural modes as a function of their internal components and their sensitivity to external conditions (Thelen & Smith, 1996: 60). In classical riding rider and horse has to be guided into preferred behavioural modes (by the process of learning), and since these depend on the interaction of internal components and the sensitivity to external conditions, aspects such as use and sensory awareness become important considerations.

In dynamical analysis of any given system, variables are chosen which represent the possible states that the system can enter. The relations of these variables can be represented by geometric models of all possible states, called the state space3 of the system. A trajectory (such as the pendular motions of the joints or different body parts), for example, represents the evolution of a given system's states in a state space (Schmidt & Fitzpatrick, 1996: 200), and the initial conditions (Latash, 1993: 179). This will be manifested by somewhat different external trajectories on the trunk and limbs from the one initial state to the other. What the author of the present study also considers to be initial and prevailing conditions are the state of the musculature, such as good use, muscle imbalances, imbalances that predominate at the advent and during the execution of the motor act, something which may then lie at the root of what in that particular individuals mind would be the creation of appropriate coordinative structures for his situation, resulting in an inappropriate expression

281 of the motor act. An analogy of this kind of thing would be the internal combustion engine where the chemical energy of the fuel is essentially transformed into heat. In the cylinder the piston is then pushed into a single prescribed direction, a direction constrained by the cylinder (which is equivalent to the constraining initial conditions) in which the transformation of energy of many degrees of freedom is into a single degree of freedom is accomplished (Haken, 1983: 4). Although the ensuing movement may appear to be

coordinated, there would be no poise.

The trajectories representing the asymptotic behaviour of the system as time approaches infinity are called limit sets. The most possible limit sets are the attractors (Schmidt & Fitzpatrick, 1996: 200). In a swinging pendulum its circular orbit and its resting point make up the attractors of this specific system (Thelen & Smith, 1996: 56). All the trajectories within part of the state pace will be drawn to a single point (see, for example, the discovery by Bernstein of the fact that as a consequence of learning, the ultimate motor performance becomes highly reproducible in Latash, 1998c: 54). Another topology would be the periodic or limit cycle attractor in which the trajectories are attracted to a closed orbit (Schmidt & Fitzpatrick, 1996: 200). Higher order attractors with more complex limit set topologies also exist (Schmidt & Fitzpatrick, 1996: 200), these, however, will not be discussed here. In quadrupeds there is a suggestion of a common, limited set of stable states or attractors for locomotion (Turvey & Carello, 1986), each of which as already been pointed out, may occur in response to an unstable state, e.g. speed of forward locomotion. An unstable state may thus mark the transition from walk to trot or from trot to canter (Turvey & Carello, 1986).

282

b Figure 8.1: Good manner of use in rider and horse. In a the full pass is demonstrated by a Baroque rider (Gurinire, 1733/1994: 142). Note the correct position of the rider, the lowering and flexion of the horses haunches, as well as the ease in which this difficult movement is executed by the horse. In b the author of the present study teaching a gelding to bend to the left in the trot. The seat of the rider is deep and his posture correct. Note the absence of leg and rein aids in the rider, as well as the good engagement of the left hind leg in the horse. The unison in the diagonals is very good (blue arrows). The horse is also well bent to the left, and is picking up his feet, both actions which in the past this particular horse was reluctant to execute.

283 According to Schmidt and Fitzpatrick (1996: 200) a dynamical system can be represented by a state space plus a variable that represents a conserved quantity, which governs the time evolution of the system. Underlying the flow of the system (i.e. the way in which trajectories evolve) is something called the potential variable. The regions of the state space where the potential variable is least define regions of attraction, and are therefore the attractors of the system (Schmidt & Fitzpatrick, 1996: 200-201). Thelen and Smith (1996: 60) suggested that complex, dynamic systems seek preferred behavioural modes, as a function of the interactions of their internal components and their sensitivity to external conditions. In riding the preferred behavioural mode could a

consequence of learning, and in many cases the interaction of the internal components can be regarded as initial conditions (sections 6.5.1 & 8.1.1.3).

The change rate of the potential surrounding the attractive area determines the stability or the strength of an attractor (Schmidt & Fitzpatrick, 1996: 200-201; Thelen & Smith, 1996: 60). This is graphically shown in Figure 8.2. One can determine the degree of attraction of a potential attractor, or one may measure the degree of stability in the system. If, for example, one knows the potential function, V() which describes the potential field of the attractor over a single state variable , then d2V/d2 measures the degree of concavity of the attractor's surrounding area (the potential well). There is a positive relationship between the d2V/d2 the strength of the attractor, the larger the d2V/d2 the more stable or strong is the attractor (see Figure 8.2).

The system can be viewed from another angle, which is to determine the time it takes the system to return to equilibrium following a perturbation of the system (rel). In riding this aspect is of particular importance, since riding is

distinguished by continual and rapid successive perturbations, mainly due to the movement in both horse and rider. Droulez (1988: 256) found in his

experiments that whatever the initial state of the system, the control of multiarticular systems by means of what he referred to as multidimensional

284 space of representation, tends to bring the system back to its final equilibrium state. Large perturbations, however, in most rider-horse combinations make it impossible for any of the organisms to return to a final equilibrium in time before the next perturbation occurs. To complicate matters even further, if the rider is flung around, his equilibrium may show large variations from the one phase to the other, during each stride the horse takes. In an unbalanced rider this situation leads to what is commonly seen in riding, riders trying to find equilibrium by becoming rigid, by hanging onto the reins and/or gripping with their calves.

Sm aller d 2 V/d 2 weaker strength longer re l

Larger d 2 V/d 2 greater strength shorter re l

V ( )

V ( )

b Figure 8.2 Potential functions representing dynamics with different kinds of attractors. In a the relatively weak attractor region is on the left and a strong attractor on the right. The minima of the wells are dynam ical point attractors. The concavity of the well determines the attractor strength, the deeper and steeper the well the more stable the attractor. In b a multistable system is shown (from Schmidt & Fitzpatrick, 1996: 201: Thelen & Smith, 1996: 60).

285 A multistable system (Figure 8.2) may serve the classical rider well, when he has to ride horses of different breeds, conformations and movement.

In classical riding one would expect the attractors in both horse and rider to be well defined and strong. At this stage of our knowledge none of them can as such be taught to either rider or horse, since no particular instruction is available to teach the art of rapidly returning to equilibrium after the occurrence of any perturbation. This is understandable if one considers the rapidity of change generated by the movement in some of the paces of the horse. Podhajsky (1967: 33) indicated that ideally a trotting horse should cover 225 metres in one minute. During the trot, medium sized horses cover about 3-4 metres per stride (stride: one completed action of the raising and replacing on the ground of all 4 feet, each stride being made up of 4 steps in the walk and 2 steps in the trot, for example, Harris, 1981: 167), which means that the horse has to execute about 110-120 steps per minute. This requires that the rider has to return to a state of equilibrium at least every 500-600 milliseconds, if only the steps per minute are taken into consideration. In the rider the magnitude of the perturbation due to the movement of the horse could vary from slight to excessive (in all the Olympic finalists participating in the last two Olympic Games in Melbourne and Athens, large perturbations were evident, even in the most advanced riders and horses), the combination of reaction time and correcting for the effect of mechanical forces encountered during each step, will make it impossible for even the most experienced rider to return to a state of equilibrium during each step in the trot by voluntary means or by making use of the classical reflex systems. A solution to this problem would be to self-organise, by employing a mechanism, which can respond to disturbances instantly. Obviously this

mechanism has to function at a lower level than the nervous system, something which can only occur in the muscle self. Such a control system exists, which is the muscle's inherent spring-like behaviour. This behaviour is due to the forcevelocity characteristics of skeletal muscle, a mechanism which allows a stretched muscle to return to its original length without nervous intervention (van

286 Ingen Schenau & van Soest, 1996: 314). Spring-like behaviour of muscle, however, is dependent on factors such as joint-angle and muscle length (van Ingen Schenau & van Soest, 1996: 311-316). Another important factor in this regard is the input from the nervous system which sets the basic muscle tension (see Latash, 1993: 26-32 for an example of such a mechanism). In a standing horse the knee of the hind leg in the horse is bent (flexed) to some extent. In order to properly deal with the effect of gravity on the hindquarters, the tension in the knee extensors will have to be set at a specific level, viz. just sufficient for the leg not to collapse, nor to extend. Should the tension of the knee extensors increase, it will lead to extension (straightening) of the knee joint, a state which can only be prevented by appropriately increasing the weight on the hindquarters, or by the co-contraction (coactivation) of the opposite flexors (cf. Baratta et al., 1988 on the function of antagonistic muscle contraction in knee stability). Untoward coactivation of agonists and antagonists around any joint causes stiffness and a loss of compliance in the particular joint. This is a phenomenon that one invariably encounters in novice riders and horses. In order to deal with disturbances in their body equilibrium rider and horse tend to over-tense, not in one joint only, but all over their bodies. Competing at higher levels in dressage does not seem to eradicate this problem. How do classical riders, such as those of the Spanish Riding School (Handler, 1972) and Oliveira (1988), manage to be absolutely still and always in balance whilst riding, and able to quickly return to a state of equilibrium, even if perturbations are large? This question will be probed in the following paragraph and section 8.1.1.2.

What riders need to do" to in order to simultaneously achieve and maintain their own balance and seat, whilst urging the horse forward in the different paces has been described by various authors (Harris, 1985: 42-49; Jackson, 1992: 149152; Schusdziarra & Schusdziarra, 1990: 55-63). Previously it was pointed out that none of these actions are easily taught, due to the unavailability of suitable communication methods which will ensure that the rider 1) apply timely corrections (reflexively or voluntarily) to external perturbations, or 2) reacts

287 timely to external feedback within half a second. In a stiff rider with excessive muscle tone, this will always be an issue, because of their inappropriate springlike behaviour of their muscles (also see Ayub, 1987: 69-78 for a discussion of the way in which tension in one muscle may affect that in other muscles). The rider thus will have to rely on other mechanisms, mechanisms which will be outlined in the next section. Nor can the rider rely on reflex corrections of the loss of equilibrium, since in the present study, these were found to invariably result in the use of the upper body, a problem often found in those who are brain damaged.

8.1.1.3

Attainment of a state of equilibrium

'Don't think of what you have to do, don't consider how to carry it out! he4 exclaimed. The shot will only go smoothly if it takes the archer himself by surprise. It must be as if the bowstring suddenly cut through the thumb that held it. You mustnt open the right hand on purpose' (Herrigel, 1985: 43-44).

Not to do things on purpose riders finds extremely difficult. In singing, Bowden (1965: 20) warned against a direct (mechanistic) approach when attempting to attain a desired result whilst trying to correct an observed problem. Ideally a state of equilibrium can only be attained if the precepts of the systems theory are adhered to (see section 4.3.2). The individual, be it singer, rider or horse, should therefore be approached as a whole (Bowden, 1965: 20).

One of the core elements of a state of equilibrium is stillness, with the least amount of disturbance of the two organisms involved in the process of riding. The smaller the perturbation the easier and quicker it is to return to a state of equilibrium. In classically trained riders and horses this is indeed the case, exemplified by the Spanish Riding School (Podhajsky, 1985: 11-128), and riders such as Fillis (1902/1977) and Oliveira (1988).

288 The basis of the ability to effectively return to a state of equilibrium (attractor), lies firstly in the attainment of poise. As far as this is concerned, in the rider critical aspects are the correct position of the head and straightening out of the mid thoracic spine (Albrecht, 1993: 32; Alexander, 1932/1985: 49-51; Cavendish, 1743/2000: 133; Feldenkrais, 1984: 123-129; Sherrington, 1946: 89, section 8.1.2). As far as the horse is concerned, Baucher (1843/1992: 107-118) probably was the first equestrian who specifically addressed this issue in dismounted horses, by teaching them the correct use of their necks by the use of special suppling exercises.

Any problem in the "manner of use" of the rider or horse will make the attainment of a state of equilibrium extremely difficult, if possible at all. Accordingly, in riders their manner of use has to be attended to from the outset (see Table 6.2). The same is probably applicable to the horse (see Baucher, 1843/1992: 107-118; Tellington-Jones, 1995, 1999 for example). Fortunately horses generally seem to follow the changes (whether positive or negative) in their riders, with the consequence that as soon as the manner of use in the rider improves that of the horse will also follow suit.

If a motor system (including the central control structures) has to come to a new state defined by each phase of the motor task, it may demonstrate new trajectories both in its state space and in the external space, all converging on a final equilibrium state or attractor (see section 4.3.3) (Latash, 1993: 179). The momentary attractor into which the system will finally settle will, inter alia, be determined by the factors outlined above. The harmonious interaction between rider and horse found in classical riding can only be achieved if the moment to moment attractor states in both horse and rider are accurately defined in each of the paces.

In motor performance there is always some variability to be found during the repetition of a task, even if initial conditions seem to be similar, which makes the

289 latter only possible in theory. The execution of the sitting trot by the rider, may be used as an example here, where, in what is perceived by the observer to be identical conditions, somewhat different trajectories of all the joints in horse or rider occur from the one stride to the other. It seems if small variations in motor actions can be accommodated for by a truly dynamic system, where both rider and horse may still be able to fall into the desirable attractor state(s). Variability in motor performance, however, is increased by poor riding technique, where one finds a large variation in the initial conditions (initial conditions of each stride) of both partners and the beginning of each stride, and this will result in different starting points in space. In order to reach a final equilibrium state (a state which can be arbitrary selected by the observer or rider), this will generally give rise to a variation in the trajectories employed by the motor control system (see Capra, 1997: 130) from one stride to the other, a variation which may in many instances be extensive. Obvious to the observer will be lack in the rhythm and fluidity of the movement. True classical riding should be characterised by only small variations, and sometimes these will be so minute, that it will not be obvious to even an specialised observer. The latter then, may represent Eliot's (1963: 191) the point, the still point .

The standpoint that the control of motor acts may be viewed from a dynamic systems point of view is not new. In the first half of the twentieth century others were aware of the fact that the excitant does form part of the whole (MerleauPonty, 1942/1965: 12-13). Von Weizscker (ND: 45, cited by Merleau-Ponty, 1942/1965: 13), proposed in the first half of the previous century that the organism is "Reizgestaller" (reiz = to lure or to entice, in this case to move; gestaller = form, inclination: Indicating that the body is always ready or inclined to move). The following statement of Merleau-Ponty (1942/1965: 13) therefore makes sense. He declared that the organism

cannot properly be compared to a keyboard on which external stimuli would play and in which their proper form would be delineated for the simple reason

290 that organism contributes to the constitution of that form. AAA Thus the form of the excitant is created by the organism itself, by its proper manner of offering itself to actions from the outside.

In order to achieve absolute harmony within themselves, and between themselves, horse and rider both has to contribute to the constitution of the "form" of the excitant, a process which is repeated over and over again in most of the paces. Absolute harmony can only be achieved when both horse and rider cede to the actions emanating from each of their respective partnerstheir respective "outsides". To each partner this "outside" is made up by the

awareness of what is being transmitted by their respective exteroceptors, mechanoceptors, proprioceptors and teleceptors.

To acquire harmony between rider and horse requires a specific philosophical approach in the rider (Podhajsky, 1967: 20). In this case it should be the rider who is prepared to "offer himself" to the excitant. This argument may apply to the horse as well. Unfortunately the horse's point of view regarding this is not known. What transpired from this study, however, was the sensitivity of horses to the philosophy and the real (not the false and pretentious) body language adopted by their riders, a sensitivity also observed by others (Belasik, 2002: 37; Hempfling, 2001: 22). Yet, in some horses in the present study, no change for the better occurred, despite the fact that their riders were adamant, that they were in fact "doing the right thing". What usually transpired after further in depth discussions with these riders, was that from a philosophical point of view, they were "trying too hard", or tried to "do" the correct action (see Herrrigel's, 1985: 43-44, 70-71 problem in this regard), but in actual fact what was lacking was in what in the rider can be described as a true lack of confidence in himself and his ability to ride. Invariably, these were riders who adopted mechanistic solutions to their problems, always ending with some form of "end-gaining" (Alexander, 1924/1987: 5).

291 Changing the basic philosophy of riders is a time-consuming process. Changing attitudes, to a large extent, is dependant on the reeducation of the individual in general, a change which will assist in the reeducation of his body (see Table 6.2). Once the individual changes his philosophy towards riding and training, it brings about in himself a greater understanding of the principle that one should by one's proper manner offer oneself to actions from the outside (MerleauPonty, 1942/1965: 13). The rider should therefore not try to make things happen, but rather follow the way of non-action, or to become "purposeless on purpose" (Herrigel, 1985: 47-48; Huang, 1997: 27; Koizumi, 1986: 67). If

everything depends on the rider becoming purposeless and effacing himself in his riding, then its outward realisation occurs automatically. Then there is no further need for the controlling or reflecting intelligence (Herrigel, 1985: 57). This is when the horseman, as Cavendish (1743/2000: 133) put it, can ride with art. Physiologically the former arguments have a sound basis. To understand this, the following have to be reconsidered: (a) There is no need for controlling or reflecting intelligence, which means that the rider should not try to actively control any of his actions.

(b)

Reflex corrections of the loss of equilibrium (or attractor state), have to be avoided, since these have too long reaction times, and also invariably result in the use of the upper body, a problem also often found in those who are brain damaged.

(c)

The seat of the rider has to follow the actions of the horse closely to be in harmony, yet without the rider resorting to reflexive or active control of his actions.

(d)

The only way open in solving this problem would be to allow the relevant muscles to act as "passive" coil springs, similar to that found in the suspension of motor cars, or to put it differently, there has to be a

292 springlike interface between the rider and the horse. The basis of this mechanism will briefly be outlined in the following paragraphs.

The physiological background of the realisation of a good and elegant seat on horseback has the following elements: ! Muscle tone or tonus5a concept that could be interpreted as a condition of readinessis an ongoing physiological adaptation. It can be viewed firstly as an organisation of the periphery, and secondly that it is a condition of the entire neuromuscular system, including the final common pathway (the anterior motor neuron in the spinal cord and the brainstem, see Sherrington, 1906: 117-118 for a definition). Bernstein (1967: 111) concluded from the above two statements, that muscle tone is related to coordination as a state is to an action, or as a precondition is to an effect. ! Active muscle acts as a variable stiff spring. The greater the activation of the muscle, the greater the stiffness (McGill, 2002: 142). Classical riding should be characterised by a felicitous stiffness in a muscle. Thus, in all the paces and actions of the horse, ideal muscle tone (or stiffness) is required in the rider, which will allow the rider's seat to follow the motion of the horse closely. The concept of muscle stiffness is indeed pursued by some, an entity which, according to them is centrally (CNS) mediated. Houk (1979) introduced the concept that the combination of spindle receptor and Golgi tendon organ feedback will tend to maintain the stiffness of the neuromuscular apparatus at some regulated level. From the motor programme point of departure, one may surmise that, descending motor-commands from higher centres in the CNS, could act to shift the threshold length of the motor servo (i.e. the threshold of the stretch reflex). Latash (1993: 83, 89, 174-177) agreed with the concept

293 of central control, but suggested that what was in reality controlled at the periphery by the CNS is the so-called equilibrium point (EP)6.

Proper muscle tone and the inherent biomechanical properties of muscles (Huijing, 1992: 151-166; McGill, 2002: 143-144) will allow proper compliance and elasticity in, for instance, the rider's muscles (e.g. those in the trunk). In order to deal with the movement of the horse, as well as the impact of its feet on the ground, functions such as muscle tone (or stiffness), joint and muscle compliance and the inherent elasticity of muscle (Huijing, 1992: 151-166) need to be carefully managed. This approach will certainly meet with a systems theory prerequisite, that of self-organisation is allowed.

The concept of self-organisation, which in essence is non-action, is very difficult to understand, and it is only after prolonged contemplation that the ability to act "actionless" becomes a reality. The idea is to allow the body to become in flux with the environment, since it is only then that self-organisation can occur (Thelen & Smith, 1996: 55). The best way for the rider to attain this ideal is to become aware of the movement of the horse and the way it affects his body. This is in line with what is advocated by various authors (Podhajsky, 1967: 98, 209; Steinbrecht, 1884/1995: 13; Schusdziarra & Schusdziarra, 1990: 103-104). According to Steinbrecht (1884/1995: 2):

The so-called "normal" seat becomes a beautiful and elegant seat only if the horse, after having been put into the correct balance, puts its rider into the seat itself. Such a picture is then truly one of harmony, and no man will appear more to advantage anywhere than if he can present himself on his horse in this way (The present authors emphasis).

Steinbrecht (1884/1995: 13) also pointed out that the sensitive and tactful rider is the one who has a quick and correct recognition of the effect of the horse's

294 movement has on him. Since this is not possible when riding with a stiff and forced posture(Steinbrecht, 1884/1995: 13), riders in this study had to be guided into the attainment of poise. Albrecht (1993: 30) was aware of this requirement and advocated a correctly balanced posture as being the foundation of the "deep" (classical) seat. He continued by stating that every rider should

understand that the attainment of a correct posture is a paramount necessity, and that a riding teacher who neglects to observe and correct posture or the state of balance of his pupil and skips this part of his education is acting irresponsibly.

8.1.2 The reactivity of movements

To attempt to educate an imperfectly co-ordinated child by dealing in a specific way with specific defects or shortcomings is an unreasoning process, especially when we take into consideration the important part which is played in a child's life by the process of imitation (Alexander, 1924/1987: 157).

To improve action, we must find at each stage what is the detail that will bring about the greatest improvement. In body acts it is generally very difficult to find these details, because the mental state and the body attitude and function feel like one thing, and not at all as made up of parts that can be influenced or altered individually (Feldenkrais, 1985: 105).

A movement never responds to detailed changes in its detail: it responds as a whole to changes in each small part, such changes being particularly prominent

in phases and details sometimes considerably distant both spatially and temporarily from those initially encountered (Bernstein, 1967: 23).

Since all movements are organised as integrated units, one can expect that a change in a single movement detail will lead to changes in the movement as a

295 whole or in some of its parts (= reactivity of movements) (Bernstein, 1967: 23), a phenomenon also pointed out more recently by Zajac (1993). Van Ingen Schenau and van Soest (1996: 310) concluded from their studies that when one attempts to correct the movement at one joint by adapting the force produced by the muscles spanning that joint, this manoeuver will lead to new disturbances of the movement of many other joints.

Bernstein's studies revealed that the reactivity of movements can simultaneously be extremely selective and abstract. He observed, for example, that the neuromuscular system reacts to changes in a single movement detail by changing a whole series of other details that are sometimes spatially and temporally remote from the causative agent. At the same time, elements that are closely adjacent to the first detail are left unchanged (Bernstein, 1967: 23; Gurfinkel & Cordo, 1998: 4-5). Alexander (1932/1985: 54) claimed that it is in the nature of unity that any change in the working of a part means a change in the whole, and also that the parts of the organism are knit together so closely in a unity, that any attempt to make a fundamental change in the working of a part is bound to alter the use and adjustment of the whole. One may even find that the working balance in the use of other parts may be thrown out of gear. The use of these parts will be adversely affected in their turn, and new patterns in the use of these parts may develop (Alexander, 1932/1985: 77). The phenomenon of compensatory lameness is a clinical example of reactivity of movement in the horse (Ridgway & Harman, 1999), where an injury to the horse's back could act as a source of a change in movement detail, this in turn leading to a reaction in another body part, such as lameness in the lower leg. They cite an example of the diagonal front leg showing an apparent injury, due to an injury actually located in the lumbar and gluteal muscles.

Alexander (1932/1985: 77) was correct in his observation that if a defect is recognised in the use of a part, and correction of this defect is attempted by changing the use of the part without bringing about at the same time a

296 corresponding change in the use of other parts, the habitual working balance in the use of the whole will be disturbed.

Knowledge about the organisation of movements into integral units, and their reactivity therefore should become essential components in the training of horse and rider. These prerequisites, however, are not sufficiently appreciated in the world of riding.

By proposing the establishment of a new and satisfactory direction as a means of bringing about an improvement in the use and functioning of the organism, Alexander (1932/1985: 54) avoided the problem of reactivity of movement. This indirect procedure is, due not only to the fact that the unity of the human organism is indivisible (also see Linden, 1994), but also that where there is an understanding of the means whereby the use of the mechanisms can be directed7 in practice as a concerted activity, the principle of unity will be beneficial. Therefore the best way to go about this correction would be to change and improve the concerted use of the organism (Alexander 1932/1985: 55), a concept which could equally be applied to rider and horse. Linden (1994) proposed the inclusion of "somatic education" into the educational programme of the physical. This approach involves the whole human being, which entails the focussing in a practical way upon the interactions between posture, movement, emotion, thought, self-concept, and cultural values.

The simultaneous selectiveness and abstractness of the reactivity of movements, as well as the fact that it is the whole organism that should be worked upon, rather than its parts, are essential principles in riding as well as the training of riders and horses. As far as the latter is concerned, for example, the present preoccupation with specific aspects of the horse's behaviour, such as the individual and combined actions of the limbs during the various paces, the position and shape of its neck, the frame or outline of the horse, or having

297 to be on the bit (see Crossley, 1995: 40-41; Harris, 1985: 18-19; Harris, 1993: 64-90; Herbermann, 1980: 51) has led to the implementation of remedial actions, such as the two point dressage seat and its associated greater tension on the reins, the use of artificial aids (Edwards, 1981: 188-191; Loch, 1997: 192), and the preoccupation with half halts (according to Belasik, 2002: 96 still a very confusing term in riding literature). These actions may eventually lead to reactivity of movement, the consequences of which riders and trainers do not appreciate, and therefore do not know how to deal with. That the mere presence of a rider on the horse's back in itself leads to reactivity of movement in the horse, is comprehended by probably only a few riders and trainers (see Brger, 1986: 213 on the way the young horse reacts to the weight of the rider, for example).

In the present study training of riders and horses, somatic training was emphasised in the training of rider and horse (Linden, 1994). This led to the additional discovery that Bernsteins (1967: 23) concept of reactivity of movements (see above) could also be considered from a reverse perspective. This perspective implies that a change in a single aspect of a motor act, an aspect, which on its face value may be unrelated to the detail that needs to be corrected, may elicit a chain of corrections in motor control details of various body parts, including the one originally envisaged. Three observations on riders in the present study will serve to explain this: !

Typical problems in riders are firstly the inability to keep their legs from moving about unnecessary (Kottas-Heldenberg, quoted by Loch, 1989), and secondly their ineffective use as forward driving aids (Froissard, 1978: 78; 1988: 16). In many cases these two seemingly different leg problems may have a common source. Therefore, trying to correct the problem at its apparent source (the leg, heel and foot) is usually not successful, and in many cases may create additional problems, such as stiffness in the legs, and a decrease in the quality of the riders seat.

298

Alexander (1932/1985: 29) observed on himself that the root cause of his voice problems was not to be found in his vocal apparatus, but in the way he used his whole torso. Charles de Kunffy (cited by Jago, 2001: 94) was able to trace a horse's problem back to a single root causethe rider's stiff ankle. One could thus approach rider and horse problems by firstly looking for a single root cause, or secondly approach the issue functionally from a more holistic point of view. As far as the latter is concerned, the possibility that the unstable legs of the riders could be ascribed to an inability to effectively integrate neuromuscular control was investigated. The outcome of this investigation is outlined in the next paragraph.

The implementation of the first route in riders yielded no conclusive and consistent results as far as their unstable legs were concerned. In none of the riders was it possible to identify the problems of unstable legs in riders to a single root cause in the legs, nor was it possible to correct for this problem by solely concentrating on the riders' leg stability. The correction of use in the rider, as suggested in the second option, however, not only alleviated the problems observed in the rider's legs, but some others as well, such as those encountered with the riders' seats and their ability to use their weight and leg aids to drive their horses forward. To a large extent this finding supports Alexanders (1932/1985: 28) premise that the best way to improve faulty use in any specific body part, is to concentrate on the organism as a whole.

Any problem found in one part of the body of either the rider or horse cannot be considered to be a single and isolated entity, but something invariably reflected in the use of rest of the body of the organism (i.e. the horse or rider). The position and shape of the chest, back and abdomen in the rider will be used to illustrate the multiple consequences of a

299 sunken chest in the rider. This will be followed by an example of an integrated method to deal with this problem. !

The position and shape of the chest in the rider are important (Cavendish, 1743/2000: 30; Herbermann, 1980: 30; Loch, 2000: 17; Sivewright, 1979:105-106; van Schaik, 1986: 20-22), since these positions affect the function of the total body alignment of the rider, the abdominal muscles, the position and function of the rider's seat, as well as the position, stability and function of the rider's lumbar area during riding (Goldthwait et al., 1952: 63-64; van Schaik, 1986: 20-22). Good use of the body in the thoracic and abdominal cavities (Goldthwait et al., 1952: 63-64), will help to ensure the correct position of the head and neck, as well as the correct action of the abdominal muscles. In good use the abdominal cavity is large, broad and deep in the lower rib region, the epigastrium is full, and on palpation considerable firmness is observed in the abdominal musculature, denoting some tautness in these muscles. The consequence of this is a less prominent lower abdomen than the upper and in the same vertical plane or slightly posterior to it, which implies that the internal shape of the abdominal cavity is that of a pear with the wider end upward (Goldthwait et al., 1952: 63-64). In addition the intercostal spaces are ample and function of the diaphragm is efficient.

The shape of the thoracic and abdominal cavities in good and poor body mechanics suggested by Goldthwait et al. (1952: 64) is shown in Figure 8.3. Before the mechanics of the figures in Figure 8.3 is discussed Xenophons (1962: 40-41) advice that the rider should ride as if he is standing upright should be noted. Good mechanics will ensure that the anterior iliac spine is vertically aligned to the pubis (Norris, 2001) (red arrow in Figure 8.3a).

300 The consequences of poor use (Figure 8.3b), results, inter alia, in an increase in the vertical length of the thorax and a decrease in depth, a decrease in the intercostal spaces and therefore a more vertical position of the ribs, and with the rib cage much closer to the ilia. This leads in slack abdominal muscles and a dramatic change in the shape of the abdominal cavity. Not only are the thoracic and lumbar mechanics of the individual affected, but also, for example, the position of the neck and head. Riders with use of the body as denoted in 8.3b will therefore be unable to use their bodies correctly in riding due to insufficient tone in their abdominal muscles, a slackness in the back muscles in the midthoracic area, excessive tension in the posterior neck musculature and a slackness in the muscles of the anterior neck (Jull & Janda, 1987: 257263). Riders tend, according to Norris (2001) to have shortened

dorsiflexors in their backs. A critical consequence of this is that any load acting upwards on the ischia will result in a further hollowing of the riders lumbar back. The pelvis was found to be most stable for load transference when the innominate bone is posteriorly rotated relative to sacral nutation (Sturesson, Selvik & Uden 1989). Lochs (1997: 127-137) insistence on riders riding with hollow backs is therefore erroneous.

In order to achieve correct use in the thoracic and abdominal areas van Schaik (1986: 20-22) suggested that the rider keep "his sternum up", as well as to use his abdominal muscles, since this prevents "belly dancing". Herbermann (1980: 30-34) was of the same opinion and suggested 5 position corrections, of which chest out, or stomach forward (Herbermann, 2001: 15), is one. This can, according to Herbermann (1980: 30), be achieved by lengthening the front of the stomach line; and/or the shoulder blades together, or more recently (Herbermann, 2001: 15) by leading with the navel and solar plexus. In the latter he suggested that the rider should raise the solar plexus and to lengthen the front line.

301

Figure 8.3:

A diagram of the thoracic and abdominal cavities in good and bad use. Note in a how the diaphragm arches upward and forward from the spine, and that the upper abdominal cavity is the deepest part. In b the vertical length of the thorax is increased and its depth is decreased, the intercostal spaces are decreased with the ribs aligned more vertical, and with the distance between the ribs and the ilium decreased, thus leading to slackness in the abdominal muscles and to collapse of the internal organs. The body mechanics in the lumbar back are poor. Vertical gravity lines running through the hip joints are indicated in blue, and vertical line of the pubis in red (redrawn and modified from Goldthwait et al., 1952: 64).

In the raising of the sternum or solar plexus Herbermann (1980: 30; 2001: 18; 2001: 15), however, cautioned against hollowing of the riders lower back (refer to the straightness in the back of the riders in Figures 8.4a and 8.7b & d). The reason for this has a biomechanical foundation. In a lateral view of the normal standing human, the line which goes through the main anatomical landmarks (lobe of the ear, shoulder joint, just behind the hip joint, through the knee joint and lateral malleolus) should ideally pass through the centre, the anterior part or just in front of the anterior lordotic curve of the lumbar spine (Dangerfield, 1996: 98;

302 Gross et al., 1996: 440; Kendall, McCreary, & Provance, 1993: 75-76). This will allow the hip joint to be sufficiently far forward in the body to allow the whole of the spine to be behind it. Any large vertical force from the legs, for instance during landing from a jump, will then have the effect of flexing the spine. If the hip joint was further back, however, the effect of such a force will tend to do the opposite, and increase in the lordotic curve of the lumbar spine (Gorman, 1983: 130-131) will be the outcome. Either of these two mechanisms may operate in the rider at any given moment, depending on his body alignment. Analysis of a series of actual X-rays of Herbermann (1980: 59; 2001: 41) in a correct normal seat on a saddle indicates that the vertical line referred to above, will more or less follow a path behind the ischial tuberosity, placing the lumbar lordotic curve posterior to any upward force exerted upon the ischial tuberosities (Figure 8.4a). As with the standing position, any vertical force exerted on the sitting bones during riding, will therefore be transferred upwards along this line, resulting in straightening or even flexion of the lumbar spine. Hollowing of the back (as recommended by Loch, 1997: 126-129, 208), however, will transfer this pressure to a position posterior to the lordosis in the lumbar spine (Figure 8.4b). The mechanical consequences of this are twofold: Firstly that al movement and impact acting on the rider's sitting bones will force the lumbar spine to take up vertical force by the increase of the lordotic curve in the rider's lower back. When this happens the lower back then may truly act as a concertina, as suggested by Loch (1988: 22-23), the outcome unfortunately being "belly dancing". In order to counteract belly dancing caused by the forces encountered under conditions like this, the rider's abdominal muscles need to be extremely strong and quick reacting. With slack abdominal muscles, (see Figure 8.3b) this will not be possible.

Correct position of the seat and shape of the lower back as suggested by Herbermann (1980: 59) will, however, more readily allow the rider's

303 lower back to move in all directions (flexing, extending and lateral flexion) and increase its ability to follow the movement of the horse (Jackson, 1992: 150; Schusdziarra & Schusdziarra, 1990: 42-60; Swift, 2002: 107121).

That a proper raising of the sternum in the human is possible without hollowing of the back can be seen in the X-ray pictures of Herbermann (1980: 59; 2001: 41) and of the shape of the back of a patient treated by the British rheumatologist Dr Wilfred Barlow (Inglis, 1978: 142) (Figures 8.5 & 8.6). An example of the extent in which such a change can occur in a single session is shown in Figures 8.6b 8.7ef.

Figure 8.4

The effect of the attitude of the rider's pelvis and lower back upon the biomechanics of the lower back. In a the position of the vertical blue line runs anterior to the lumbar spine, leading its proper use. In b the lumbar spine is hollowed, leading to poor body mechanics (see text). The horizontal black line denotes the saddle surface (modified from Herbermann, 2001: 41 and Gorman, 1983: 130-131).

304

Figure 8.5

Straightening out the upper back of a patient by the British rheum atologist Dr Wilfred. Barlow. Note the straightness of the thoracic and cervical spine and the raising of the sternum (denoted by the green line) in the patient. The consequence of this type of intervention is more permanent than many other methods (redrawn and modified from Inglis, 1978: 142).

Figure 8.6:

Raising the sternum by straightening out the back of a young female by the author of the present study. In a there is mid thoracic kyphosis and excessive tension in the sternocleidom astoid muscle. The kyphosis was corrected by adjusting the position of the head and neck. The latter problem was not alleviated b. In b the angle of the sternum in relation to the vertical increased from 24 o to 31 o (green arrows), concomitant with an increase in the anterior-posterior dimension of the thoracic cage and body height. There was no hollowing of the lumbar spine. The position could not be held for extended periods. This will require a prolonged period of careful training (Dart, 1947, Table 6.2 & Figure 8.5).

305

In the present study all riders experienced problems with the concept of raising their sternums without hollowing their lower backs in more than one way. These problems are listed in Table 8.1 below.

Table 8.1

Problems with the raising of the sternum in riders in terms of certain parameters

PARAM ET ER Perception of the rider during the execution of the action Biomechanical U se Endurance 1.1 1.2

RESPONSE Inability to understand the essence of the action Incorrect sensory appreciation during proper execution.

H ollowing of the lower back. Stiffening of the back and other muscles. Inability to maintain the correc t pos ition, once achieved, for extended periods.

Long term correction of these problems and teaching of correct use of upper body mechanics and use proved to be difficult and time consuming. Initially during riding riders were unable to correctly apply and maintain the raising of their sternums, and all the physical ramifications that this action implied. Most of the problems stemmed from lordosis in the lower back, stiffness in the anterior shoulder girdle and posterior neck and head extensors, as well as straightening of the elbows, reactions which accentuate the intimate relationship between the upper quarter and the pelvic areas (Cohen-Nehemia & Clinch, 1982; Janda, 1994: 200). Using riding per se as a tool for rehabilitation of these problems and others in riders (see Riede, 1988) usually proved to be effective only during training sessions (Figure 8.6), since generally little was retained from one session to another. In order to maintain permanent effectiveness of physical rehabilitation in riders, usually

306 required a long and sustained intervention. Outcomes of a long term approach, using riding per se as a tool for rehabilitation of riders are shown in Figure 8.7. In Figure 8.6 the acute outcome of a single interventionthat of spinal straighteningis shown. !

When the author of the present study instructed riders to concentrate on the central issue, which was to raise their sternums, it did not produce the desired results (Table 8.1). The main problem proved to be hollowing of the lumbar spine. The basic problem was then approached from another, and indirect perspective. Riders were instructed to consider the spiral arrangement of the muscles around the neck and trunk (Dart, 1946, 1947, 1950; Pool-Goudzwaard et al., 1998; Schusdziarra and Schusdziarra, 1974: 67-75; Swift, 1985: 104-115), and to lengthen the front of the stomach line, straighten the mid-thoracic spine, and widen in the shoulders by the lengthening of their spiral muscular arrangement in the trunk. In practice this entailed that the riders had to consider the functional links between neck and pelvic structures, the muscles of the neck, upper- and lower back, and especially the function of oblique and transverse abdominal muscles. The function of the latter could possibly aid in the obliteration of the problem of "belly dancing" (van Schaik, 1986: 20-22). An additional facet that was considered here would be to also teach riders the use of the muscles of the pelvic floor (Garbourg, 1997: 77-87; Reyneke, 2002: 129), since these muscles work intimately with those in the abdomen and those in the rest of the body (Garbourg, 1997: 37, 38; Reyneke, 2002: 129-134).

307

Figure 8.7:

The effect of sustained training on the shape of the spine of riders and their position in the saddle. In both a and b the respective horses canter, symmetrical pace (see section 8.4.6). In a the riders spine is kyphotic, with hollowing of the neck. In b the riders spine is straightened, the leg position is im proved and the seat of the rider is deeper, a position the rider now habitually adopts during riding.

308

d Figure 8.7 (contd) The lower back of the rider in c is lordotic and her seat is somewhat perched. There is also a general tightness in the riders and the horses demeanour, the neck of the latter over-bent due to excessive tension in the riders arms and hands. The unison in the diagonals is poor (red arrows). In d the back of the rider has straightened out, both in the lumbar and thoracic areas (now also a habitual position), and her seat is deeper. In addition the horses movement is improved and more relaxed. The

unison in the diagonals is good (blue arrows). Since this is a novice horse the head is not positioned vertically in d, while the reins are kept somewhat long (M seler, 1973: 106; Podhajsky, 1985: 112).

309

Figure 8.7 (contd)

Results on a rider who has never experienced integrated riding before. M ultiple improvements in her posture and riding occurred after her back was straightened out by straightening out her upper thorax. The

improvements included going from a perched seat in e to one that is deeper in f, as well as a more comfortable ride, opened shoulders, head and thorax correctly bent to the inside (right), arm s bent at the elbows and better leg position (f). Com m on to m any riders she still tended to look down, however. The horse is moving forward more relaxed in

working trot with good diagonals (blue arrows in f vs. red arrows in e).

310

Figure 8.8.

The effect of raising the sternum by indirect means on the position and outline of the rider and the action of the horse. In a the rider is hollow necked and kyphotic. The angle of the sternum to the vertical is 26 0 (green arrow). Some tension is present in the body as can be seen, inter alia, from the foot lifted upwards out of the stirrup. There is no animation in the movement of the horse and unison in the diagonals (red arrows) is poor. In b the back of the rider has been straightened, and the lifted upwards to 35 0 of the vertical (green arrow). There is much more animation in the movement of the horse, with good unison in the diagonals (blue arrows).

311 Once riders grasped the essence of this instruction, the outcomes were elegant, upright positions of the riders in the saddle, and bearing on this discussion, the raising of the sternum (Figure 8.7). Additionally the problem of belly dancing was reduced considerably. Immediate other benefits observed were: 1) riders' seats more in harmony with the movement of the horse, 2) improved and more appropriate engagement of the hind quarters of the horse and 3) improvement in the horse's movement (Figures 8.7 & 8.8) !

Training of show jumpers by the author of the present study brought to the fore the importance of maintaining the stability in the posterior midthoracic area. This stability is something which can only be attained by means of good body mechanics. Once attained, the rider is better able to control his mount by means of his back and seat. Albrecht (1993: 3234), in fact, stressed that the upper part of the rider's body has to be properly balanced above the pelvis and the three points of support in the seat, since perfect alignment of each of these parts is an essential condition of stability. It also allows the rider to control with precision the shift of his weight (seat) aids. An exercise, which was found to be a useful tool to correct this problem and one which aids in improving the alignment of the base of the neck onto the thoracic spine and to lift the sternum, is described in the following paragraph.

This exercise was originally developed to assist a patient who had persistent upper back and neck pain, following a laminectomy in the lower cervical and upper thoracic spine. The result of this surgical intervention was an unusual spinal curvature in this area. This abnormal curvature was addressed by viewing the problem from an equine point of view. This necessitated the patient to stand on his hands and knees, lower the neck and head, and then to lift the base of his neck, (and not the head, which would have shortened and hollowed the neck) with the

312 aid of the back muscles in the upper thoracic and lower cervical area. Although the exercise seems to be similar to the often prescribed retraction of the head, which is an exercise necessitating the action of anterior neck muscles (McKenzie, 1983: 40, 42) (in the equine this action would be considered to be behind the bit), its muscular action and actual outcome are not similar to the lifting of the base of the neck with the posterior musculature. The riders lordotic neck and kyphotic back in Figure 8.7ef was addressed by the use of this exercise.

8.1.3 The mechanism of total integration and the development from the whole to the part (individuation)

The development of behaviour primarily through the extension of the total pattern, rather than through the projection of primary isolated parts to become integrated secondarily, means that the maintenance of the integrity of the individual as a whole is the function of the nervous system (Coghill, 1929: 90).

In the embryonic development of the salamander, Coghill (1933b) observed that there is progressive organisation from the whole to the part. Symmetry of the whole is not acquired by the accretion of individually symmetrical parts; but rather the symmetry of the parts is acquired by compensatory growth under the leadership of the whole8. An important observation in this respect is that of Geisler, Westerga and Gramsbergen (1996), who found that in the developing rat, anticipatory stabilisation of the trunk is the rate-limiting factor for the development of complex, mature motor patterns.

In accordance with three neuro-embryonic principles of 1) the primacy of a mechanism of total integration, 2) the development of local mechanism by acceleration of growth within a relative equipotential system and 3) the progressive organisation from the whole to the part, behaviour develops in the

313 embryo (Coghill, 1933b). This occurs when the appendages acquire the ability to act on their own by means of the process of individuation9 within the total pattern of action, where it is intricately involved from the very beginning with the behaviour pattern of the entire animal (Coghill, 1929: 21; 1933b), thus according to Smuts' (1926/1985: 104), we are involved here with a system in which a whole is made up of parts which are together in a unique, specific combination, and a system which is characterised by a specific internal relatedness. According to Coghill (1933a), however, there is a constant tendency towards individuation. In phylogeny individuation progressed gradually, until the motor pattern of whole limb control in lower animals was fractioned even further into smaller components, as seen in the precise control of the finger joints in the primate (Grillner & Wallen, 1985). Coghill (1933a) even went so far as to suggest that this tendency towards individuation is the organic basis of partial patterns of all ranks, from local reflexes to multiple personalities. Schmidt et al. (1998: 356) found that during the early stages of the learning of a new movement the limbs are constrained to act in a mirror image pattern. It would therefore be unfair to expect the novice rider to execute the aids for the canter depart correctly, since each limb is required to do something different (Sivewright, 1979: 162). With time and learning, however, the system will become able to produce the required non-symmetrical patterns more easily, by overcoming the limitations imposed by pre-existing patterns. Thus it is

necessary to abandon preferred coordination patterns in order to acquire new coordination patterns (Swinnen et al., 1993).

Examples of individuation in general life are firstly, the execution of a shot in tennis by using the arm only, and secondly the way in which most people close curtains, by means of a flick of only an arm. In both these examples the ideal would be to use the body as a whole to execute the required task. In riding this would also be the ideal, since normal behaviour is dependent upon the total pattern maintaining sovereignty over all partial patterns (Coghill 1933a). For the

314 rider Steinbrecht (1884/1994: 6) put it that the spine is like the trunk from which all limbs branch out and to which all organs are attached. The activity of the organs and the forcefulness of the limbs must also be a function of the position of this trunk.

Therefore, the most important aid of all is the seat (Albrecht, 1993: 29-30), an aid that necessitates the use of mainly the riders trunk. Deterioration of the system of the total pattern, or hypertrophy of the mechanism of partial patterns, will eventually result in the situation that sovereignty of the total pattern gives way to the dominance of the limbs which normally should be its subjects (Coghill, 1933a), a very common problem in riding. Dominance of the legs, for example, without the use of the trunk, frequently leads to a situation where the legs are constantly knocking; legs which do not act as aids to the forward movement of the horse, but rather act as punishment (Albrecht, 1993: 66).

The contention of Coghill (1929: 21, 90; 1933b) that the mechanism of total integration tends to maintain absolute unity and solidarity of the behaviour pattern, agrees with the principles of Merleau-Ponty (1942/1965: 176) in this respect, who spoke about perfectly integrated behaviour where infantile attitudes do not have a place or meaning: The behaviour would be perfectly integrated, where each movement would be internally linked with the whole. These approaches are in agreement with the principles of the general systems theory, and also applicable to classical riding. An example will be used to illustrate the latter assumption.

A female rider was preparing a stallion for a forthcoming dressage competition. The preparation did not go well. The stallion, for example, could not complete a 20-metre diameter circle in the canter without rushing off or bucking. This was accompanied by it going hollow backed and showing resistance to the riders aids. Careful analyses of the situation suggested that of the three interrelated systems (rider, horse and surface), it was the "manner of use" of the rider, which contributed most to the problem (see comment by of Kottas-Heldenberg, quoted

315 by Loch, 1989 on the effect of the rider on the horse). The rider, anticipating the problems in the canter became disconnected prior to the asking of the canter transition. Once in the canter the disconnectedness in the rider increased, which eventually culminated in the problem outlined above.

The disconnectedness in the rider was characterised by an increase of the shortening of the muscles in the posterior neck-, chest-, and the abdominal muscles, as well as the hip flexors, a pattern typically found in the condition of muscle-imbalance and the startle pattern (sections 6.4.8 and 7.3.2.2). This was coupled to a rapid decrease in the depth and stability of the rider's seat. An example of this kind of problem is shown in Figure 8.9.

Figure 8.9:

A n example of muscular-imbalance in a male subject of the present study. The physical outcome is the riders sunken chest, the poking of the head and neck, hollowing of the lumbar back, stiffness in the arms. The effect of this on the horse is apparent: There is hollowness in its back with no engagement of the hind legs.

316 With time the sovereignty of the whole gives way to the dominance of parts that are normally its subjects (Coghill, 1933a), and as a consequence, behaviour in this rider ceased to serve the individual as a whole in an appropriate way. What probably gave rise to the loss of the sovereignty of the whole, was firstly the loss of the integrative role of the position of the head and neck (Alexander, 1932/1985: 49-50; Magnus, 1926ab; Sherrington, 1946: 89), which secondly was followed by a loss of the integrative role of the trunk on the movements of the limbs (Coghill, 1929: 29).

The problem was addressed by adjusting the head and neck position of the rider, straightening the upper and lower spine, as well as the position of the parts of the trunk relative to each other. The outcome was the stallion executing a slower and more rhythmical canter, with some "flexion of the haunches"10 (Brger, 1985: 224; Hempfling, 2001: 56). The canter thus became controlled and could be maintained throughout the circle. The other paces also improved considerably, and the rider ended the session by doing a complete dressage test at preliminary level according to classical principles.

Similar results to the above were obtained on two geldings and their riders. In both cases the desired outcome was only achieved after more than one training session. This can be ascribed to the fact that the riders initially found it difficult to understand the concept of total integration, and that of the integrative function of the correct head and neck position. In one rider this required six sessions, and in the other a period of a few months of training. From this part of the study one can infer the following: !

Lack of total integration in one component of a system is reflected in the same way in other components of the systemin this case in the undesirable behaviour of the riders and their mounts.

317 ! Introduction of total integration in the riders resulted in the same behaviour change in each of the horses. The exact reasons for these behavioural changes in the horses are not clearbut it could be inferred that total integration and an increase in stability in one system (the rider) improved that in the other (the horse).

In the present study the common phenomenon of a poor seat and its associated unnecessary movement of legs, hands and body (Kottas-Heldenberg, quoted by Loch, 1989), might be ascribed to pathology in the way the motor performance of the rider is integrated.

Thus, the background of a poor seat is to be found in the rider's faulty sensory perception (a problem found in all the riders in the present study), muscleimbalance, with its associated poor posture/body alignment (Dart, 1947; Loots, Loots & Steyn, 2001; Loots, Loots & Steyn, 2002) and inappropriate movement patterns (Jull & Janda, 1987: 235-260).

None of the 20 riders in the present study had integrated movement and body alignment when they initially started their training under the present author. The problems found in all of them are listed in Table 8.2.

Attempts at correcting each of these problems in riders by addressing the specific issues outlined in Table 8.2 resulted in reactivity of movements described above, and the consequent unwanted responses. Most of the latter were increases in muscle tension, and weakening of the riders' seats. At best traditional methods of training with emphasis mainly on training of the horse led to disappointing results.

At the root of a host of rider problems such as: poor seats, rigidity, disconnectedness (for example nodding heads, stiff lower backs and hips, lack of coordination between the neck thorax and hips), lack of control over the

318 horse, are simply "misuse"11 (Barlow, 1990: 31, 35, 44), which in essence is the consequence of factors such as fear, faulty habits, the untrustworthiness of sensory appreciation (Alexander, 1932/1985: 49) or as Hanna (1988: xiii, 1-93) referred to it sensory-motor amnesia (SMA), a condition which culminates in poor neuromuscular direction, muscle imbalance and its physical outcome: Faulty body mechanics (Alexander, 1932/1985: 21-23, 49; Hanna, 1988: 1-36; Loots, Loots & Steyn, 2001; Loots, Loots & Steyn, 2002). Muscle-imbalance is not only found in a single body area, but as Broome (2000: 3-4) and others (Alexander, 1932/1985: 34-35; Janda, 1978; 1983; 1993; Janda & Schmidt, 1980) have pointed out, this condition usually is the consequence of a serial distortion rather than that of just a single lesion. It is this serial distortion or fragmentation of behaviour that needs to be addressed, and not a specific movement detail, before any real and lasting improvement can be expected.

The basis of the majority of riding aberrations, therefore, are to be found in the way the rider uses himself. Like Alexander's (1932/1985: 55) study on himself has shown, the single act of giving a canter aid may be associated with evidence of muscle-imbalance such as shortening of the stature. Specific patterns of muscle imbalance occur in humans (Loots, Loots & Steyn, 2002) and these were found to lie at the base of many faults found in riders. Adjustment of the rider or horse by the riding instructor or trainer should accordingly be based upon the specific pattern of misuse observed in the rider and/or horse, rather than to focus upon the identified problem. These adjustments to the rider can be made while the rider is on horseback, by means of teaching by handling (Figure 8.5). This entails, for example, the positioning of the rider's body parts into better alignment (Palm (2001). The same approach can also be used to correct imbalances in the horse. A useful starting point in dealing with problems like the above, however, is to consider the rider first (Palm, 2001; KottasHeldenberg, quoted by Loch, 1989). Ideally the rider should be subjected to a programme of body realignment and rebalancing. Some exercises and

techniques that were found to be useful in the correction of the problems

319 discussed above, are listed in Table 6.2. These exercises, however, are only adjuncts to the teaching of correct neuromuscular coordination during riding or working on the ground.

Table 8.2:

Problems that were encountered in riders prior to whole body training

PR OBLEM Poor seats inability to ride sitting trot and canter. Muscle imbalance

C OM M ENT S T hese two paces were not ridden in harmony with the movem ent of the horse, bouncing in the saddle a common occurrence. Muscle tension general and pronounced in specific areas. T hese areas were found to be the upper quarter and the lum bar and pelvic areas . U s ually the rider responses followed their muscle

imbalance pattern. Q uite prominent were the raised shoulders and the associated excessive tension in the arm musculature. D isconnectedness N odding of the head, associated with excessive tension in the lumbar back and upper quarter areas, and instability of the legs. E xcessive or inappropriate u s e of the arm s and hands Inordinate use of muscle tension in especially the distal parts of the arm s and hands. All riders exhibited disproportionate levels of

tension in the elbow and w rist joints. In this regard van Schaik (1986: 22) suggested that the rider should never use his biceps, an act which will lock the elbow, resulting in a dead hand. Should the rider want to resist, the abdominal and back muscles as well as the triceps, thus increasing the weight in the reins. U nstable and overactive legs Excessive tension was found in the knee joints, coupled with an inability to keep the heels lowered, or ac c ording to Froissard's (1978: 11) regimen, an inability to keep the toes raised unless prompted continually. Legs were used excessively to urge the

horses forward (see below). R iders were notably unable to prom pt their horses to move forward. Fear of forward and impulsive m ovement in the horse. T his led to the excessive use of the legs, seats and bodies described above. R iders tended to hold horses back, bec aus e they found active and high hock action unsettling, and the "m ovement of the horse being too fast". T his problem was m ost apparent during the trotboth in rising or sitting.

320 Any theory of coordinated movement must resolve two major problems. These are that of degrees of freedom and that of context-conditioned variability (Bernstein, 1967: 104-106, 125-127; Turvey, Shaw & Mace, 1978: 559). These issues will be discussed in sections 8.3.1 & 8.3.2.

8.3

RESOLVING PROBLEMS PERTINENT TO MOTOR CONTROL

8.3.1 Degrees of freedom (DF)

The programme control of motor acts described above view their control from a "centralistic" perspective, in which the traditional "man inside the head" acts as an executive responsible for the control of movement (Tuller, Turvey & Fitch, 1982: 239). Bernstein (1967: 125-126) was the first to point out the fact that the motor apparatus in man and other higher animals has to cope with an enormous number of degrees of freedom, both in respect to the kinematics of the multiple linkages of its freely jointed kinematic chains, and to the elasticity due to the resilience of their connectionsthe muscles. The consequence of this

arrangement is that there is no relationship between the degree of activity of muscles, their tensions, their lengths or the speed of change of length (Bernstein, 1967: 125).

DF in a motor system and its consequences for motor control can be explained by looking at the human arm, for example (Turvey, Fitch & Tuller, 1982: 241242), where at any moment the position of the shoulder joint is given by three coordinates, the horizontal, the vertical and the longitudinal. The shoulder joint would have three degrees of freedom to be specified to describe its position at any given time. The elbow joint has only one DF, while the wrist joint has two. The positions of the different joints are specified by muscles, structures which can vary only in one dimension, the contractile state. If the shoulder stabilisers, the biceps and triceps are excluded, it still requires the regulation of 26 DF to

321 specify the a specific position of the arm at any given time. Bearing in mind that the human body consists of approximately 102 joints, 103 muscles and 1014 muscle cells, the organisation required to achieve proper relations among these numerous DFs that have to be controlled by the CNS, appreciates considerably (Turvey, 1990) (Prilutsky & Zatsiorsky, 2002, however, estimated the number of muscles in the human body to be approximately 650), something which raises the question of how proper relations between these many degrees of freedom are achieved. The number of DF that the motor control system has to deal with is further aggravated by the fact that when a muscle generates a moment with respect to a particular DF (primary moment) it also creates additional undesirable moments about other DF (secondary moments), which have to be compensated for by other muscles that in turn create undesirable moments about other DF (tertiary moments), and so on (Prilutsky & Zatsiorsky, 2002). The undesirable secondary and tertiary moments are examples of Feldenkrais' (1985: xiii-xiv) so-called parasitic movements (section 6.4.6.2). On horseback the situation is worsened even more by additional moments created by the movement of the horse and rider, a situation calling for the utmost of harmony between the two organisms (Oliveira, 1988: 17, 29).

If each body part has to behave according to instructions from an outside source (the CNS), it is understandable why critics of the motor programme approach argue that since every movement must have an explicit representation stored in the central nervous system, the motor programme notion assumes too much organisation, neural computation, and direct control by the brain and spinal cord mechanisms, and also that many of the features of the dynamics of movement, such as the springlike properties of contracting muscle and the preferred frequencies of oscillation of the limb segments are not considered (Schmidt, 1991: 93). In the traditional approach to motor control, the contribution of the kinematic and dynamic aspects of movement to its control and coordination, as well as the functional expediencies of these aspects are simply ignored or totally underestimated (Turvey, Fitch & Tuller, 1982: 239). One way out of this

322 dilemma would be to reason that motor acts are produced through the fitting together of autonomous subsystemscoordinative structures12 each of which solves a limited aspect of the action problem (Fowler & Turvey, 1978: 17-18). The question of what is being supplied by the coordinative structures could be answered by proposing that they supply certain relations among various parts of the body. Unfortunately this answer, if left unqualified, may, according to Fowler and Turvey (1978: 18) steer dangerously near to an "air theory" formulation of coordinated activity in which the moving organism is construed as being suspended in a vacuum, oblivious to external environmental forces. For Bernstein, however, the obvious fundamentality of the contribution of kinematic and dynamic aspects of movement to its control led him to characterise the study of movements in terms of the problems of coordinating and controlling a complex system of biokinematic links (Bernstein, 1967: 125; Turvey, 1990; Turvey, Fitch & Tuller, 1982: 239). Bernstein also recognised that the focus of analysis could not simply be the muscular forces provided by the animal, but must necessarily include other forces as well (Bernstein, 1967: 125127; Turvey, Fitch & Tuller, 1982: 239). Therefore aspects such as inertia, reactive forces, muscle balance (or its opposite muscle imbalance, see Janda, 1993; Janda, 1994; Loots, Loots & Steyn, 2002; Richardson, 1992) and initial postural conditions have to combine with active muscle forces in producing movements, and therefore any straightforward, unambiguous relation between the nervous impulses innervating movements, and the movements themselves can be ruled out. In so doing, Bernstein underscored the essential formative and steering roles of the information available to perceptual systems (Turvey, 1990). To summarise, Bernstein recognised that any theory which ignores the contribution of kinematic and dynamic aspects of movement, and considers only those contributed by muscles in the functional description of movements would be a theory of miming of movements, rather than a theory of movements themselves, simply because any coordinated activity requires an environment of forces for its proper expression (Fowler & Turvey, 1978: 18: Turvey, Fitch & Tuller, 1982: 239).

323

Bernstein (1967: 104-105) noted that the periphery does not have rigid mechanical connections with the control centre, as is usually taken for granted, movements are therefore not completely determined by effector processes. Factors, which could play a role in the control and outcome of movements will be reviewed in the following section.

8.3.2 Context-conditioned variability

The second problem posed to the system of motor control is context-conditioned variability. The variables, which are assumed to be under the control of the nervous system (keyboard variables), do not have fixed movement consequences (Turvey, Shaw & Mace, 1978: 559). It has been pointed out previously, that movements are not completely determined by the effector processes emanating from a central source of control or a central motor programme (Bernstein, 167: 105). In order to ensure that any planned movement is being correctly executed, Bernstein (1967: 105) proposed that in addition to the initial effector system there also exist more or less complicated auxiliary systems which ensure constant and complete control of the periphery by the motor control centreor motor programme if one so wishesin the CNS. The deeper the functional gap and the less the univocality between the CNS and the periphery, the more complex and unstable will be the real relationship between the efferent output and the movement. This will result in greater numbers of DF of the motor periphery relative to the central effector. This in turn will require more complex and delicate organisational control. The latter control in Bernsteins (1967: 105) view constituted motor coordination.

Bernstein (1967: 105) was of the opinion that in this context the notion of coordination is closely related to the idea of what he termed as functional nonunivocality of the connections between the motor centre and the periphery, between efferent impulses and their effects. To paraphrase Bernstein (1967:

324 105) one can state that in riding the more our understanding of the forms and types of these univocalities increases, the deeper will our understanding of the coordination of movements in riding, and it's link to the Greek ideal of harmony and grace.

Turvey, Fitch & Tuller (1982: 246) referred to these sources of interdeterminancy as context-conditioned variability. Bernstein (1967: 105-107) defined three major sources of context-conditioned variability; these will be briefly discussed below.

8.3.2.1

Variability due to anatomical factors

Those who would take hold of the world and act on it, Never I notice succeed (Lao Tzu) (Wing, 1986: 83).

There is a large number of DF in the movement of the joints, and more so in the complex kinematic chains found in the make-up of the rider and horse. This provides many sources of indeterminancy. This could include the question of whether it is feasible to consider the commonly held concept of fixed anatomical agonists and antagonists at many joints. The existence of muscle co-activation in order to stabilise a joint (Baratta et al., 1988) is an example of the fact that muscles may act synergistically, even around a single joint. Other examples are: a) the variation in function of one and the same muscle group at multiaxial joints in relation to the disposition the limb segments, b) the multiplicity of the actions of the muscles where they act on more than a single joint (Bernstein, 1967: 105; Turvey, Fitch & Tuller, 1982: 246).

In practice this variability due to anatomical factors implies that the role of any muscle in a motor act is context dependant. Given one relation, for example, between the angle of pull of the m. pectoralis major and the axis of the shoulder joint (arm held below level of shoulder joint), its contraction will result in

325 adduction of the arm, whereas given another relation (arm held at shoulder level) will abduct the arm (Turvey, Fitch & Tuller, 1982: 246-248). Also, the position of a body part will determine which muscles will be involved in attaining a specific goal. So for example, do we find that in the human neck the effects of bilateral contraction of the sternocleidomastoids may vary according to the state of contraction of the other neck muscles. If the neck is flexible, bilateral contraction accentuates the cervical lordosis already present, with extension of the head and flexion of the cervical column relative to the thoracic. If, however, the cervical column is kept straight and stabilised by the action of the prevertebral muscles, then bilateral contraction will produce flexion of the cervical column relative to the thoracic and forward flexion of the head (Gorman, 1981: Section 1, 188). Likewise will the function and action of the horse's neck muscles be affected by the position of its head and neck, a variable which may be strongly determined by the use of the rider's hands. Head and neck position will not only affect the function of specific muscles in and around the neck, but due to the phenomenon of reactivity of movement (section 8.1.2) the activity of other muscles as well.

Habitual positioning of the body parts relative to each other determines the context in which muscles will function, and the way in which the body musculature of the rider and horse will be employed in riding. An example is the effect of the position and shape of the chest on the function of his abdominal muscles, his seat and ability to communicate with the horse (section 8.1.2).

Unbeknown to Bernstein, and something seldom considered by those currently involved in the field of research in motor control, is the effect of the habitual use of the neuromuscular system on the organism's neuromuscular coordination and efficiency. There is very little available evidence in scientific literature to show what can be considered to be normal or ideal in human neuromuscular function. Yet, one should take heed of the remark of Medawar (1967: 109) in which he

326 stated that it is not informative to study variations of behaviour unless the norm from which the variations depart is known beforehand.

What is known at present, however, is that exact standards for good posture, for example, are not available (Loots, 1999: 14-16) and that all postural tests are probably constructed around the premise that the less the jointed parts of the body deviate from the vertical, the smaller the rotational stresses demanding equilibrium by means of muscular contraction and energy cost (Hellebrandt & Franseen, 1943). This explains why the biomechanical ideal upright posture is used as a reference (Dangerfield, 1996: 96; Gross, Fetto & Rosen, 1996: 432441; Howorth, 1946).

Likewise, do we know that efficient and graceful movement is, according to some, is something to strive for. Those involved in the training of the middle distance athlete, Sebastian Coe (winner of the 1500m in the 1984 Olympics in Los Angeles, and holder of three middle distance world records), for example, were aware of the value of correct body biomechanics, and set out to improve the running biomechanics of their athlete (Martin & Coe, 1990: 4, 15-18). They questioned the school of thought that argues that ones natural style is not only best, but also to be unchangeable. To Martin and Coe (1990: 15) this way of thinking represents a defeatist attitude. It ignores the reality that the nervous system has great adaptive capabilities to incorporate subtle changes in data input that create an improved movement pattern. In so many coaches expert in design of corrective exercises and instructional commands can bring observable changes in style that contribute to improved performance (Martin & Coe, 1990: 15). Lowman (1958) was of similar opinion not only for running, but included other sport as well.

Poor running biomechanics were probably the cause for the surprise defeat of the British runner David Bedford in the European Championships in Helsinki. During the final lap of the 10 000 m, Juha Vaatainen, a runner with excellent

327 body mechanics, overtook Bedford. Careful study of television film and still photographs vividly demonstrated the perfect, economical, upright posture of Vaatainen, and the suspect forward lean-forward, shoulder-rolling style of Bedford, which made the British newspaper, the Sunday Times to ask the question Is Bedfords style wrong? (Gelb, 1981: 113).

The biomechanics of a sports person, can be changed with relative ease, sometimes even in a relatively short period of time. The author of the present study, has in the past improved the running style of numerous athletes, and in each case the improved running styles were accompanied not only by increased running speed, but also by decreased impact on the running surface, as well as an increase of the athletes subjective perception of the muscular effort involved whilst running at competitive speeds. These and other observed changes in these athletes concurred with those of Beck (1966, cited by Martin & Coe, 1990: 15), who carefully noted changes in running styles as children mature. Beck found in her runners longer running strides, the foot strike coming closer to a point under the centre of gravity, more float time, decreased vertical oscillation and increased knee flexion at the end of the forward swing. Martin and Coe (1991: 15) was of the opinion that good coaching aught to assist more mature runners in refining their form in a similar manner.

In the present study it was found that in all rider horse combinations, variability due to anatomic factors, invariably involved both horse and rider. When riders, for example, changed their use for the better, their mounts responded in their movement in a similar way to that described by Beck (1966, cited by Martin & Coe, 1990: 15) in human athletes. Also found was improvement in the postures of the equines, especially obvious in their necks and backs. Manifest also were the increase in knee flexion and engagement in the hind legs. Likewise, can improved biomechanics in the horse be expected to result in improved biomechanics of the rider (Figures 8.7 & 8.8).

328 The actions and forms of organisms are limited by environmental conditions, imposed upon the organism from the outside (e.g. the effect of the earth's gravity) or from within (the dimensions of the organism, such as its height or length). That form or actions of organisms could change in response to gravity or body dimensions are examples of the Principle of Similitude or Dynamical Similarity (Kugler, Kelso & Turvey, 1982: 7).

The significance of the principle of similitude for riding is the fact that a particular bodily form, anatomical structure or physiological arrangement only serve as a "method" or means for realising a given effectivity (effectivity = goal directed activity) only up to a certain linear dimension. Beyond that magnitude the "method" for realising the same effectivity will have to change (Kugler, Kelso & Turvey, 1982: 7). Putting a rider on a horse's back would be an example of exceeding the limits of linear dimensions in the movement of the horse, with the consequence that the horse now has to make use of a new "method" in order to achieve a desired movement/action. When during its growth enough opportunity is awarded to the child and adolescent to develop its effectivity the individual will at a certain point in time change to a more appropriate method of controlling its new body dimensions and mass (Kugler, Kelso & Turvey, 1982: 8). This would tie in with what Beck (1996, cited by Martin & Coe, 1990: 15) observed in the developing subjects of her study. What is meaningful to note here is the fact that changes in movement patterns were associated with improvements in use. It would, therefore, be ideal if the horse, during its training be allowed to develop its own new "method" of effectivity with minimum interference from the rider, and that riders and trainers accept the fact that this may be a protracted process (as in the developing child)a process which will entail all the mechanisms involved in movement and carriage of the horse, be it of neurological, biomechanical, bio-energetic origin, etc. (see Clayton, 1991: 165-172; Kugler, Kelso & Turvey, 1982: 5-78, for example, and section 6.6.2). Should the horse be constrained to work in the postures shown in Figure 6.2, by the excessive use of the hands by the rider, the horse may have to make

329 additional changes in its "method" in order to compensate for the artificial change in body dimensions (Kugler, Kelso & Turvey, 1982: 10). Since the relative positions of different body parts is critical in the attainment of poise (section 6.4.7) the effectiveness of these changes is questionable, and that one has to consider the fact that although changes in the"method" employed by the organism, this can only result in poise if certain biomechanical, physiological and anatomical criteria are met.

8.3.2.2

Mechanical variability

According to Bernstein (1967: 105), there are a number of sources of indeterminancy, of a mechanical order. Of significance here, is firstly, the closed dependence between muscle tensions and movements. To be

appreciated here is the fact that a given innervational state of a muscle does not have a fixed movement sequence. Given a specific innervational state, under some conditions, for example, the result will be one kind of movement, while under other conditions, a different movement will ensue. Thus the relationship between the muscle's degree of activation and the consequent joint or limb position or movement is not fixed, but ambiguous (Turvey, Fitch & Tuller, 1982: 248). Mechanical sources of variability mean that the relationship between the state of a muscle and the movement consequence is a variablethe relationship depends on the context (Turvey, Fitch & Tuller, 1982: 248).

The second principal fact in this group is the existence of a high degree of mechanical complexity in the multisegmental kinematic chains of the limbs and, in particular, of the body as a whole (Bernstein, 1967: 106; Also refer to Ayub, 1987: 69-78). This complexity conditions the great abundance of all sorts of reactive forces and moments, for example, any change in activity in the shoulder joint the rest of the arm will necessarily change in certain ways because the joints are linked. These changes generate kinetic energy, energy which will work backwards against the shoulder joint. This again underscores the fact that

330 the forces operating in a body part are not only muscle forces (Turvey, Fitch & Tuller, 1982: 248-249). In both the horse and rider a number of such interacting chains of non-muscular forces are found. The non-muscular effects of these are apparent in the nodding heads of riders during the sitting trot, and the pounding the backs of some horses have to deal with during the canter. The chains are complex and the consequence of this complexity is that these chains become extremely capricious and uncertain elements in the fulfilment of any action or movement in riding.

8.3.2.3

Physiological variability

This variability deals with the selective interrelationships that exist between the periphery and effector impulses reaching it (Bernstein, 1967: 106). Bernstein was emphatic about the fact that the motor effect of a central impulse cannot be decided in the brain, but is decided at the periphery: at the last spinal and neuromuscular synapse, at the muscle, in the mechanical and anatomical changes of forces in the limb being moved, etc (Bernstein, 1967: 106-107).

When the original Russian edition of the chapter from which the above reference was taken titled: Biodynamics of Locomotion was published in 1940 (Bernstein, 1967: 60-113), Bernstein pointed out the decisive role played by afferentation (p 107) in the achievement of motor control. To him afferentation not only determined the physiological conductivity of peripheral synapses, but also served as the entity by which brain centres, in terms of the mechanical and physiological conditions of the motor apparatus, is guided. Careful analysis of Bernstein's reasoning (see p. 107) indicates that, despite the fact that he was aware of the actuality that control of motor acts is not finally decided and described in the higher centres, but rather at the periphery, he still assigned final control of motor actions solely to the CNS. Modern dynamical systems theory, however, goes further than this, by stating that the role of muscle biomechanical

331 properties, muscle bio-energetics, etc. should also brought into the equation (Kugler, Kelso & Turvey, 1982; 5-78).

The importance of variability aspect of context-conditioned variability and motor control in rider and horse will be discussed in the following section which deals with the learning of new movements, and context conditioned variability will be used as a basis for the acquisition of proper riding technique by the rider and the attainment of the ever illusive harmony between horse and rider.

8.3.2.4

The management of DF by motor control systems

The question that needs to be addressed in this section is how can the many degrees of freedom of the body be regulated in varying contexts in a systematic way by a minimally intelligent executive intervening minimally (Tuller, Turvey & Fitch, 1982: 253)? The nervous system partially solves the problem of DF by the construction of synergies of action (muscle linkage or coordinative structures, see section 7.1.1.1 and Tuller, Turvey & Fitch, 1982: 253) that mobilise the heterogenous, but entirely independent components (Thelen & Smith, 1996: 77). The latter components include muscular and non-muscular forces. In the discussions above two fundamental problems in the Bernsteinian perspective were considered: The problem of DF and that of context-conditioned variability. By briefly paraphrasing Turvey, Fitch and Tuller (1982: 251) from a riding perspective the way in which this relates to the acquisition of motor skills will be discussed in the paragraphs to follow.

When one begins to learn a new skill, one of the first things noticeable will be the tendency to eliminate some degrees of freedom. There are basically two ways in which this can be accomplished. The first has already been referred to in section 8.3.1, which considered the linking of structures.

332 The second way one has to deal with DF is determined by the nature of the circumstances which horse and rider find themselves during riding. The act of riding induces additional degrees of freedom to both rider and horse, mainly as a result of the inclusion of non-muscular reactive forces (caused by the movement of the horse, movement, which in the rider causes instability of his position in the saddle, and that some actions will tend to throw his body off balance, and thus creating additional DFs). The same kind of instability will also occur in the horse. In the present study it was invariably found in all riders unfamiliar to the classical method of riding was to become rigid in response to non-muscular reactive forces. The more unfamiliar the task to rider and/or horse, the worse the rigidity will become. Thus, rigidity is a common way to solve movement and balance problems. One can therefore conclude that rigidity as a compensatory mechanism is not the prerogative of the brain injured only, but also forms part and parcel of the movement control package of normal individuals. Rigidity in riders serves as an attempt to minimise the degrees of freedom. At this point it has to be reiterated that this problem is not solved by most of the current training in riding (Figures 4.1, 5.1, 6.2).

What functions in rigid riders and horses as linked structures, is the rigidity in their muscles. The consequence of this is an absence of the flexibility, and ease of movement of skilled performers. Observe a novice rider during his first riding lessons. Initially the novice will ride with a rigid body, grip the horse firmly with his calves. For the rider the stiff posture simplifies the problem to some extent, but does not allow for efficient riding. As the novice gets slightly better, more and more body movement will be allowed into the way he rides. Several degrees of freedom are now unfrozen. Unfreezing of structures and

movement does not at this stage imply random, uncontrolled movement of body structures and muscles, but signifies the development of specific coordinative structures, which in turn will allow more freedom of movement. The observer will notice that the rider rides more in harmony with the movements of the horse, the horse will respond in a similar way (Figures 8.7c-f & 8.8).

333

Nevertheless, there is still a ban on many degrees of freedom as far as the movement is concerned, because they constitute too much trouble for the novice. The novice is trying to avoid the creation of too many non-muscular reactive forces, thus placing too many demands on his ability to deal with the act of riding. He will find that some actions will tend to throw his body off balance, such as trying to sit while the horse is trotting, or when the horse is put into a canter. As the riders skill increases, and learns to work with the reactive forces emanating from the movement of the horse, he will gradually release the ban on the DF created by non-muscular forces, allowing additional degrees of freedom to creep in, which in turn will the consequence of an increase in the number and size of coordinative structures. Why is the novice now trying to regulate more degrees of freedom? Fundamentally, it is because the skill demands it. A good rider must allow flexibility in the hips, shoulders and joints of the limbs. The additional DFs are important in giving a deeper and more stable seat. In summary, acquiring a skill is essentially trying to find ways of controlling DF and of exploiting the non-muscular forces made available by the context. Teaching a novice rider the art of classical riding on a novice horse is not a good idea, since both organisms will have to learn to deal what emanates from the others body. In the author of the present studys experience this approach may work in the long run, but it is not the advantage of both rider and horse since the time spent on learning riding is just too long. The use of a well trained school horse (Handler, 1972: 188-191; Harris, C. 1992: xi; Loch, 1997: 87-88; Podhajsky, 1967: 210-211; Steinbrecht, 1884/1995: 3) for training of novice riders or riders with specific problems, is the ideal. The opposite is true for the novice horse where it is mandatory that they should be trained and ridden by experts.

334 8.4 THE APPLICATION OF SMALLER WHOLES IN THE TRAINING OF RIDER AND HORSETHE USE OF AFFORDANCES

8.4.1 The acquisition of skill

Since riding is a novel experience to both rider and horse during all the different stages of training (see section 6.2.1), some form of maturation can be expected to take place in the rider and horse in order to master the skills required for classical riding. This maturation process can be compared to what occurs in the motor development in the newborn and child. This maturation in terms of the learning process in riding is discussed below.

Thelen, Kelso and Fogel (1987) proposed that the task of motor skill acquisition can be envisioned as a systems product of a number of component processes. In the rider and horse these processes are (Thelen, Kelso & Fogel, 1987): ! Structures in the perceptual domain must gain the ability to recognise affordances in the environment and then to monitor the orientation and stability of the body in relation to these affordances. !

Cognitive abilities have to mature in order to formulate symbolic plans or goals in relation to the current affordances, and in the light of past experience.

In parallel with the above the motor cortex must mature (in the case of the rider and horse develop) sufficiently to encode some motor transduction of those goals in order to be able to recruit the appropriate coordinative structures.

In order to implement the above in the newborn, Thelen, Kelso and Fogel (1987), for example, suggested that elements of correct coordination must be

335 differentiated from the total synergies of the newborn, and then integrated with each other and the coordinative substrata for balance and posture. The effector system (muscles and joints) must then provide the strength and stability for the realisation of these coordinations. The novice rider and horse enters a new domain, and will therefore, in many ways find themselves in a similar situation. In the context of the present study it was found that the best way to achieve this ideal was to follow the path suggested by Coghill (1933b) of the whole to the part, i.e. starting with postural control and correct muscle balance, to the individual elements (the limbs). For this purpose the effector system of the rider and horse (the muscles and joints) had to acquire the ability to provide the strength and stability for the realisation of the required coordinative structures. During this process, rider and horse had to learn to control the energy delivered to the motor system, not only to maintain themselves in the appropriate state for action, but also to fine tune their movements to their goals (Thelen, Kelso & Fogel, 1987). 8.4.2 Acquisition of skill by the rider

Smaller and smaller wholes arranged in a hierarchical fashion, (section 4.3.3.1) have been previously described in literature on human motor control. Examples of such smaller wholes are the tonic neck reactions (TNR) which underlie ordinary movements of daily activity, serving to orient the animals limbs to the requirements of intention as expressed by perhaps the gaze (Easton, 1972; Fukuda, 1961; Magnus, 1926ab). It should be kept in mind that it is not only larger wholes that regulate the functions of smaller ones, but that the opposite may also be true. So, for example, is the function of the total body musculature regulated by the position of the head and neck (Alexander, 1932/1985: 49-51; Ayub, 1987: 69-75, 77; Bernstein, 1967: 112; Feldenkrais, 1984: 123-129; Magnus, 1926 ab; Magnus & de Klein, 1912ab; 1913), while in a similar way can the neck muscles be influenced by what is happening elsewhere in the body (Hellebrandt et al., 1956).

336

One of these reactions, the asymmetric tonic neck reflex (ATNR) (Magnus, 1926ab; Fukuda, 1961; Roberts, 1978: 243-258) was found to be very useful in the training of both riders and horses in the present study. The use of this reaction was only of value however, if embraced into larger wholes such as the general "manner of use" in both rider and horse (Alexander, 1932/1985: 22; Dart, 1947). These reactions cannot be elicited in either completely relaxed or in rigid extremities (Hellebrandt, Schade & Carns, 1962), which meant that riders in the present study had to be confident and calm in their ability to ride, before any attempts were made to elicit the tonic neck reactions. Another reason for this approach was the fact that stress in active limbs in turn, may result in a tonic effect on the muscles of the neck (Hellebrandt et al., 1956), an effect sufficient to modify the position of the head autonomously and to stimulate the receptive field activating the TNRs. On the basis of this, minimal use of leg and arm muscles of the rider was advocated. Riders were introduced to the implementation of ATNR (chunks or smaller "wholes") and their employment in riding, only when their manner of use was of such a standard that they were able to incorporate the principle of the inclusion of smaller wholes into larger ones. This ability went hand in hand with their manner of use during riding. The yardsticks by which the manner of use of riders were judged, was firstly their attainment of a good and deep seat, a good relaxed posture and the absence of undue muscular tension during riding. Secondly, and perhaps more importantly, the "manner of use" in riders had to be accompanied by improvement in the "manner of use" of their mounts. Therefore apparent improvements in the manner of use of riders were not considered to be of any value if their mounts did not demonstrate good use in all paces.

Proper execution of corners, circles and two-track work not only serves to supple the horse (Decarpentry, 1949/1987: 111-120, 121-132; Froissard, 1988:

337 75; Gurinire, 1733/1994: 137), but also, if in both rider and horse it is executed correctly, creates the correct bend or twist, improves the "manner of use" in actions like the sitting trot, the canter, the flying change in the canter, the shoulder-in, and the half-pass. The danger, however, lies in the possibility of any action by rider or horse disturbing the "manner of use" of both organisms. The proper way therefore would be to follow the suggestion by Belasik (1999: 42-43) that similarity in movement should be governed by the similarity in anatomical structure (see section 7.1.2.2). The ATNR (Magnus, 1926a; Fukuda, 1961) in man and animal is similar in anatomical structure and function, and therefore fulfils this requirement. The ATNR may also be considered to be a smaller "whole" in the scheme of equitation. This reaction implies that if the head of a subject is rotated to the right extension of the ipsilateral limbs occurs, while flexion is observed in the contralateral limbs (Magnus, 1926a; Fukuda, 1961). The purpose of the use of the ATNR in riders was fourfold. Firstly it served as a vehicle to educate riders in the value and meaning of correct muscle tension especially in the areas of the lower back and abdomen, secondly its regular use contributed to enhanced suppleness in and use of the lower back of the riders, thirdly it aided in the correct positioning and use of the rider's inside hip, inside leg and outside leg, without the rider having to consider the position and use of each of these body-parts. Lastly, but probably most importantly, the ATNR was used here to fulfil the role of an affordance (section 7.1.2.2), an affordance, by virtue of it being part of a generic system in rider and horse, more readily induced the horse to mimic the rider's position and action.

Riders were taught the use of the ATNR on the ground at first, and later on horseback (Figures 8.10 & 8.11). The sequence in the training of the ATNR on the ground is shown in Figure 8.10. Riders were requested to stand on one leg (the right for example), with their arms bent in the riding position, and then to turn their eyes slowly to the right and to allow their heads and upper torsos to

338 rotate in the same direction. Care was taken to ensure that these structures were supported by the maintenance of the proper position of their pelvi, i.e. by straightening their lower backs. The easiest way of accomplishing the latter was to maintain a slightly bent position in the hip, knee and ankle joints (Figure 8.10). The position had to be maintained for as least 30 sec. and with the course of time for longer and longer periods. The exercise was repeated to the left. Experience showed that the success of this manoeuvre largely depended on the flexibility and balance of the subjects. After continuous repetition riders were able to execute this manoeuvre to the right and left with ease. The action may then be performed on the horse (Figure 8.11).

Experience of the author of the present study with the use of ATNR revealed that turning to the right was invariably accompanied with the mass-bearing leg becoming like a pillar, and the opposite non-mass-bearing leg swinging towards the side of the horse, thus mimicking the recommended supporting action of the outside leg when riding corners and circles (The German National Equestrian Federation, 1985: 86) (Figures 8.1 & 8.11), which releases the rider from having to consciously execute this action.

The outcome of this approach was that during the execution of actions which, required bending of the horse to the inside, riders were able to execute the requirements for these actions by a single, simple and a physiologically more correct action. The advantages of the use of the ATNR were that riders were: !

Firstly able to transfer some of their body mass to their inside sitting bones.

Secondly the inside leg could act as a pillar, and by varying the vertical pressure applied by the foot against the thread of the stirrup, a greater pressure of the stirrup leather on the inside horse's side (Roberts, 1992: 77-78), thus acting as a leg aid. This action then makes the often used

339 action of lateral pressure exerted by the calf against the saddle-flap unnecessary. !

Thirdly the outside leg is placed in the correct position to prevent the haunches of the horse swinging to the outside.

Correct execution of the ATNR within its holistic framework, will afford the horse to execute a movement in 4 tracks (such as the shoulder-in), for example, as well as the canter shown in the engravings of Parrocel 13 (Gurinire, 1733/1994: 135) (Figures 7.1, 8.12). Careful scrutiny of Parrocel's engravings shows that what happens when riders follow the principles of the ATNR. The riders in Figures 7.1, 8.12 and 8.13 rotate their eyes, head and torso into the direction they wish the horse to bend (in Figures 8.10 & 8.11 it is done to the right). During riding their inside sitting bone is deep and firm into the saddle, the inside legs act as a pillar (the lower legs not touching the sides of the horse, however). There is some indication of extension of the riders "jaw" elbows, exemplified by the lowering of the inside hand, and flexion of the "skull" elbow, illustrated by the lifting of the outside hand. This high standard of performance is only possible if the total manner of use in the rider is excellent.

Turning the body as far to the right as possible, such as shown in Figure 8.11 has the additional advantage that it introduces to the rider the concept of using his muscles in a spring-like manner, thereby improving his ability to create a coordinative structure which exhibits mass-spring behaviour (Kelso et al., 1980: 49,66, also refer to section 7.1.1.1). This resulted in the creation of the correct muscle tension necessary for the execution of the sitting trot or canter. All riders in the present study were advised to do this exercise during their training sessions, and their responses to this were invariably that this manoeuvre increased the stability of their seats.

340

Figure 8.10:

The teaching of the ATNR to riders on the ground as demonstrated by the author of the present study. The shoulders and thorax are rotated to the right (blue arrow). The inside (R) hip is pushed slightly forward and the non-weight bearing hip (L) backwards (red arrow). The inside hip and leg are positioned to support the weight of the riders body.

Figure 8.11:

The teaching of the ATNR and mass-spring model approach to riders whilst riding demonstrated by the author of the present study. Here the shoulders and thorax of the rider are rotated as far to the right as possible. The inside (R) hip is pushed slightly forward and the non-weight bearing hip acts backwards. The inside hip and leg (R) are so positioned to support the weight of the riders body (not shown).The outside leg (L facing), positioned behind the girth keeps the horse from throwing out its hind quarters.

341

Figure 8.12:

A horse executing a canter right, in which the haunches are flexed and the horse slightly bent to the right, the off (right) fore is leading, depicted in an engraving by Charles Parrocel (Gurinire, 1733/1994: 135). Note the exemplary manner of use in the rider. The riders eyes, his head, torso is positioned to the right, the seat is deep and the inside leg straightened, the slight lowering of the jaw (right) rein, the slight lifting of the skull (left) hand, as well as the softness of the reins. There is lowering in the croup of the horse due to flexion in the joints of the hind legs (flexion of the haunches).

342

Figure 8.13:

A gelding executing a shoulder in under the guidance of the author of the present study. The movement of the horse is determ ined by the riders body language (affordance), and not by his hands or legs. The blue arrow denotes the trajectory of the left hind leg. Note the bend of the horse to the inside.

8.4.2.1

The incorporation of the whole in training of the rider in the use of parts

In the 1800s it was suggested that the instructor should start off by examining the riders natural position, in order to exercise more frequently those parts, which have a tendency to give way or stiffen (Baucher, 1842/1992: 100). This is in essence the route the expert in muscle-imbalance or malposture would normally follow, since this would indicate the general manner of use in the rider. The presence of neuromuscular integration in all motor acts, whether good or bad, has already been pointed out previously (section 6.4.8). It is the premise on which training and education of the rider should be based upon, one of its main pillars being the improvement in sensory awareness (Alexander, 1932/1985: 68-69; Gallwey, 1976: 45-66). In the Western culture little

importance has been given to body awareness, with its over-emphasis on

343 achievement (Gallwey, 1976: 73). Gallwey (1976: 73-74) also observed that if the individual becomes too goal-oriented and exited about the results of his actions there is a loss of contact with his body, and performance suffers. Yet, there seems to be a link between the level of self-awareness and the level of self-appreciation (Alexander, 1932/1985: 68-69).

The larger whole was taught to riders by continually accentuating to them the awareness of what they were doing, and to concentrate on what they experienced during the execution of a specific task. Riders were assisted in this, by constant teaching by means of handling of the pupil (Barlow, 1990: 196205; Rywerant, 1983). In this respect Baucher (1842/1992: 100) suggested that the instructor, during the first lesson, for example, take hold of the pupils leg and direct it, in order to make him understand the proper way of performing this displacement. The rider and horse's attention was always focussed towards experiencing their errors and the correct execution of the action itself as well its sensory outcome. The purpose of the use of the ATNR, for example, to modify and improve behaviour in horse and rider, therefore, was to make use of scientific based information and fit it into a more holistic perspective than what is common practice at present, and also to work on the concept that organisms are in fact, in continuous non-equilibrium with the environment.

8.4.3 The acquisition of skill by the horse

8.4.3.1

The incorporation of the whole in training the horse in the use of its parts

In 1842 a Frenchman named Franois Baucher published a book Methode d*Equitation base sur de nouveaux principes (New method of horsemanship) (Nelson, 1992: 20-22). This book caused an uproar when it was first published

344 (Nelson, 1992: 22; Steinbrecht: 1884/1995: 49), and even today is still the subject of heated debate (Decarpentry, 1949/1987: 12-13; Froissard, 1988: 122123; Podhajsky, 1967: 23; Seunig, 1974: 48; Winnett, 1993: 185-187). Baucher described a simple, yet very effective, way to supple the horse`s head, neck, shoulders, back, hindquarters and limbs (which was his nouvelle mthode), making even the most difficult horse tractable, obedient and safe to ride. Baucher`s new method unfortunately led to hostility from horsemen trained and educated in the traditional manner. This negative response was due to the factors listed below. !

The speed with which these changes were effected, and Baucher`s extraordinary ability to train even the most difficult horse to do high school movements within a short time. Before, years were spent by Classical academies and riding schools in order to supple their horses by means of exercises such as mounted and dismounted lateral work, a common practice even today. With his dismounted suppling Baucher achieved the same end within eight to ten weeks (Harris, 1992: ix-xi).

Baucher declared openly that before him no one had ever properly explained or defined in their writings how to school a horse (Baucher, 1842/1992: 103-104; Nelson, 1992: 20). Unfortunately only a few

horsemen understood what Baucher tried to do and to achieve with his new method, the most famous being the brilliant Portugese horseman, Nuno Oliveira (Harris, 1992: x). With the emergence of recent more ecological approaches to the function of the horse`s and human`s bodies and its control, the legacy of Baucher is now easier to understand and to implement.

What was the secret of his method? Baucher was the first horseman to understand the science and relevance of combining the horse`s centre of gravity with his centre of motion (Harris, 1992: x). Like the old equestrian masters he

345 knew what was physiologically, and probably also mentally, required in a horse to do high school movements with ease and grace. Since horses do not understand human language, he developed a method from the ground, which called for exceptional equestrian tact and subtlety from the trainer (Harris, 1992: ix). In order to develop and apply this technique he had to have had an understanding of the importance of the interrelationships between the different parts of the body of the horse during movement, and the way these interrelationships and the movement per se were controlled by the horse`s nervous system. Baucher, like his predecessors and contemporaries,

understood the phenomenon that movement/action in any part of the body required the involvement of the total neuromuscular system of the horsenot least that of the head and neck (Magnus, 1926ab; Fukuda, 1961; Sherrington, 1946: 89, also see sections 6.3.1 & 6.4.7). Although not expressed in modern terms, one notices that he was aware of the principle that a dysfunction in one part of the horse`s musculature produces a chain of reactions which may involve the whole motor system and vice versa (Baucher, 1842/1992: 116-117). Baucher realised that if the horse is taught the proper use of its jaw and neck for example, the function of the rest of its musculature will also be improved (Baucher, 1842/1992: 116-117). This he did by means of the scientific use of his seat, simple weight aids and most important of all his on the ground flexions which were basically the guiding and teaching the horse by means of subtle and delicate use of the hands. The genius of Baucher in this respect lay in the fact that, unlike other horsemen, he realised the value of the art of using the trainers hands as tools to change the settings of -, or to activate certain circuits in the nervous system of the animal he was working with (in this case the horse). By doing so he managed to eradicate resistance in the horse, which usually prevent it to yield itself to the influences of the rider, and offering true collection (see Baucher, 1842/1992: 108, 114; Nelson, 1992: 24-25).

Baucher`s dismounted suppling exercises are done using a double bridle. These consists of <flexion exercises to supple the jaw, <depression of the neck

346 by direct flexion of the jaw and lateral flexions of the neck (Baucher 1842/1992: 107-118) by guiding the head of the horse in the desired position, and holding it here for a short period of time. One of the findings of the present study was that for the modern horseman Baucher`s technique not only serves to teach the horse, but equally well to teach the trainer and rider about the sensitivity of the horse`s mouth, the consequences of certain acts of the hands on the horse, and the importance of the lightest action of the reins. These exercises and their use by the modern horseman are demonstrated in Baucher (1842/1992: 108-118) and Froissard, (1988: 29-46).

In the present study it was found that from the saddle horses can also be trained by the creation of affordances by the rider, something that Hempling (2002: 3335) would consider to be body-language. The most simple way of training a horse by means of affordances during riding is the use of corners and circles to induce bending to the inside of the circle or corner, and to strike off on the correct leg in the canter, since corners and circles may induce the rider to look to the inside of the circle or corner. By doing so the rider will unwittingly do the ATNR (i.e. if the muscle tension in the rider is correct, see Hellebrandt, Schade & Carns, 1962).

8.4.4 Absolute coordination (AC)

We return to the concept of coordination, but in this case from a more integrated standpoint (see section 8.1.1.1). !

Two or more limbs or two or more body segments are in absolute coordination when they oscillate at the same period and maintain, thereby, a steady phase relation between them. The most prevalent examples of absolute coordination are limbs whose individual motions are pendulum-like and clock-like (Schmidt & Turvey, 1989: 124). An example of this is walking in the human, which can be likened to the

347 motion of coupled pendula, since the stance leg behaves like an inverted pendulum moving about the stance foot , and the swing leg like a regular pendulum swing about the hip (Kuo, Donelan & Ruina, 2005). !

Absence of absolute coordination is given, for example, by the disconnectedness or fragmentation of patterns (section 6.4.6) in rider and horse. The ultimate of absolute coordination on the other hand, would be harmony between horse and rider.

Neurophysiological theories of absolute coordination assume that the nervous system is causally responsible for the coordinating. At the basis of this lie multiple central rhythmic-pattern generators (Schmidt & Turvey, 1989: 124).

The ecological approach (section 4.3.1) to AC argues that the nervous system is not regarded to be solely responsible for absolute or relative coordination. The nervous system is rather seen as the medium The burden of

supporting the causal agencies of coordination.

explanation is shifted from modular anatomical units that are ascribed to a special causal function a priori to very general physical principles that coordinate both animate and inanimate things. Biological things do not only have biological properties but also physical ones, and it would be expeditious for biological things to exploit the organising that takes place, a posteriori, as a consequence of having physical properties (see Gibson, 1979; Turvey & Carello, 1986). !

The high dimensional biological situation (a number of body parts, each with their detailed neural, vascular and muscular microstructures) can be given a low dimensional, physical redescription. Work done from this perspective was aimed at Bernsteins (1967: 125-126) problem of degrees of freedom (section 8.3.1), which was aimed to ascertain how

348 many components comprising many degrees of freedom are regulated to yield behaviours comprising of a very few degrees of freedom. The many degrees of freedom in a movement are not all controlled by the organism. Many, if not most, are in fact, controlled by physical

constraints that form the context for a movement (Schmidt & Turvey, 1989: 125). !

From an ecological perspective absolute coordination is to be understood in terms of the macroscopic observables of limb complexes (bones, joints, muscular, vascular and neural components) organised to function as oscillatory units. In the present study a simplified approach would be to view the body parts of rider and horse as oscillatory units. In the discussion to follow, and an attempt will be made to discuss the basis of the harmonious interaction between horse and rider, and by doing so come to the Greek ideal of unity. Oscillating structures often exhibit three macroscopic phenomena in absolute and relative coordination, namely superposition, the magnet effect and the maintenance tendency (this was derived from the studies by Erich von Holst, cited by Schmidt & Turvey, 1989: 125-126 on movement in the fins of fish).

Superposition is when the oscillation in one structure shows up as a second periodicity in the oscillation of another structure.

The magnet effect occurs when one oscillator tries to draw other structures such as a fin or a limb to its characteristic periodthe tempo it exhibits when oscillating alone. Hence two coupled oscillators with different endogenous tempos would settle ultimately on a cooperative tempo that is in between the tempos each prefers individually. In seeking harmony between horse and rider this would be an ideal situation. In the ideal situation one would be dealing with not only connected organisms in their own

349 right, but also with organisms that are mutually connected (see connectedness and disconnectedness, section 6.4.6).

In the third instance each oscillator tries to maintain its identity when participating in such a coupling. Even if the oscillators are operating at the cooperative period, there are residual effects of its preferred period, as evidenced by the fluctuations around the mean cooperative period (see physical explanation of the latter two phenomena) (Schmidt & Turvey, 1989: 126). This is probably outspoken in the rider and horse interaction where there is no harmony between the two organisms.

Ecological investigations of the physical principles underlying coordination are concerned with biological coordination in general. This means that these investigations are not only interested in the coordination between limbs, but also in the coordination between and organism and its environment, in the present study it would not only be the coordination between horse and rider, but also of that between the different body parts in each of the two organisms. In practice this implies that we are looking at whether functioning in organisms occurs in a connected or disconnected way.

8.4.4.1

Experimental paradigms in the investigation of coordination in systems

The way in which a motor system reacts to a disturbance depends on whether it is stable or unstable (Schmidt & Turvey, 1989: 126-129). A prime example of a stable system is a pendulum of a clock. No matter how much the movement of the pendulum is disturbed it will always return, in due time, to its original movement, with no need of corrective action, whatsoever (van Ingen Schenau & van Soest, 1996: 313). The skeletal system is an example of an inherently

350 unstable system, a system mechanically analogous to multiple inverted pendulums. This instability results in amplification of disturbances, no matter how small they were initially (van Ingen Schenau & van Soest, 1996: 313). Riding is made up of a large series of sequential disturbances for both rider and horse, a situation found in many rider horse combinations, even at the highest levels. The latter is beared out by perusal of video tapes of the Melbourne and Athens Olympic Dressage events. Regaining of rider and horse balance, or its maintenance, required excessive motor activity from each rider-horse combination, except for perhaps, the winner of both the Melbourne and Athens Olympic Games. In contrast, riding in the Spanish Riding School is characterised by the harmony between rider and horse14.

One may consider the pendular clocking movements of a single limb by using hand-held pendulums that are swung at the wrist joint with the forearm parallel to the ground (Turvey et al., 1988). Since the preferred period of oscillation in a system like this may be understood from the fact that such a system comprises a body oscillating as a function of two potentials, namely movement of the horse and rider respectively, and the restorative forces formed by the limb musculature and its associated metabolism (Schmidt & Turvey, 1989: 127). In the present study the two forces could be the individual movement of the two organisms and the restorative forces formed by mainly the trunk musculature in the rider, and in the horse its trunk and limb musculature. To the metabolic restorative forces one may, according to Cavagna (1970, 1977) add those residing partly in the inherent elasticity of the muscle. Further, the elastic stiffness assembled in a given movement can be varied by the manipulation of the co-contraction of the muscles surrounding the joint (Feldman, 1980). Elastic stiffness in muscles in the lumbar and pelvic areas of the rider can be increased by the twisting of the upper body on the pelvis as far as possible (see section 8.4.2 and Figure 8.11) to either the left or right, until they can see the point of hip of the horse. This action, if properly maintained for a length of time, increases the stiffness in muscles especially around the area of the waist, due

351 to co-contraction and lengthening and/or stretching of the muscles in the abdomen and lower back.

For the purposes of the present study the individual movements of the rider and that of the horse may be added together so that each may compromise a single pendulum.

Figure 8.14:

A combined hybrid mass-spring sim ple pendulum model of the horse and rider. The masses of the two pendulums are indicated by m 1 and m 2 , the lengths of the two respective pendulums by l1 and l2 , and the relative distances from the spring to the respective centres of rotation by b 1 and b 2 respectively. K 1 and K 2 are the elastic stiffness of the two of the two relative springs In classical riding these two pendulums should move in unison, despite their different physical characteristics. The unity will to a large extent depend on elasticity of the attached springs (K 1 , K 2 ). The origin and control of these springs are explained in the text (modified from Turvey et al., 1988).

352 The behaviour of rider-horse pendulum system can be modelled most simply as a pendulum in the movement environment created by the rider and horse with a linear spring attached (Figure 8.14) (Schmidt & Turvey, 1989: 127-128). In the biological instantiation of this hybrid mass-spring/simple pendulum system, muscular and other tissues function as the spring that elastically stores and releases mechanical energy (Turvey et al., 1988).

In Figure 8.14 there is no component analogous to the body mass of the two organisms, the only mass is that of the two pendulums. Although it is the only option, letting elastic energy scale as pendulum mass m, is according to Turvey et al. (1988), from a biological perspective, not unsound. In fact, according to Turvey & Carello (1986) analysis in quadrupeds has shown that the periodicities of walking, trotting and cantering are very close to those of a single, pendulumequivalent of the four limbs oscillating with respect to gravity X2, gravity X7, and gravity X10 respectively (Turvey & Carello, 1986). The masses of the pendular components (in our situation the masses of especially the trunks and limbs of the rider and horse) tend to scale body mass to the first power. The elastic restoring torque should scale, in the ideal, therefore close to the first power of the mass of either the rider or horse. As has been pointed out previously (sections 3.1.2, 5.1.2.1, 5.1.2.2 & 5.1.4) harmony between rider and horse is of paramount importance in classical riding. This is made difficult in a pendular system shown in Figure 8.14, firstly because there is a great difference between the masses of the rider and horse, and secondly since in classical riding, there is an intimate interaction between the bodies of the two organisms. This leaves one with the conclusion that whenever there is any harmony between horse and rider they should ideally act as single pendular structure. The contribution of each of the two parties to the creation of this unified pendular structure is something to ponder about. The contribution of the horse would be to act as the main instigator of the pendular movement, for the simple reason of its greater body mass and that it is mainly responsible for most of the movement during riding. The role of the rider is to be responsible for the control of the elastic

353 stiffness of the springs in rider and horse shown in Figure 8.14, by taking responsibility of his own and guiding that of the horse along lines suitable to the task in hand.

The value of the elastic contribution is not constant across different pendulums, but it increases nonlinearly with the pendulums inertia (Schmidt & Turvey, 1989: 128). In rider and horse inter alia, this is given by the commonly encountered excessive muscle stiffness, which underlines Schmidt and Turveys (1989: 129) argument that elastic potential is the only variable that needs to be controlled in order to produce different characteristic periods in a system shown in Figure 8.14. Contributing to this is what the author of the present study found in all riders: A poor ability to twist their torsos to either side without moving their pelvises in the same direction.

8.4.5 A dynamical, functional perspective on motor behaviour: A synthesis

Most current theories on motor behaviour emphasise the development of plans, instructions and the commands for movement prior to the movement. Essentially these theories are prescriptive theories, and fall under the ambit of the so-called structural theories, simply because they are concerned with the formal properties of motor skills or knowledge (Thelen, Kelso & Fogel, 1987).

The approach adopted in the present study could be categorised under what could be referred to as functional theories, since it is not assumed that in movement the plans or the programmes for the behaviour are the behaviour (Thelen, Kelso & Fogel, 1987). An example of this in riding is the command canter. This command only informs the rider that the horse should start to canter. No detail is provided on how this action should be executed. Similarly, to state that a reflex scheme or set directs a tonic neck response, or that reaching for an object is the result of coordination of several schemes fails to

354 specify topography and the quality of the behaviours and their changes over space and time (Thelen, Kelso & Fogel, 1987). Prescriptions of movements alone lack information about real life performance in which the physiological and emotional state of the individual as well as the physical and social context of the action are nearly infinitely variable (sections 6.4.3 & 6.4.4). Similarly, strictly formal developmental theories incorporate none of the dynamics of change, nor the processes by which individuals shift from one level of performance to one higher (Thelen, Kelso & Fogel, 1987).

Unlike earlier conceptualisations of motor control, dynamic systems theory addresses the fundamental question of the sources of order in movement over space and time (Thelen, Kelso & Fogel, 1987). It has been previously been pointed out in section 8.4.5, that the high dimensional biological situation (a number of body parts, each with their detailed neural, vascular and muscular microstructures, or in Bernsteins point of view a system with many degrees of freedom) can be given a low dimensional, physical redescription. Previous research from the degrees of freedom perspective (section 8.3.1) had as its aim to ascertain how many components comprising many degrees of freedom were regulated to yield behaviours comprising of a very few degrees of freedom (Figure 8.15). The many degrees of freedom in a movement are not all controlled by the organism. Many, if not most, are in fact, controlled by physical constraints (order parameters, see Thelen & Smith, 1996: 55) that form the context for a movement (Schmidt & Turvey, 1989: 125). A dynamical approach is low dimensional and by abstracting the form of the movement, would reveal regularities inherent in the task despite great differences in scale that are not observable with a more microscopic analysis (also refer to the observations of Broer, 1973: 11-31 and Tobias 1982: 56-57 described in section 7.1.2.2) (Thelen, Kelso & Fogel, 1987).

A central hypothesis to this framework would be that the joints and muscles never work in isolation. Here one could consider a rider, who has been trained

355 in classical riding, performing a skilled motor action. He has learned, for example, that the position of his head affects the way in which he rides (section 6.4.7) and controls his body, as well as that of the horse. Likewise, will a dancer know that the lift of her leg and the runner that stride length and foot placement are dependent upon the tilt of their pelvises. One of Bernsteins (1967: 23) most striking contributions to motor control was his explication of the ensemble nature of movement (Thelen, Kelso & Fogel, 1987) (see section 8.1.2).

Systems C omplexity (large number of noisy, often inhom ogeneous com ponents, eg novice and non-classical riders)

Low-dimensional dynamics (e.g. reduction in number of D F)

Behavioural complexity (multiple patterns, multistability, determ inistic chaos)

O rder parameter

Figure 8.15:

Features of complex systems (adapted and modified from Thelen & Smith, 1996: 52).

The problem for motor behaviour is how, in the ever-changing form and context of movement, the actions of all the parts that partake in the movement are coordinated and controlled. The solution to this problem is found in the concept of coordinative structures, an aspect which was discussed in section 7.1.1.1. By means of this system enormous number of DF engendered by moving segments in the body are thus constrained in to a controllable working unit (Thelen, Kelso & Fogel, 1987: 43). The functional outcome, therefore, is the skill of riding (the rider) or being ridden (the horse).

Several further points are central to the concept of functional synergies or coordinative structures. These are outlined below.

356 ! The first of these is the primacy of function in defining the constraints on the units of action. It is important to realise that muscles work together because they accomplish common goals, not because of strict mapping of their relationships that exist before the start of the movement. This is in direct contrast to models of motor control which are based upon hierarchically recruited or hard-wired or reflex like subunits of behaviour (Thelen, Kelso & Fogel, 1987).

Here it should again be pointed out that functional synergy does not necessarily lead to good, graceful or beautiful movement. As has been stated before, this ideal situation is only to be expected in poised individuals. Hierarchically recruited or hard-wired models are able to solve the problems of DF, but they are not able to address the issue of contextual flexibility. In order to maintain this flexibility, the assembly of movement coalitions must thus be exquisitely context tuned, both to the task demands and to the existing state of the organism (Thelen, Kelso & Fogel, 1987). For riding this has a specific consequence, which is sensory awareness. This requires the rider to be fine tuned to what is happening in his own body as well as in that of the horse (Decarpentry, 1987: 67; Loch, 2000: 234), an achievement probably only attained by the poised rider. !

Secondly, but related to the above, is the special systems quality of coordinative structures where in the poised rider and horse the correct order and regularity will emerge from the unique relationships among the elements. These relationships cannot be predicted by the elements themselves. As emergent phenomena, coordinative structures are, therefore, sources of information. This is in contrast with prescriptive theories in which the effector system only serves a sink of information as the recipient of executive commands. The self-organising and

357 autonomous properties of synergies arise from their dynamical nature (Thelen, Kelso & Fogel, 1987).

A question that should be posed in this respect is what kind of system is produced by the coordinative structures in the motor apparatus? By what principled means is spatial and dynamical order generated by these systems? This issue has been addressed previously (section 8.3.1), but will be put into the context of the questions posed above. Movement outcomes cannot be predicted by muscle forces alone, but by the ensemble result of both muscular and non-muscular forces (i.e. in the rider the inertial and reactive forces from his free moving body and the forces associated with the supporting surface of the horse and movement of the horse) (see Bernstein, 1967: 109, 129, section 8.1.1.2). The organisation inherent with in the coordinative structure dissipates the degrees of freedom by grouping muscles together as well as using forces generated by the moving system as information contributing to the constraint of the action (Kugler, Kelso & Turvey, 1982: 10-13). In section 6.4.3 it was pointed out that riders, not familiar with free movement in the horse, perceived it to be too unconstrained, unpleasant, too fast, or even too terrifying15. The unfortunate result of this was an increase in the rigidity of the riders in an effort to minimise the non-muscular forces which emanated from the body of their mounts. L'Hotte (1906/1997: 159), observed that the rider who has the ability to play with the horse's forces, and who has the ability to awaken and maintain this play of forces in keeping with the movement is the rider that will be able to obtain lightness in his mount. In the present study the unwillingness of riders to yield to the movement of their mounts, and to make use of the forces generated by the moving horse was found to be a constant problem during the initial stages of their period of training. In the present study this problem was generally solved when riders improved their use and

358 became unified (connected) within themselves. They were then able to ride their horses with ease even during the very active paces. !

A third and final aspect of coordinative systems is the non-linearity of their modes of change (Thelen, Kelso & Fogel, 1987). This is an issue which has been pointed out before (sections 4.3.3.1, 8.1.1.1 & 8.1.1.2 for example). Common examples of this are the pace patterns of

quadrupeds, such as the horse. When horses change their pattern from walk to trot or from trot to canter or gallop, the phase relationships between the moving limbs are abruptly changed. At low velocities the pace is asymmetrical. Here the limbs of each girdle are out of phase by half a cycle, (Thelen, Kelso & Fogel, 1987; Tuller, Turvey & Fitch, 1982: 263). In alternate step paces it is as if an equation of constraint

functionally binds the limbs of a girdle (be it the shoulder or hip), holding the limbs in a specified relationship (Tuller, Turvey & Fitch, 1982: 263). An additional constraint must hold to coordinate the movement in the two girdles. In the trot the opposite limbs of the different girdles are

synchronised so that, for example, the right limb at the hip girdle and the left limb at the shoulder girdle go through their cycles together (Tuller, Turvey & Fitch, 1982: 263). This explains why unison of the diagonals previously pointed out in the trot is so important in judging the standard or quality of the movement in the trotting horse (see Figures 5.1, 5.2, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 8.1, 8.7 & 8.8). Therefore, a lack of diagonal unison points to a change in the synergy between the shoulder and hip girdles. From what was observed in the present study it can be concluded that this is due to the phenomenon of reactivity of movement, a classic example of the phenomenon in which movement, as Bernstein (1967: 23) put it, responds to detailed changes such as shortening of the horses neck, as a whole to changes in each small part (refer to section 8.1.2 for more detail). At high speeds the pace becomes symmetrical. Here the limbs

359 of the same girdle are in phase with each other (Tuller, Turvey & Fitch, 1982: 265).

In the horse transitions from one pace to the other are discontinuous, because there are no stable intermediate paces between the walk and the trot and between the trot and the canter (Thelen, Kelso & Fogel, 1987). It is assumed that horses accomplish these transitions by

switching to a new motor programme or pace prescription that exists in the CNS (Thelen, Kelso & Fogel, 1987). In each of the paces the rider is required to adopt a specific position or seat in the saddle, as well as the proper muscular actions to maintain that specific position (Harris, 1985: 42-49; Schusdziarra & Schusdziarra, 1990: 44-46, 76-78). The rider, however, does not have a natural system to accommodate the transition from one pace to the other, and therefore has to follow the dictates of the movement of the horse, and thus has to learn to ride each pace in a specific way, something that is not easily taught. The best way open to the rider for this to come about is to allow self-organisation to occur. This can be achieved if he becomes Tolstoys Levin (Tolstoy, 1878/1967: 273) by allowing the ride to occur on itself, a ride full of life and a consciousness of its own, without a thought being given to it. Riding will then by itself occur regularly and carefully.

CHAPTER 9

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

And if I find any man who is able to see unity and plurality in nature, him I follow, and walk in his step as if he were a god (Plato, 1993c: 79-80).

If you put God outside and set him vis--vis his creation and if you have the idea that you are created in his image, you will logically and naturally see yourself as outside and against the things around you. And as you arrogate all mind to yourself, you will see the world around you as mindless and therefore not entitled to moral or ethical consideration. The environment will seem to be yours to exploit. Your survival unit will be you and your folks or conspecifics against the environment or other social units, other races and the brutes and the vegetables (Bateson, 2000: 468).

The notion that our natural, earthly life can be despised is not just meaningless; it is disastrous. It is not just a scheme for what might some time be done in outer space. It promotes, here and now, a distorted idea of what a human being essentially is. Its suggestion that our biosphere is merely so much waste matter and the human body, at best, a rather unsatisfactory ship in which the intellect has to sail, expresses an unrealistic, mindless exultation of that intellect - narrowly conceived as searching for facts - and a corresponding contempt for natural feeling (Midgley, 1992: 223).

360

361 9.1 INTRODUCTION

One of the more fertile insights of modern hermeneutics is that every statement has to be seen as a response to a question, and that the only way to understand a statement is getting hold of the question to which the statement is an answer to (Gademer, 1998: 106). The purpose of the present study was to investigate the ancient art of classical riding from a modern scientific viewpoint, using the general systems theory as basis. A conceivable question to this statement would be whether this course is a feasible option. This would be also the likely question to the first hypotheses of the study. The question to the second hypothesis would simply be whether the art of riding has any scientific foundation. The above questions will be dealt with separately in the following sections.

9.1.1 The first hypothesis of the present study 9.1.1.1 Application of the systems approach to a Greek model of riding

9.1.1.1.1

Unity and harmony

In 1980, one of the foremost scientific thinkers and philosophers of his time, Professor David Bohm proposed that AAA man's general way of thinking of the totality, i.e. his world view, is crucial for overall order of the human mind itself. If he thinks of the totality as constituted of separate fragments, then that is how his mind will tend to operate, but if he can include everything coherently and harmoniously in an overall whole that is undivided, unbroken, and without a border (for every border is a division or break) then his mind will tend to move in a similar way, and from this will flow an

362 orderly action within the whole (Bohm, 2002: xiii). (The present authors emphasis).

The fundamentals of ancient Greek and systems thinking is taken up in Bohm's (2002: xii) proposal. The notion of thinking and acting coherently, as well as harmoniously in an overall whole constitutes the main argument of the present study. Here the practical applications of unity and harmony within a systems theory perspective, were largely discussed under the umbrellas of motor control and motor acts (Chapters 6-8).

The way in which music is comprehended (Bohm & Peat, 1987: 188-189) may serve as an analogy to the way in which riding unfolds from its implicate whole. According to Bohm and Peat (1987: 188-189) at any given moment, a particular note may be sounding in awareness, but at the same time a kind of reverberation of a number of earlier notes can also be sensed. This reverberation is not akin to recollection or memory, but rather is more like a part of an unbroken enfoldment and unfoldment of the notes concerned into even subtler forms, including emotions and impulses of physical movement, as well as a kind of an ethereal echo of the original notes within the mind. Indeed, if successive notes are played several seconds apart, then they no longer combine together in such a way as to convey the dynamic sense of unbroken flow that is essential to the meaning of the music. Being disconnected is a case in point, since it does not convey an unbroken sense of flow, and therefore do not contribute to the unity enshrouded into the art of classical riding.

When the notes in a musical score are played in the correct tempo, however, the notes fold together into an overall tune or musical theme (Bohm & Peat, 1987:189). To paraphrase Bohm and Peat (1987: 189) in this respect, the following may be stated: At any given moment a number of movements are present in the awareness in various degrees of enfoldment. The simultaneous awareness of all of these is what constitutes the sense of unbroken flow that has

363 been described above. But this means that it is possible to be directly aware of an implicate1 order as a set of similar differences that presents simultaneously in different degrees of enfoldment of parallel occurring and successive movements. Similar to the perceptions of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (17561791) and another great composer, Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750), of whole musical structures in single flashes of insight, would be those of the art of classical riding, since this art is, like great music, founded upon the concept of undivided wholeness. Insights such as these probably involve orders that are not only implicate, in a sense that it contains an overall hierarchy of structure all at once, but also an order that is generative, in a sense that it contains the overall order out of which it enfolds. Related to this is the fact that this perception of the implicate order is common to all works of art. An example of this is the montage, or editing together of successive images, where in the film of a great director has something in common with music, for the internal quality, structure, and feeling of each image infuse all the others. In this way the value and meaning of an individual word or image, seen on its own, is totally transformed, and the resulting scene is viewed as an organic whole rather than a succession of explicit images (Bohm & Peat, 1987: 189). One can also expect to find in the realm of classical riding that each movement and part of each movement to fuse with all the others in such a way that the total structure of the presentation is presented and experienced as an organic whole, and not purely as a succession of movements.

With reference to what was discussed in the previous three chapters (6-8) it may be concluded that in order to achieve what Xenophon (1962; 55, 59) envisaged as riding with magnificent and striking action, and in a proud and stately style on a good warhorse, requires that both horse and rider should be connected, with the proviso that this connectedness be generative, in that it should like the musical example above, contain the overall order out of which it enfolded. By unfolding the whole of a classical riding session, individual actions will come to the fore, and it is here that smaller wholes will enact themselves in the larger

364 implicate whole. The use of smaller wholes in the framework of the larger was discussed in section 8.4. This would, according to the concept of unity or unbroken wholeness, only be possible in the connected individual (section 6.4.6).

Implicate and generative orders, such as those discussed above, are ultimately at the ground of all experience (Bohm & Peat, 1987: 190). At present, however, this is largely ignored in the world of riding, where the competitiveness in dressage necessitates the over-emphasis of explicate2 ordersorders which are especially suitable for large scale organisation and technology (see Bohm & Peat, 1987: 190), in all probability are of left brain functioning (see Eccles, 1977: 351-352; Hannaford, 1995: 78-79), and according to Serres (1982: 99) belong to a science that is martial by nature. To Bohm and Peat (1987: 190) it became clear that the explicate order of succession actually arose out of an organisation that lies in the implicate and generative orders. This is despite the fact that the explicate order appears to stand on its own. This order is also never free from the possibility of collapsing as further data appear. In the field of physics and physiology this is something frequently encountered. Through habits of thought and language, people have come to take the explicate order of succession as the true ground and the implicate and generative orders as something that is secondary to such a ground in the explicate world. This is a situation commonly found in the world of modern riding, with what has previously been pointed out, the importance attached to the doing of things, instead of the emphasis on processes. It is therefore important that this view be turned around in order to understand the true reality of classical riding more deeply.

In order to come to final conclusion to the first hypothesis one should briefly consider the bases upon which this hypothesis was founded, namely upon ancient Greek world view, the concurrent Greek horsemanship and modern general systems theory.

365

It was pointed out in section 3.1.1 that several of those still involved in the art of classical riding accept the dictum that a riders riding and training is closely related to his view of life and wisdom (Barbier, 1990: xi; De Kunffy, 1992; 4; Herbermann, 2001: 14, 152-154; Mairinger, 1983: 17-18; Podhajsky, 1967: 20; 1983: 16). Both the periods of Greek Enlightenment and the Baroque arose from the prevailing world view (philosophy) in their respective times. The emphasis on art during both these eras focussed on beauty, and this striving for beauty probably became reflected in the way in which horses were ridden.

The dissimilarity in the main thrust underlying the two main philosophies examined in the present studythose of ancient Greece and modern general systems theoryis to be found in the acceptance of or non-acceptance of an immortal soul. This difference of world view is important, since whatever philosophy is accepted, it affects the way in which the individual approaches life. Compared to ancient Greek philosophy modern systems theory is in essence incomplete, being based upon empiricism and monological thought, thus only seeing the universe as being composed of matter or matter and energy (Wilber,1999: 10, 46-47). In a discipline such as classical riding, which does not include only the physical, but also the aesthetic, it may be prudent to consider Midgleys (1992: 98) statement that

science is not at all the simple direct record of experience which extreme empiricist theory once supposed it to be. Neither is history or any branch of learning. They all consist largely of conceptual schemes devised to make understanding possible.

To make understanding possible of the way in which integrated systems work, and the way in which systems relate to riding and training of horses, were the reason why investigation of systems theory and motor control (Chapters, 4, 6, 7 & 8) was undertaken.

366

Since adherents of the general systems theory have veered away from the acceptance of the existence of a soul and the study of the metaphysical (cf. Midgley, 1992: 98), there is no real need to strive towards the Greek ideal of the utmost perfection possible, the very best and highest a man could work towards. Currently, the equivalent of this endeavour is probably to be found in the quest for winning in competitions, and obtaining the maximum points in dressage competitions. Here we find that the main thrust is towards the attainment of external gratification and prizes, with riders then becoming outcome oriented (de Kunffy, 1994: 1-2, 4-5; Froissard, 1978: 1; Kiley-Worthington, 1997: 194-199; Loch, 1990: 153). Lacking in such endeavour is mans natural sense of wonder (Midgley, 1992; 112-113), which legitimately extend, according to Midgley (1992: 113), to many things on earth as well as in the heavens. As an example of this wonderment, she pointed out the respect and sympathy a true worker in any craft treats his tools and materials, something even more true of those who work with living plants and animals (applicable here to the rider and trainer). Craftsmen understand the material they interact with, and they study it, they have a feeling for it.

The shortcomings of the general systems theory aside, aspects of the theory have however, added a number of important parameters to the present study and per implication to classical riding parameters that could be used fruitfully in the training of rider and horse alike. The most important of these are the concept of unity of all things, the idea of self-organisation and what follows from it, the existence of attractors towards which actions are aimed and the concept of affordances and their use in the training of riders and horses.

Although the idea of striving for perfection for its own sake is absent from general systems theory, it was nevertheless interesting to find that when some of the principles of this theory were adhered to in the present study, there was

367 a trend towards performance excellence in the movement in both rider and horse. Figures 8.7, 8.8, 8.11, 8.13 are examples of this.

In a way the present study advocates the return to more of a certain aspect of systems theory has to offer, namely, the Greek view of nature as physis which is alive, always in transformation, and not divorced from man (Laing, 1980, cited by Capra, 1989: 139; section 6.4).

This section will be concluded with some of the views of the French philosopher, Michel Serres (1982: 100-102), on the mechanistic worldview and holistic thinking. Form this the essence of modern competition dressage and classical riding will also become evident.

The order of reason is repetitive, and the train of thought from it, infinitely iterative, is but a science of death. A science of dead things and a strategy for the kill. The order of reasons is martial: The world is in order, according to this mathematical physics in which the Stoics are met by Plato up to the line and by Descartes further down, and where order reigns supreme over piles of cadavers. The laws are same everywhere, they are thanatocratic. There is nothing to be learned, to be discovered, to be invented, in this repetitive world, which falls in the parallel lines of identity. Nothing is new under the sun of identity. It is information-free, complete redundance. The chains of cause and effect, the fall of atoms, and the indefinite repetition of letters are the three necessary figures of sciences nullity (Serres, 1982: 100).

In contrast to this Serres (1982: 100) proposed that what is needed to replace martial science is to change from laminar flow in a fluid, for example, to the production of vortices (viz. instability):

The first vortices. Turbantibus aequora ventis: pockets of turbulence scattered in flowing fluid, be it air or salt water, breaking up the parallelism of its repetitive

368 waves. The sweet vortices of the physics of Venus (Serres, 1982: 100101).

In the sea people work among vortices, they are tossed about, but it is only those who are not used to the sea and its movements that are perturbed by it (Serres, 1982: 101). On the horse the same would apply, and it would only be those who are prepared and able to loosen themselves from laminar and destructive thought who will be able to ride the high seas of a moving horse, and accept the disequilibrium, disequilibrium that would be in this case be the driving force behind the self-organisation that will actively seek out stimuli (affordances) and harmony.

9.1.2 The second hypothesis of the present study

Enough facts are available in the realm of motor acts to demonstrate that the innumerable muscles of the body are continuously operating as an intricately linked web (Tinbergen, 1974: 26). In many respects, therefore, modern

scientific research supports, and even underscores the concept of unity in systems. This can readily be seen in the way biological systems deal with problems such as degrees of freedom, and the actuality of coordinative structures, and the reactivity of movements. Parallels of this were also found in some literature on riding and training of the rider and horse. Of the most outstanding in this regard were literature some centuries old (Cavendish, 1743/2000; de Gurinire, 1733/1994; Pluvinel, 1626/1989; Xenophon, 1962). Some issues concerning the unity of motor acts in biology, however, have not received enough attention from the scientific community. Two of these issues may be classified under the aesthetic namely, beauty and grace, while the third is of a practical nature, and has to do with the way in which organisms use (section 6.4) themselves.

369 A number of issues, of particular importance to riding, came to the fore in the present study. These will be considered in the sections to follow.

9.1.2.1

Integrated movement

Since movements can be considered as structurally whole, and that each motor act therefore involves the whole integrated individual (Alexander, 1932/1985: 34; Janda, 1978: 28; Lamb & Watson, 1979: 90; Merleau-Ponty 1942/1965: 177; Sherrington, 1946: 89), there should be neuromuscular coordination, a parameter that implies homogeneity, integration and structural unity (Bernstein, 1967: 30), but a parameter that cannot stand on its own, it needs another which is poise.

9.1.2.2

Poise

It is not only about integration and structural unity, however, since equally important is the issue of whether there are balance, order and harmony in the movement or action (i.e. poise) (see Alexander, 1932/1985: 32-33; Bernstein, 1967: 104; Dart, 1947; Sherrington, 1946: 89). One of the most important characteristics of poise (section 6.4.6), is proper use of the self (Alexander, 1932/1985: 55; 1941: 8; Feldenkrais, 1985: 3-4), a characteristic which embraces aspects such as ease, absence of unnecessary and imbalanced muscle tension, perfect balance or stability of equilibrium, equality of weight in all directions, grace, a lack of effort no matter the actual expenditure of energy, a lack of constriction of the joints, suppleness, rhythm, self-knowledge and mental and physical enjoyment (Albrecht, 1988: 16, 18; Dart, 1947; Feldenkrais, 1985: xiv; Gurinire, 1733/1994: 108; Oliveira, 1988: 17, 27; Ridgway & Harman, 1999; von Ziegner, 2002: 40).

Being poised also implies that body-parts and actions do not act independently from each other. They rather act, firstly together as an integrated physical unity

370 (being connected) (section 6.4.6, also see Belasik, 1999: 45; Cavendish, 1743/2000: 133; Henriquet & Durand, 2004: 24; Kelso; 1995: 8, 70; Lamb & Watson, 1979: 101-102), and secondly, in concordance with the requirements of good manner of use (section 6.4.6). Classical riding is only possible if the manner of use in both rider and horse is of a sufficiently high standard. For this to occur contradictory motivations should be lifted (Feldenkrais (1985: 149), which will then allow the rider and horse to function with quiet minds and within the here and now (Pieter, 1987). It has been pointed out previously, that poise is not a bodily state to be achieved by harsh physical exercise (see Barker, 1985: 172-192; Howorth, 1946; Pilates & Miller, 1998; Schrecker, 1971: 18-21, 24-28), or in the case of riding by following specific instructions such as sit upright and heels down, but rather by means of restful study and observation (Alexander, 1932/1985: 75-78; Dart, 1947; Feldenkrais, 1985: 155). In the present study habitual riding postures of riders gradually changed in parallel with the increase of their bodily awareness. Particularly noticeable was the increase in their ability to detect tension in their own bodies.

9.1.2.3

The whole versus its parts

The whole determines the function of the parts (Perls, Hefferline & Goodman, 1980: xix; Capra, 1985: 76). Equally, do we find that the whole is more than the sum of its parts (Sheldrake, 1985: 12; Smuts, 1951: 161). Biological organisms also, however, have an extraordinary capacity to make wholes out of parts and by doing so to realise as complete entities (Goodwin, 1972: 259, 274). The significance of these two facets of wholeness lies in the effect with which wholes and parts may have on the way riders and horses function. In man we have the particular ubiquitous problem of the lack of poise (a larger whole) (section 6.4.9). The consequence of this unfortunate state of affairs is that at least in one the partners in the horse-rider combination a good manner of useis absent. As has been pointed out previously, lack of poise (misuse) is characterised by disconnectedness, inappropriate neuromuscular coordination, muscle-

371 imbalance and poor posture (smaller wholes). Under conditions like this, the initial conditions and the conditions under which any movement will be executed, will not be conducive to good movement in either of the two partners (see Cavendish, 1743/2000: 133; Henriquet & Durand, 2004: 2, 24). The true meaning of this in movement dysfunction and its frequently seen corollary, nonspecific soft tissue injury is that it is often not prudent to accept a local or the immediately identifiable lesion being the primary one, since in many cases the lesion could be quite remote (Janda, 1978: 28; Ridgway & Harman, 1999).

9.1.2.4

Self-organisation

Self-organisation is not only found in the inanimate world, but is a characteristic of living organisms, a concept which implies an intimate relationship between the organism and its internal and external environment (cf. Goodwin, 1972: 259; Haken, 1983: 194). In riding this intimate relationship may result in the attainment of harmonyharmony with the ongoing cosmic process (Huang, 1997: 27; Koizumi, 1986: 67)and also harmony between rider and horse (see equine references such as Albrecht, 1993: 7; Cavendish, 1743/2000: 133; Handler, 1972: 51-52; Henriquet & Durand, 2004: 5; Mseler, 1980: ix; Oliveira, 1988: 17-18; Pluvinel, 1626/1989: 24; Wtjen, 1958: 4).

In sharp contrast to the concept self-organisation are the mechanistic principles that underlie present methods of training riders and horses, since these methods tend to follow the premise of following instructions by the doing of things, such as the rider having to assume a specific position in the saddle, use weight and leg aids and the hands in a prescribed way. Horses, on the other hand, are taught their movements in a similar way, verbal instructions being replaced by the use of various aids by riders and trainers (British Horse Society, 1982: 30-48; Harris, 1985; 36-41; Herbermann, 2001: 13-57; Loriston-Clarke, 1989: 67, 74, 78, 81, 83, 84, 91 93; Sivewright, 1984: 122-158; The German National Equestrian Federation, 1985: 45-78). As an example of this, the way

372 in which horses are taught to do the movement the shoulder in (see Figures 7.1, 8.13) by the use of specific rider aids, will be outlined. For this manoeuvre at least six individual actions by the rider are required. The movement is started off with a half-halt to warn the horse of an forthcoming change in action, followed by bringing the horses shoulder in from the side of the manege using the inside leg and inside rein supported by the outside rein, riding forward with the seat, placing the outside leg just behind the girth (Loriston-Clarke, 1989: 83, 84). In this kind of instruction the accent is on the actions of different body parts of the rider, and not on linking these actions into a single coordinative structure. By adhering to the latter principle, the number of DF would, for example, be markedly reduced, to basically one by the use of the ATNR (section 8.4.2). In this case the ATNR also serves as an affordance, an affordance which makes use of generic mechanisms in rider and horse (Kelso, 1998: 217).

The principle of self-organisation has particular consequences for training of rider and horse, since if self-organisation is allowed in relation affordances the horse will learn to correctly execute specific movements. The use of such an approach was demonstrated in section 8.4.2 (also refer to section 8.1.1.1, Gallweys, 1982: 8 and Rashids, 2000: 93 methods of letting things happen, and Hemplings, 2001 method of training the horse by means of body language).

9.1.2.5

Integrated movement and its control

The importance of the value of knowing how movement is controlled and how this knowledge can be applied to riding is not appreciated by riders and trainers alike. An important finding of this study was the discovery that in both equine literature on classical riding and scientific literature on neuromuscular control, examples of the recognition of integration of structures and functions were found (Bernstein, 1967; Brger, 1986: 82; Cavendish, 1743/2000: 133; Denoix & Pailloux, 1996: 91; Gurinire, 1733/1994: 108; Jeka & Kelso, 1989; Kelso, 1995: 2, 16; Oliveira, 1988: 25; Pluvinel, 1626/1989: 24; Schmidt, 1975;

373 Sherrington, 1906; Whitall, 1989). Yet, the contribution of natural science to classical riding is currently not recognised.

In riding the common tendency to react to stimuli and the importance attached to individual use of body parts, are still accentuated. In contrast, dynamic systems approach to riding rather accentuates the biomechanical sculpting of the neuromuscular-skeletal system. The common practice of "giving riding instructions", or training the horse to set principles (a centripetal approach by the rider, instructor or trainer), should be reconsidered, and preferably be replaced by a method of training in which the rider and horse are !

Considered as an integrated whole, and that training and learning always be done with this in mind.

Taught the art of good manner of use or poise (see Figures 4.2 & 6.1, Table 6.2).

Allowed to learn the art of self-organisation according to the demands of the environmental and biomechanical challenges of their tasks (Haken, 1983: 194). This would require the shift of thought from thinking in parts or the physiology of reactions to the physiology of activity by studying the whole, and to become aware of affordances emanating from the horse and also make use of affordances in the communication with the horse (cf. Hempflings, 2001: 33-39 body language). This shift should be accompanied by the realisation that the neuromuscular system is extremely plastic and that systems can self-organise (Mecacci, 1979: 89). This approach in thinking was brought about by Bernstein (section 8.1.1.2) who was probably the first person who came to the realisation of the totality of forces in the interpretation of the "construction" of movements (Kugler et al., 1982: 6).

374 ! Riders and trainers should be made to realise that they, as well as their horses, are living organisms, and therefore are problem solvers and explorers of their world, functions previously attributed to reflexes (Popper,1977: 138). This means that living organisms function on the basis of the knowledge of their component parts or activities, and of their environment (Goodwin, 1972: 259). In practice in the present study, this materialized in a greater accentuation on the awareness of the sensory outcomes of motor acts during training sessions. The principle of this was that riders should be intensely aware of what, for example, a good manner of use feels like, and try to recapitulate an awareness of the specific sensation in future repetitions of the act, instead of trying to duplicate the act. The background to this line of thinking comes from a biofeedback principle, which stated that if one is able to observe in ones self some biological happening of which one is not normally aware, then one can be trained to control that particular happening (Cade & Coxhead, 1979: 4).

Hanna (1988: x) pointed to one of the most ancient and famous riddles of the Sphinx: What is it that has one voice and yet becomes four-footed and two footed and three-footed? Oedipus, in Greek mythology provided the correct answer: The human being who crawls on all fours during infancy, walks on two legs for a great part of his life and leans on a cane in old age. According to Hanna (1988: xii-xiii) this phenomenon is due to the fact that humans continually respond to daily stresses with and traumas with specific muscular responses. These responses, when repeatedly triggered, create habitual muscular contractions, which cannot be relaxed by voluntarily means. Since these muscular contractions eventually become so deeply ingrained, involuntary and unconscious, man has lost the ability to move freely and without constraint, the bodily form is distorted (refer to Figure 6.1), and the working of the whole organism is impaired, by bad coordination, muscular over-tension, and misuse of the parts of the body in their relationship to one another (Alexander

375 (1910/1996: 12) (see Feldenkrais, 1985: 6-7 on spontaneous and compulsive action, and also Jull & Janda, 1987: 257-263; Loots, Loots & Steyn, 2002 on the issue of muscle-imbalance). This is associated with a habitual state of

forgetfulness, called sensory-motor amnesia by Hanna (1988: xiii), which is a memory loss of how certain muscle groups feel and how to control them. Alexander (1910/1996: 12) spoke of a nearly complete ignorance of the way man uses his body.

The pandemic condition of misuse in man (and also that in horses trained and ridden by man) which ensued from this amnesia was discussed in section 6.4.9. Perusal of the literature and discussions with riders and trainers showed that only a very small minority of those involved in riding instruction and training, are aware of this problem itself, its high incidence and significance. This

unfortunate state of affairs could be due to that riders, riding instructors and trainers are generally: ! !

Ignorant about the essentials of good movement (see section 6.2).

Unaware of the fact that body parts in the horse and rider should not be seen as separate entities, but rather be considered as being interacting components of a self-organising system.

Ignorant about the consequences of misuse (see section 6.4.8) of the rider on his own riding, as well as their effect on the carriage and movement of the horse. Moffett (1999: 21), for example, when shown how to release her head and neck by a teacher of the Alexander Technique, could feel the extra lift in her horses stride.

Unacquainted firstly, with the fact that both rider and horse should be guided towards a condition of poise before any serious teaching of the

376 rider and horse may be considered, and secondly with the way in which it may be attained. !

Unaware of the concept of the circular process between situation and reaction in the rider-horse combination (see section 7.1.2), and that in this circular process the stimulus may be the occasion rather than the cause. Merleau-Ponty (1942/1965: 31) and Fowler and Turvey (1978: 3) put forth that the organism and its environment are not logically separable and that the one always implies the other. This explains why sensory awareness was emphasised in all the riders of the present study. Therefore, the environment of the rider and horse should not be construed in terms of the variables of physics as commonly understood, but rather to look at firstly what is generic between man and horse, and secondly to what this generic environment affords rider and horse (sections 7.1.2.1 & 8.4.1), and then to allow both organisms to accommodate themselves to whatever is afforded. Since affordances are the aspects of the world to which adaptations (learning) occur (Fowler & Turvey, 1978: 3) perceptual structures must gain the ability to recognise affordances in the environment and to monitor the orientation and stability of the body in relation to these affordances. On the basis of this perspective, Fowler and Turvey (1978: 6) postulated that the learning of a motor skill involves discovering optimal self-organisation. This will go hand in hand with the maturation of cognitive abilities in the rider and horse to formulate symbolic plans or goals in relation to the current affordances and in the light of past experience (Thelen, Kelso & Fogel, 1987, section 8.4.1), and will do away with the initial problems of riders and horses who do not interpret or perceive affordances for what they actually are. Once this has come about the communication between rider and horse would be at a much higher level. It will then only require the creation of a suitable environment (affordance) by a subtle change in the distribution of body weight or body language in the rider to instigate

377 the horse to start executing what is required (the use of the so-called invisible aids, aids of which the use was described in section 8.4.2).

It was proposed that in the context of the present study (section 7.1.2.2), that affordances are to be understood to be natural actions of the poised body of the rider, with which the horse can readily identify, affordances, which, inter alia, follow or mimic the postural reactions described in man and experimental animals (Fukuda, 1961; Magnus, 1926ab; Roberts, 1995: 121-124). The concept of affordances being natural actions in the body of the rider, preempts the creation of a combination of physical properties in the body of the rider, creations that are uniquely suited to afford a change in the motor behaviour of the horse. Experience with rider-horse combinations in the present study has shown that this approach invariably resulted in the attainment of greater unity and harmony between rider and horse (see sections 8.1.2 and 8.4.2). The horse probably reacts to these rider affordances simply due to the fact that it recognises inherent neuromuscular patterns emanating from the rider since the postural model of the riders body is connected with the postural model of the bodies of others (Schilder, 1978: 16), which results in that experience with our own body image and experience of the bodies of others are closely interwoven with each other. In this respect it is necessary to take cognisance of Gallweys (1976: 7-25; 1982: 87-94, 93) suggestion, that man should not over-intellectualise his body, but rather to leave it to respond to the situation itself, or to let it just happen.

9.1.2.6

A dynamic systems approach to movement

The interrelatedness of things and the interaction between things is the main argument on that what natural and to some extent human sciences have brought to the fore in the present study. The discussion in this section will thus

378 be directed accordingly. This will be obvious in the discussion of the following issues of dynamical systems theory.

According to the adherents of the dynamic systems perspective, movement is organised according to natural and universal laws with nonspecific input from the CNS. Movement should, therefore, not be conceived to be the result of a priori prescription by motor programmes or spinal pattern generators; rather, movement emerges a posteriori mainly because the body follows the natural laws of motion, that is, dynamical laws (Whitall, 1989). Dynamical laws assume dynamical structures of control to spread across several levels of analysis (neural, metabolic, biomechanical informational and environmental). The

function of these is bound by dynamical principles of self-organisation (see section 3.3.4.4.1). Self-organisation implies, according to Kelso (1995: 2, 16) structure or pattern formation, which arises spontaneously as the result of large numbers of interacting components (section 8.1.1.1). In classical riding there are, indeed a large number of interacting components, firstly within each of the two partners and secondly between the two partners. During the act of riding some self-organisation can be expected to occur within rider and horse, as well as between them. Adherents of the dynamic systems theory describe selforganisation as being something that will always follow dynamical laws with an outcome dictated by these laws. That self-organisation may even be occurring in poorly organised systems is not considered. Actually this is what may happen within and between two interacting systems such as horse and rider in which self-organisation may be constrained or guided by the prevailing internal and external conditions. Therefore one of the conclusions of the present study is that riders and horses, being exposed to an unnatural situation, will reorganise themselves into a working unit, that may allow them to do with what they are trying to accomplish, whether up to the level of classical standards or not. The point here is that since riding is an unnatural situation the natural dynamic laws that pertain to the daily lives and actions of man and horses may in themselves not be sufficient to accommodate for all requirements of the act of riding.

379

Alexander (1924/1987: 1) and others (Julius, 1991; Julius & Nesbit, 1996; Mandal, 1984) have indeed pointed out that man has not yet adapted to the demands of modern life. From what was perceived in the present study one important conclusion was that, whatever self-organisation the individual ends up with, seems to be very much dependent upon prevailing internal and external conditions and upon what was previously learned, and that this self-organisation in many cases may be far from optimal.

The way in which components interact is dependant on a number of factors, of which the most important is the extent to which these components are allowed to interact freely. In the present study a frequently occurring refrain was the emphasis upon the initial conditions, conditions that not only precede and prevail throughout the execution of any motor act, but are conditions that interact with all other components. From the discussion below it will also become obvious that there is a reciprocal interrelationship between initial conditions and the manner of use, and that the one in many ways implies the other. From this line of argument the following can be concluded: !

During riding the momentary state in which rider and horse find themselves, constitute the initial condition for the movement or part of a movement that will follow, a condition which will also affect the selforganisation that follows on any disturbance of equilibrium.

On the basis of what was observed in the present study, it is possible to state that self-organisation of movements is dependent on the constraints placed upon it by the individuals manner of usethe stiffer the individual, for example, the more rigid the movement will be. Classical riding can only be considered to be classical, if in rider and horse the initial conditions are as near to the ideal as possible, throughout the performance. For the rider the implication of this is that his momentary

380 biomechanics, physiology and psychology should always be in such a state as to create an ideal platform from which felicitous self-organisation may take place, in other words the rider should be poised (Cavendish, 1743/2000: 133; Denoix & Pailloux, 1996: 91; Oliveira 1988: 25; Pluvinel, 1626/1989: 24), and that interference in their motor acts be kept to a minimum (see training methods of Gallwey, 1976; Gallwey, 1982).

Since it has so many ramifications, the manner of use is an aspect that requires serious consideration by both rider and trainer. From a practical point of view manner of use can be considered to be the state in which the musculature of the organism finds itself during the whole of the execution of a motor task (see Alexander, 1932/1985: 34, 55; Ayub, 1987: 69-75, 77; Jull & Janda, 1987: 235-260, and also sections 6.4.1 and 6.4.2). Hand in hand with this goes the moment to moment balance of horse and rider. In view of the extensive study the author of the present study has made in the field of neuromuscular control (Alexander & Crutcher, 1990; Allen & Tsukahara, 1974; Bernstein, 1967, 1996; Brooks, 1979; Creutzfeld, 1995: 221-369; Deecke, Scheid & Kornhuber, 1969; Easton, 1972; Eccles, 1957, 1977: 275-294; Evarts, 1973; Ghez, 1991: 533-547, 596-607; Hanna, 1988; Kelso, 1995, 1998; Kelso & Schner, 1988; Kornhuber, 1974, 1978; Latash, 1993, 1998a; Loeb, 1987; Mackay & Murphy, 1979; McCrea, 1986; Prilutsky & Zatsiorski, 2002; Renshaw, 1940; Roberts, 1995; Sherrington, 1906; Turvey, 1990; Zehr, 2005) what was brought home was the fact of the reciprocal interaction between manner of use within any and the initial conditions of motor acts (see above in this section). The habitual manner of use (e.g. muscle-imbalance, poor posture), however, also predominates throughout the execution of the motor act. If this manner of use is inappropriate, the individual will have to create appropriate coordinative structures conforming to the physiological and biomechanical situation he finds himself in, the result an inappropriate expression of the motor

381 act (section 6.4.8). Even though the ensuing movement may appear to be coordinated, poise is absent.

The teaching of the correct manner of use to humans is difficult and time consuming. One of the most important aspects to be considered here is that the attitude of the rider and trainer have to be altered. Changing attitudes is largely dependant on reeducation of the individual in general (section 3.1.1 on the philosophic attitude of the rider), and more specific, the reeducation of the rider's body (Table 6.2). Once the individual changes his philosophy towards riding and training, it will bring about in himself a greater understanding of the principle that one should by one's proper manner of use offer oneself to actions from the outside (Merleau-Ponty, 1942/1965: 13). This will assist the rider to follow the way of self-organisation or non-action (Gallwey, 1976: 9-10, 1982: 8), or to become "purposeless on purpose" (Herrigel, 1985: 47-48; Huang, 1997: 27; Koizumi, 1986: 67). If the rider manages to become

purposeless, and to efface himself in his riding, its outward realisation occurs automatically, thus obviating the need for controlling or reflecting intelligence (see Herrigel, 1985: 57). This is when the horseman, as Cavendish (1743/2000: 133) put it, can ride with art.

The concept of self-organisation, however, which in essence is nonaction, riders find very difficult to understand, and it is only after prolonged contemplation that the riders acquire the ability to act "actionless". The best way to attain this is to become aware of the movement of the horse and the way it affects the body of the rider. This is in line with what was advocated by various authors (Podhajsky, 1967: 98, 209; Steinbrecht, 1884/1995: 13; Schusdziarra & Schusdziarra, 1990: 103-104). Horses react dramatically to this change in attitude (Figures 8.7 & 8.8). In the present study it was found that horses were extremely sensitive to the a change in the philosophy and body language of their

382 riders, a sensitivity also observed by others (Belasik, 2002: 37; Hempfling, 2001: 22). !

In the present study it was found that the realisation of a good riding technique has some physiological underpinnings. These underpinnings emphasise the interrelationships between various structural and functional parts of the body. These are proper muscle tone - a property that can be related to the manner of use since muscle tone is related to coordination as a state is to an action, or as a precondition is to an effect (Bernstein, 1967: 111), and the inherent mechanical properties of skeletal muscle (Cavagna, 1970; 1977; Huijing, 1992: 151-166; McGill, 2002: 143-144).

Since all movements are organised as integrated units, a change in a single movement detail will lead to changes in the movement as a whole in some of its parts, or to new disturbances of the movement in other body parts, a phenomenon that Bernstein (1967: 23) referred to as the reactivity of movements (also see Alexander, 1932/1985: 54; van Ingen Schenau & van Soest, 1996: 310; Zajac, 1993). In the present study the opposite of this phenomenon was applied, where the change in a movement detail in an area distant from the problematic one was utilised to rectify the basic problem. The route most frequently taken was that of Alexander (1932/1985: 28), which was to concentrate on the body as a whole, a route that proved to be time consuming, but effective.

The problem for motor behaviour is how, in the ever-changing form and context of movement, the actions of all the parts that partake in the movement are coordinated and controlled. One of biggest problems encountered in systems like that is found in man and horse in the way in which the large number of functional units (DF) can be effectively controlled without a too great demand on resources. The solution to this

383 problem is found in the concept of coordinative structures. By means of this system enormous number of DF engendered by moving segments in the body are thus constrained in to a controllable working unit (Thelen, Kelso & Fogel, 1987: 43). The functional outcome in riding is the skill of riding or being ridden. Not only is the number of DF given by anatomical structures (prime moments) being dealt with, but also those additional undesirable moments, to which Feldenkrais (1985: xiii-xiv) referred as parasitic movements. Bernstein also recognised that the focus of

analysis could not simply be the muscular forces provided by the organism, but must necessarily include other forces as well (Bernstein, 1967: 125-127; Turvey, Fitch & Tuller, 1982: 239) such as non-muscular reactive forces. In the present study it was noted that some of these coordinative structures could serve as excellent examples of smaller wholes functioning within larger wholes (section 8.4). Riding is an excellent example of the way organisms should and should not approach DF. This is so because of the ways in which rider and horse deal with the additional non-muscular reactive forces created by their respective movement. In both organisms, especially the novice rider or horse, there will be a tendency to respond to the increase in DF by becoming rigid, a tendency which will work against what is desirable (Henriquet and Durand, 2004: 5). This response may seemingly reduce the DF, but what in actual fact happens is that rigidity may worsen the problem by increasing the amplitude of some of the muscular and nonmuscular forces. The only solution to this problem is that both partners should become more compliant, and allow these forces to develop naturally. Another aspect that trainers should particularly be aware of is the fact that muscles are constrained to work together, which explains the importance of initial conditions and the manner of use in whatever the rider or horse is doing.

384 In summary, acquiring a skill is essentially trying to find ways of controlling DF and of exploiting the non-muscular forces made available by the context. Teaching a novice rider the art of classical riding on a novice horse is therefore not a good idea, since both organisms will have to learn to deal with what emanates from the others body. In the author of the present studys experience such an approach may work in the long run, but it is not to the advantage of both rider and horse since the time spent on learning the act of riding is just too long. The use of a well trained school horse (Handler, 1972: 188-191; Harris, C. 1992: xi; Loch, 1997: 87-88; Podhajsky, 1967: 210-211; Steinbrecht, 1884/1995: 3) for training of novice riders or riders with specific problems, is the ideal. Novice horses on the other hand require the input of experienced rider and trainers. !

During the acquisition of a motor skill perceptual structures must gain the ability to recognise affordances in the environment and to monitor the orientation and stability of the body in relation to these affordances (Thelen, Kelso & Fogel, 1987). Naturally occurring reactions may be used to fulfil the role of an affordance (section 7.1.2.2), such as the ATNR, an affordance, by virtue of it being part of a generic system in rider and horse, more readily induces the horse to mimic the rider's position and action.

9.2

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE PRESENT STUDY

9.2.1 General

One of the main problems of the present study was to give expression to what can be considered to be the cultural institutions of classical riding. Hancock

385 (2005: 212) suggested that institutions such as these can be considered to be the most prized institutions of mankind. Two of these institutions were identified as art and religion, institutions whose birth was not assisted by the operation of any of the facilities admired in the twenty-first century such as reason, intelligence, the scientific application of logic, sensitivity to nature or even consciously driven creativity. This would explain the difficulty in a study like this to marry the scientific with the aesthetic. Currently, the discipline of classical riding includes elements of both of these seemingly irreconcilable modalities, with aspects such as philosophy, biology, the physical, the psychological, the educational, the intellectual, the aesthetic. At first glance it would seem that these are attributes and inclusions found in ancient Greek world view. It should be realised, however, that the ancients looked at the world from a different perspective than currently. The outcomes of present study guided its author to the realisation that despite the reservations pointed out previously, many current scientific principles could be applied to classical riding. In many ways it is knowledge of these aspects that will determine the attitude and approach of the rider to the horse. Perusal of literature on classical ridingancient and

recentconfirms this point of view. Riders and trainers should perhaps take heed of Bertelan de Nmethys (1990: 1) advice that whatever the natural talent, good riding is not possible without understanding the basic principles. He felt that nothing of any substance can be built on a flimsy foundation. The

foundation that is required here is a thorough understanding of how the body functions and learns.

9.2.2 Consequences for riding

Modern riders and trainers are not aware of the basic premises that underlie the ancient art of classical riding, which mainly revolves around the idea of the unity of things. This idea is not propounded in our educational systems, but rather that of the mechanistic philosophy. The consequence of this is that riders and trainers grow up with the idea that there is more than one way to do things.

386 In a certain context they are correct if the consequences of equine management are considered as a whole: Horses and riders jump, they participate in dressage competitions at all levels, and so forth. The outcomes of all these endeavours are marked and controlled by rigid worked out systems, systems which only indicate of how well the rider-horse combination has scored, the excellence of the effort being judged on where this combination was placed on the scoresheet. This way of looking at things only takes into account the

performance of the horse and rider. Since this system seems to be effective, in terms of its purpose, it is unfortunately still perpetuated in the field of equine endeavour. This state of affairs is mainly attributable to the lack of knowledge in riders, trainers and judges of the interrelatedness of things (variables). The art of classical riding can, however, contribute much to riding in general, and to the welfare of the horse, since it is based upon natural methods. From a total wellness perspective, that of the rider will also be taken care of, in that riders will regain their poise. For this to occur the following need to be considered: !

Systems theory provides a workable model for the training of rider and horse in classical riding. This statement is based upon the basis of the similarities between classical theory and systems theory. It can be stated that it also is supported by scientific research, research which accentuates an important classical principle, which is that of unbroken wholeness or the unity of things. This requires that the trainer or rider should be fully conversant with aspects such as synergism or the principle of coordinative structures, the fact that one action within the horse or rider may affect others in either or both organisms.

The concept of self-organisation is largely ignored in the world of riding. In the present study it has been shown conclusively that present riding instruction and training rely too much on the concept of do this and do that, while the consequences of these are not understood. Self-

organisation can only come about in bodies which function

387 spontaneously and without compulsion. To this end, riders and horses should be allowed to figure out things for themselves.

9.3

FINAL CONCLUSION

Classical riding, in the context of Greek philosophy, can be epitomised by Plotinus (250/1952: 21):

Only a compound can be beautiful, never anything devoid of parts; and only a whole; the several parts will have beauty, not in themselves, but only as working together to give a comely total. Yet beauty in an aggregate demands beauty in details; it cannot be constructed out of ugliness; its law must run throughout.

A continuous refrain in the present study was the emphasis on wholeness, as well as the fact that the building blocks constituted by beauty, grace and harmony are made up by the proper and cohesive functioning of smaller wholes (Alexander, 1932/1985: 34; Ayub, 1987; Gurfinkel & Cordo, 1998: 5; Janda, 1978: 28; Lamb & Watson, 1979: 90; Merleau-Ponty, 1942/1965: 177; Sherrington, 1946: 89; Tinbergen, 1974).

9.4

FUTURE RESEARCH

The present study probably led to more questions than answers, in view of the fact that with this study a new field of study in equine science was introduced. Despite the fact that most of the present study was based upon the systems theory approach future research need not only rely on its principles, such as explanations of events by mathematical means (Haken, 1983) or those used in the field of phenomenology. Some of the presently used empirical methods may be fruitfully employed to resolve issues pointed out in the present study, viz. the

388 quantitative effect of the acquisition of poise in the rider on the movement of the horse. For this purpose research in the field of classical riding implies the use of research methods that will yield more than the present empirical regimens: ! ! ! !

Attractors and affordances applicable to riding.

Poise in riders and horses - a phenomenological approach.

The effect of the riders philosophy on his training of horses and/or riding.

Kinematic analysis of rider biomechanics during standing, locomotion and riding during various paces of the horse.

The same analysis as the above, but following an participation in an extensive course by the rider in the attainment of poise.

A comparative study between a phenomenological approach and kinematics in the analysis of movement in the rider and horse.

! !

The use of equine therapy as a tool in the attainment of poise in riders.

A kinematic analysis of the response of the horse to changes in the manner of use in the rider.

The effect of reeducation of the horse in its movement in the various paces. Kinematic analysis would be useful in a study such as this.

The use of the concept of non-doing (section 6.4.5) in the training of the rider.

389 ! The understanding of good use in the acquisition of motor skills and coordination.

NOTES

CHAPTER 1 1. Dates of first publication are indicated before the present date of the source consulted, an approach which refers to the historicity of the first publication. At present a large number of disciplines, work toward transforming the whole individual by direct work with the physical body (Painter, 1986: 12). An equine equivalent of this would probably be TTouch or TTeam Training (Tellington Jones, 1999).

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CHAPTER 3 1. After Aristotle there was a tendency for philosophers to withdraw from the world into themselves or a group of the like-minded, into a communion with the supernatural. The core of this movement was an adaptation from Plato. Neoplatonism made its appearance with Ammonius Saccas of Alexandria in the first part of the third century CE. Plotinus (205-270 CE) was one of his pupils, and became the first and most original of Neoplatonic philosophers. His system combined the various pre-Socratic schools of Greek philosophy, Aristotelian metaphysics, Platonism and Stoicism with an oriental theory of Emanation (Matson, 1987: 174; Tarnas, 2000: 84). In Plotinus, Greek rational philosophy reached its end point, and passed over into a more thoroughly religious spirit, a suprarational mysticism (Tarnas, 2000: 84). A fundamental tenet of Platonism was the tripartite nature of the soul Plato, 1888: 337; 1986: 208-222). Plotinus (250/1952: 137) taught the concept that the body is in the psyche (a concept he attributed to Plato), which could explain why the Greeks considered the body to be the prison or tomb of the soul (Burnet, 1930/1967: 98; Kitto, 1970: 173; Plato, 1972: 109), or a hindrance to the wellbeing of the soul (Gallop, 1993: xvi). The main purpose of the Orphic observances and rites was therefore to release the soul from the "wheel of rebirth" (from reincarnation in animal or vegetable forms) (Burnet 1930/1963: 82; Plato, 1972: 117). The soul so released became once more a god and enjoyed everlasting bliss (Burnet, 1930/1963: 82). Alexander (1924/1987: 5) and Gallwey (1976: 9, 10; 1982: 8) probably had the same principle in mind when they pointed out that when a person sets out to achieve a particular "end" his procedure will be based upon one of two principles, the first of which is done by the force of the will (Alexander's "endgaining" and Gallwey's Self 1), and the second which is executed by the use of the inner no-judgmental self and the contemplation of the process of acting 390

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391 (Alexander's "means-whereby" and Gallwey's Self 2, also refer to section 6.4.5). Bartenieff (1980: 19) observed that movement programmes are so goal-oriented that the internal and external processes of movement are largely overlooked. She also pointed to the difference in looking at body parts in an autopsy, and to see them in motion.

CHAPTER 4 1. Cogito (thought) was defined by Descartes (1644/1985b: 195) as follows: "By the term 'thought' I understand everything which we are aware of as happening within us, in so far as we have awareness of it. Hence thinking is to be identified not merely with understanding, willing and imagining, but also with sensory awareness. For if I say 'I am seeing, or I am walking, therefore I exist,' and take this as applying to vision and walking as bodily activities, then the conclusion is not absolutely certain. AAABut if I take 'seeing' or walking to apply to the actual sense of awareness of seeing or walking, then the conclusion is quite certain, since it relates to the mind, which alone has the sensation or thought that it is seeing or walking" (the present authors emphasis). Reductionism asserts that entities of a given kind are collections or combinations of a simpler or more basic kind, or that expressions denoting such entities are definable in terms of expressions denoting the more basic entities. Thus the idea that physical bodies are collections of atoms or that thoughts are combinations of sense impressions are forms of reductionism (Reductionism, 2002). Positivism is a doctrine which states that only those phenomena that are observable are real. The basis of this approach is the given , the factual and the 'positive'. What cannot be proven beyond doubt does not exist and therefore excludes a priori and metaphysical speculations (Acton, 1975: 230; Brom & Jaros, 1990; Strig, 1970). Positivism emphasises the achievements of science. It must be understood, however, that positivism developed out of the edifice of the mechanistic world (Brom & Jaros, 1990). According to this way of thinking a scientific theory could be regarded as a mathematical model that describes and codifies the observations scientists make. A good theory could describe a large range of phenomena on the basis of a few simple postulates, and will make definite predictions that can be tested, although these can never be proven to be correct (Hawking, 2001: 31; Strig, 1970). It is not implied here that any of these approaches or techniques are wrong or inferior, but just to highlight that their use is based upon traditional reductionistic principles. What is implied here, however, is that the trainer/rider must understand the context in which principles are used.

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392 5. Alexander (1932/1985: 22) defined this term by stating that "when I employ the word 'use', it is not in that limited sense of the use of any specific part, as for instance, when we speak of the use of an arm or the use of a leg, but in a much wider and more comprehensive sense applying to the working of the organism in general. For I recognise that the use of any specific part such as the arm or leg involves of necessity bringing into action the different psycho-physical mechanisms of the organism, this concerted activity bringing about the use of the specific part" (Alexanders emphasis). The startle (defensive) response involves the relation between the head and neck, and entails contraction of the neck muscles, thus bringing the head closer down in the direction of the shoulders, the thrusting of the head forward, the lifting of the shoulders, extension of the arms, flattening of the chest and flexion of the knees. The startle pattern may be taken as a paradigm of malposture in general (Jones, 1979: 132-133, 148). Bateson (1985: 16-20) pointed out patterns between species. These patterns are different, than those depicted, for example, by others such as Kelso (1995: 1, 4), who described the development of patterns within an individual. The collective behaviour of the system is sensitive to this parameter. This parameter is the one that moves the system through different collective states. The control parameter is a parameter, which may change continuously, while the change in the system is nonlinear or discontinuous. (Thelen & Smith, 1996: 62). Thelen and Smith (1996: 62) considered this to be an unfortunate term because it invokes control theory and a controller. In any conventional sense, the control parameter does not control the system , since it is only the variable or parameter that assembles the system in one or another attractor regime. Thelen and Smith (1996: 55) pointed out that in order for self-organisation to occur in natural systems that are both complex and in flux with the environment. When a system is complex, heterogenous and noisy (such as can be expected in a disconnected rider) it has an enormous amount of potential variability and a large number of potential cooperative modes, a system which when driven into instability will generate local points of of instability, where concentrations of matter and energy can serve as foci for attracting neighbouring elements. As the system is driven further and further from equilibrium (in Thelen & Smiths 1996: 55 example, thermodynamic equilibrium, but in our case the unstable rider) these local asymmetries are amplified, and from this one mode may arise to act as the order parameter. In the unstable rider this would usually be rigidity. As far as some scientists are concerned, the soul is not dead yet. Not everybody, for example, agrees with the belief that aspects such as consciousness can be explained by the materialist view (Chalmers, 1995; Herbert, 1993, cited by Dossey, 2002: 121). Chalmers (1995) for instance, proposed that conscious

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393 experience be considered a fundamental feature, irreducible to anything more basic, while Herbert's (1993, cited by Dossey, 2002: 121) proposal was that consciousness is a fundamental force that enters into necessary cooperation with matter to bring about the finer details of our everyday life. Sperry (1969) posited that conscious phenomena are conceived to interact with and largely govern physiochemical and physiological aspects of the brain process. To him the prestigious position of mind over matter is restored in the sense that mental phenomena are seen to transcend the phenomena of physiology and biochemistry. Eccles (1977: 557) surmised that there may be an central core, the innermost self, which survives the death of the brain, to achieve some other existence.

CHAPTER 5 1. Xenophon probably quoted from the writings of Simon of Athens, writings lost to us. It is also not known when Simon lived and wrote (Handler, 1972: 52; Morgan ,1962b). According to one Savy de Lerville, Xenophon probably was Simons pupil and the developer of his ideas (van Schaik, 1986: 121). From Xenophons selected statements one may conclude that the older authority's works were fragmentary at best, "yet Simon too, if Xenophon's quotations are authentic, wrote sentences which capture to perfection the essence of true riding culture AAA" (Handler, 1974: 52). A volte is a small circle to be negotiated by the trained horse (Podhajsky, 1967: 123; Wynmalen, 1980: 77). Much use was made of the circle by the ancients to supple a horse, a practice, which is still common today (Edwards, 1987: 84; Podhajsky, 1967: 106). Cadence, according to Harris (1981: 168), is defined as the sequence of placing the feet on the ground, i.e., the steps in each cycle. Seunig (1974: 110) stated that in the narrower sense it denotes increased expression in collection, since cadence refers to well timed, lofty, and yet fluid stepping at the collected and school paces. Natural cadence should be as light as a feather (Wynmalen, 1952: 190). Franois Baucher (1796-1873) was considered by Fillis (1902/1977: 332) to be the greatest and most clever high-school rider we ever had. Baucher can, according to Harris (1992: ix), be considered the Leonardo da Vinci of the equestrian world. Baucher was famous for his unbelievable feats on horseback, the invention of one time flying changes in canter, his dismounted suppling of the horse, and suppling of the rider in a stationary horse and on the lunge (Harris, 1992: ix, xi). His methods were the source of a large amount of controversy in French equitation, which still is continuing (see Belasik, 1994:

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394 122-125; Decarpentry, 1987: 5; Nelson, 1992: 3-91; Podhajsky, 1967: 19; Steinbrecht, 1995: 49, for example). 5. Count Antoine Cartier DAure (1799-1863) was the cuyer en chef at the cole de Cavalerie at Saumur intermittently from 1847 to 1855. He was a brilliant rider, but his concept of equitation differed considerably from the classical (Nelson, 1992: 92). He was at the forefront in introducing military equitation at Saumur. FEI: In order to establish international standards for the future of competitive dressage,the FEI was officially convened in 1921. In 1929 an International Dressage Event was instituted in order to protect equestrian art from the abuses to which it can be exposed, and to protect the purity of its principles (Loch, 1990: 15-16). The best image of the rassembler is that of a wild animal ready to pounce upon its prey: he is consumed by a vibrant force which takes over every part of his body, which puts him in a state of readiness which he can instantaneously activate in his move for the kill (Henriquet & Durand, 2004: 22). The rassembler is achieved through flexion of the haunches and the hocks, carried forward and engaged, which produce the lightening and raising of the forehand and provide the energy necessary for impulsion at all times and in every direction (Henriquet & Durand, 2004: 23). In high school or academic equitation Henriquet and Durand (2004: 22-23) defined rassembler as a state of superior equilibrium that is obtained through the physical enhancement and suppling work which make up the school exercises, and is something made up by the correct distribution of weight and force between the forehand and hindquarters. It is the opinion of the author of the present study that rassembler can only be obtained in a horse if the rider is also consumed by a vibrant force which takes over every part of his body, i.e. the rider should, in equine jargon, have impulsion (see Lowen & Lowen, 1977 for exercises in this regard). 8. James Fillis (1834-1913), although born in England, was acclaimed as the epitome of the artistic French School (Loch, 1990: 105), and one of the outstanding horsemen of all time (Schmit-Jensen, 1977: vii). The principle of "end-gaining" was defined by Alexander (1924/1987: 5) as being something which involves a direct procedure on the part of the individual endeavouring to gain the desired end or goal, without consideration of the method used by his neuromuscular-skeletal control system. The opposite end of the coin is Alexander's (1924/1987: 5) "means whereby" which involves a reasoning consideration of the o0f the causes of the conditions present, and an indirect instead of a direct procedure on the part of the individual endeavouring

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395 to gain the desired" end". The latter is associated with conscious guidance and control. Compare this way of thinking to that of Gallwey (1976: 9, 10; 1982: 8), which requires the individual not to interfere, but rather to trust his own body.

CHAPTER 6 1. Motor skills in their full context will not be defined and discussed in the present thesis. For this purpose the reader is referred to texts on perceptual motor learning and others for more detailed explanations (e.g. Bernstein, 1996: 181, 207-235; Kelso, 1982a: 3-4; Kelso, 1982b: 21-58; Magill, 1993: Concept 1.1; Schmidt & Lee, 1999: Chapter 1. Except for Bernstein, all of the other cited texts address motor skills per se, but not its quality). Frederick Matthias Alexander was not a scientist, but an actor. After developing serious vocal trouble, and with the medical profession unable to help him, he took matters in his own hands, by observing himself in a mirror. During a series of agonizing years he worked out how to improve the use of his body musculature. According to the Nobel Prize Laureate, Professor Nikolaas Tinbergen, this story of perceptiveness, of intelligence and of persistence is one of the true epics of medical research and practice (Tinbergen, 1974: 24). When the first edition of his book The Use of the Self was published in 1932 the British Medical Journal called it a classica classic of scientific observation (Barlow, 1985: 9). For the purposes of this study posture-gesture merging implies the interaction (merging) of those reactions involved in the establishment and maintenance of efficient and correct posture and position of the trunk (posture) and the actions of the limbs (gesture), the latter actions which on their own may only be futile gestures (refer to Coghill, 1929: 89; 1938, section 6.4.8). Moshe Feldenkrais was a Russian born Israeli, with a D.Sc in Physics from the Sorbonne. An old injury incapacitated him, with little hope to ever walk normally again. He then applied his extensive knowledge of anatomy, physiology, psychology, physics and martial arts to restore his own normal functioning. He later became a teacher of his own method (Reese, 2001). To Dart (1947) it was important to distinguish between the static symbolism of posture and the dynamic plasticity of poise. Posture, he considered being a number of intermediate bodily positions, which are assumed during the execution of any movement - intermediate positions which should always be positions of poise or equilibrium. This proposal makes sense in the recent knowledge of the fact that posture and movement are coordinated in parallel (Massion, 1992; Massion et al., 1998: 128).

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396 6. In this exercise a subject is demonstrated the comparative effects of the use of direction (being centred, or having an attitude of physical and mental expansion), and that of using pure muscle contraction. When the latter method is employed the arm of the subject is more easily bent at the elbow by an observer, than in the former (McCluggage, 1983: 24-25; Wanless, 1987: 51-52). The terms being "connected" and being "disconnected" are used by teachers of the Alexander Technique, and will also be used in this study, due to their descriptive nature. Bartenieff (1980: 7) referred to being disconnected as fragmentation of patterns. The term of disconnectedness was applied by Belasik (1990: 70, 71) to horses which do not stretch through their backs or hollow their backs, or do not allow the wave of energy to thrust throughout their spines from the hindquarters towards their heads, thus slicing them into two. McCluggage (1983: 19) regarded connectedness as being centred, similar to the context later proposed for the rider by Swift (1985: 4). Many patterns of activity in well-defined neural networks have been characterised sufficiently well to be given a name, often associating them with a name such as the swimming- or the locomotor central pattern generator (GPG). This reflects the fact that a given pattern is reproducible and can be characterised well enough to differentiate it from other neural patterns generated by the same network (Schner & Kelso, 1988). Generally the number of order parameters is relatively small, so that their use makes the description of a complex system look simple (Latash, 1993: 242). Collection occurs when the horse's weight and that of the rider is distributed over all four legs. This means that the carrying power of the hind legs has to be increased, something achieved by the lowering of the horse's haunches. In order to achieve this an increased bend in the joints of the hind legs is required (Podhajsky, 1967: 47; The German National Equestrian Federation, 1985:173174). The horse will arch his back and carry the head higher, thus becoming shorter in his body (Podhajsky, 1967: 46). In the levade the horse lifts his forehand of the ground to an angle of 30o degrees to the ground, with the hocks lowered. If the horse lifts itself higher from the ground than 45o and does not bend its hind legs it rears up (Podhajsky, 1967: 269). Zajac (1993) pointed out that the interaction between the different variables involved in movement is dynamical, i.e. the position, orientation and motion of the body segments at some future time depend on their current state as well as on the trajectories of the forces acting on the segments. Keele (1968) and Pew (1974: 31-33) have also indicated that in order to move effectively, the organism requires information about the preresponse state of its muscular system and the environment in which it is to move. Thus the initial conditions consist of the

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397 information received from the various receptors prior to the response, such as proprioceptive information about the positions of the limbs and body in space, as well as visual and auditory information about the state of the environment. In the context of the present thesis, however, the actual state of the muscles, for example, is also taken into consideration, since as has been pointed out that muscle-imbalance and its corollary, malposture, may affect the movement that follows. 12. This is according to Barlow (1978: 69).

CHAPTER 7 1. One motivation for bringing reflexes and combinations of reflexes under the single heading of "coordinative structures", is the assumption by Turvey (1977: 220) that for the activation of either a single reflex or a single functional combination of reflexes, one degree of freedom of the system is enough (for a more in depth discussion of degrees of freedom refer to section 8.3.1). In regard to functional combinations it is, according to Turvey (1977: 220) important to recognise that new tasks may often require the discovery of new combinations and their establishment as new functional units. Essentially the "basis" contains the minimum number of elements that are required to generate all the members of the set (Turvey, 1977: 219). One would be tempted to assume that consciousness of processes involved in the harmonious interaction between horse and rider would be the prerogative of the rider only. Recent approaches, however, admits to a greater intelligence of the horse, and a greater awareness of rider actions and emotions by the horse than previously accepted (see Hempfling, 2001; Kohanov, 2001, 2003; McCormick & McCormick, 1997; Skipper, 1999). For this reason horses are now employed in the rehabilitation of individuals with psychological and personal problems (Kohanov, 2001; McCormick & McCormick, 1997; McCormick, McCormick & McCormick, 2004). Sartre (1943/1956: 306-339, 339-351, 351-359) identified three body modes, namely the "body-for-self" [here the concerns of individual merge into a singleminded attempt to reach his goal, he does not concentrate on specific motor patterns he must perform, but he is totally absorbed in his task. Thus his embodied dimension is lived to the full, but not contemplated (Whitehead, 1992: 378), yet it is an element of his total endeavour], the "body-for Others" [this comes into being when an observer watches the climber. This mode of embodiment, is essentially an object or mechanism (Whitehead, 1992: 378)]. When the individual realises that someone is watching him, he is drawn to contemplate his embodiment as seen by the onlooker (the "body-for-Others-as

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398 perceived-by-the-self" mode), and becomes acutely aware of his embodiment as an object/mechanism. He then starts to feel vulnerable and readily adopts a self critical attitude towards this aspect of himself, something which makes the individual prone to making mistakes (Whitehead, 1992: 378).

CHAPTER 8 1. Synergetics deals with the profound and striking analogies which have been found in the self-organised behaviour of seemingly quite different systems in physics, chemistry, biology, sociology and other fields (Haken, 1983: 229-332). Haken (1983: 14) pointed out that instead of the need to know all atomic coordinates of many degrees of freedom, what needs to be known is only a single or a few parameters, for example the mode amplitude. Mode amplitudes or order parameters determine the degree and kind of order (Haken, 1983: 14). The order parameter gives orders to subsystems (degrees of freedom) and also describes the degree of order (it is zero in the disordered state and acquires a maximum value in the ordered state). The order parameter (or a set of such parameters) represents the behaviour of the system on a macroscopic scale and is thus a macroscopic variable (Haken, 1975). From this it can be deduced that order parameters compress system complexity in systems that contain many degrees of freedom, to only one or few degrees of freedom (Haken, 1975). The state space of a dynamic system is an abstract construct of a space whose coordinates define the components of the system, i.e. they define the degrees of freedom of the systems behaviour (Thelen & Smith, 1996: 56). The behaviour of a simple mechanical system such as the pendular motion of rider and horse (Figure 8. 14) can be described in a two-dimensional state space where the coordinates are position and velocity. The motion of the to and fro swinging of the pendulum can be plotted on this plane (Thelen & Smith, 1996: 56). The amplitude and regularity of the pendular motion of both rider and horse can be expected to be less than that of the novice rider and even most riders in competition dressage. Herrigel's Japanese Master who taught him the art of archery. Muscle tone is commonly defined as being the resistance of the muscle to stretch or elongation (Ruch & Patton, 1966: 1880; Sherrington, 1906/1952: 88). Bernstein's (1967 111) concept, discussed above, excluded the idea of elasticity from muscle tonus, recent research by McGill (2002: 141-142) and Huijing (1992: 151-166), however, indicate the opposite.

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399 6. Equilibrium point hypothesis: A hypothesis of motor control that assumes that at a "fixed" and a constant external load, the muscle load system will be in equilibrium at a certain muscle length. A change in the muscle load leads to a change in muscle length that induces changes in changes in the level of muscle activation via the tonic stretch reflex (Latash, 1993: 89; 1998a: 258). By asking a pupil to direct or order his actions the Alexander Principle emerged with a truly novel approach in the teaching of good use in both man and animal. The concept of directing is not understood by many (Barlow, 1990: 130). Alexander was led to it when he realised that in the execution of all his physical actions he always depended on what he felt to be right. Having discovered that his feeling was not trustworthy, he found that the key to restoring the trustworthiness to his feeling lay in subjecting himself to the experience of trusting his reason rather than his habit, even if this felt awkward. His experiments on himself taught him that the best conditions of use were brought about when he released the tension in his neck, so that his head can lengthen upwards and face forwards. By doing this his back could also lengthen and widen (Gelb, 1981: 68). In the horse, for example, the principle would be the same. If it is allowed to lengthen the head forward, the neck would lengthen and then allow the back and other muscles in the body also to lengthen and thus to function more efficiently. More recent research indicated that foetal motor development in mammals do not quite follow the pattern described by Coghill (1933b; 1938) in salamander embryos (Easton, 1972). In mammals reflex like movements [which Easton (1972) equalled to individuation] appear first, and are later integrated into more complex patterns (Barcroft, Barron & Windle, 1936; Hamburger, 1936). It should be realised, however, that motor development, in the human, still occurs for a considerable period after birth (Gabbart, 1992: 250-261), development, which in broad terms follow the pattern put forth by Coghill (1929: 90; 1933b; 1938), if one considers that basic postural control which first mainly involves the trunk develops first, and later expands to greater and greater individuation of limb action. The individuation of the limbs in terms of purposive action follows later (Gabbart, 1992: 250-261). This kind of motor development was also borne out by observations by Geisler, Westerga and Gramsbergen (1996), those of the present study, as well as by the existence of an intimate coordination between posture and movement during execution of voluntary movements of the limbs (Gahry & Massion, 1981; Geisler, van der Fits & Gramsbergen, 1997; Massion, 1992; Massion, Alexandrov & Vernassa, 1998). For individuation Coghill (1933b) employed a specific definition, which was that it was not the equivalent of specialization or specification, for these processes constitute a functional adaptation of the organism to the environment.

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400 10. Flexion of the haunches is defined by Brger (1986: 225) as being the flexion of the hock while the limb supports the weight of the body. Misuse is defined as being use which involves an inappropriate relationing of one (or many) parts of the body to the rest of the body, either through too much or too little muscle tension (Barlow, 1990: 241), i.e. muscle-imbalance. Coordinative structures are defined differently by different researchers. The term probably originated with Easton (1972) who argued that the CNS is designed to respond automatically to certain stimuli with certain basic reflexes or "coordinative structures", which donated to him that motor responses involve one or more muscles working together. Turvey (1977: 220), on the other hand, utilised a greater latitude in his description of coordinative structures, and included functional combinations of reflexes in the definition. He also noted (p 220) that it is important to recognise that new tasks may often require the discovery of new combinations and their establishment as single functional units. Fowler and Turvey (1978: 11) later posited that during movement an organism, even if it could do so, will not prefer to control its individual muscles, since its musculature is organised into functional collectives. Some collectives, such as the reflexes, appear to be "prefabricated" (Easton, 1972), but many, such as those involved in locomotion, are marshalled temporarily and expressly for the performance of a particular act (Fowler & Turvey, 1978: 11). There is, according to Fowler and Turvey (1978: 11), ample evidence that these collectives of muscles are invoked in the execution of a large variety of motor acts. Latash (1993: 242-243) argued that coordinative structures are organised in a task-specific manner. These structures introduce an order between the components of a complex system imposing certain laws of interaction that force these components to act cooperatively. Examples of this would, of course, be locomotion in the horse, and all learned motor responses in the different actions of the horse and rider during riding. Charles Parrocel was one of the greatest draughtsmen of horses in the 18th century Europe (Schuman, 1994: xii). Riding in the Olympic Games and at the Spanish Riding School was shown to numerous individuals and academic groups for their comment. Without fail the same conclusions were reached than those outlined in section 8.4.5.1. To the author of the present study it came as a surprise to be informed by a rider from the Spanish Riding School on a recent visit to South Africa, that this not a problem known to the School.

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401 CHAPTER 9 1. Implicit order should not be understood solely in terms of a regular arrangement of objects (e.g. in rows) or as regular arrangement of events (e.g. in a series). Rather a total order is contained in some implicit sense, in each region of space and time. The word implicit means to fold inward (as multiplication means folding many times). One may led to explore the notion that in some sense each region contains a total structure enfolded within it (Bohm, 2002: 188). Explicate order arises primarily as a certain aspect of sense perception and of experience with the content of such perception (Bohm, 2002: 200). In physics explicate order generally reveals itself in the sensibly observable results of functioning of an instrument (Bohm, 2002: 200). In physiology it may manifest in the measurable outcome of an experiment.

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